Research Report / Publication No.

328

Manual on
Power System Protection

Editors
S.G. Patki, Bapuji Palki, V.K. Kanjlia, P.P. Wahi

CENTRAL BOARD OF IRRIGATION & POWER

9 Decades of Service to the Nation
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110 021

January 2018
 Research Report / Publication No. 328

Manual on
Power System Protection

Editors

S.G. Patki
Bapuji Palki
V.K. Kanjlia
P.P. Wahi

Central Board of Irrigation & Power

Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi – 110021
2016
ISBN 978-8-17-336336-8

“Reproduction of any part of this publication in any form is permissible subject to proper acknowledgement
and intimation to the publisher. The publisher/author/editors have taken utmost care to avoid erros in the
publication. However, the publisher/author/editors are in no way responsible for the authenticity of data or
information given in the book.”

Disclaimer

Technical data presented and views expressed by the Expert Group Members are of their own and not of
the Organizations which they are representing. CBIP does not assume any responsibility for the above.

Designed and Published by : Shri V.K. Kanjlia, Secretary

Central Board of Irrigation & Power
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi – 110021
Telephone +91-11-2611 5984/2611 6567/2410 1594
Fax: +91-11-2611 6347 E-mail: cbip@cbip.org
Website: www.cbip.org
MESSAGE

iii
 FOREWORD

Protection and Automation systems play an important role in meeting the

challenge of providing reliable power supply. Within this, the protection for
various power system elements plays a major role. Two of the important
requirements on protection system are reliability, dependability and
security to provide reliable fault clearance and maintain stability of grid. In
the interconnected network, coordination of various protection schemes
is necessary to ensure minimal adverse impact on grid operation. Special
protection schemes are being implemented to ensure grid stability.
CBIP has brought out the first Publication No. 274 on ‘Protection of
Generators, Generator Transformers and 220 kV and 400 kV Networks’ in 1998. During 2005,
CBIP brought out another Publication no. 296 titled Manual on ‘Reliable Fault Clearance and
Back-up Protection of EHV and UHV Transmission Networks’. These were brought out under the
chairmanship of Shri Bhanu Bhushan of Power Grid and Shri Bapuji Palki of ABB respectively.
These publications have been well appreciated and are in great demand by engineering
professionals. Since then, there has been many fast technological advances and developments
in protection application during the last decade. National standards, Regulations and Code of
practice have been evolved. New series of IEC standards are published old standards have
been revised. For updating both the publications, CBIP constituted the Expert Group during
2013 headed by Shri S.G. Patki, Chairman CIGRE National Study Committee on Protection and
Vice President, Tata Power Company. Representatives from various sectors across the country,
comprising manufacturers, power utilities, testing laboratories, CEA who have been members of
the Expert Group, deliberated several times on the subject and based on valuable comments, this
publication has been published. The Expert Group deliberated on various topics for about three
years, which has helped CBIP in updation of this document covering all aspects of Power System
Protection. Several new topics have been added considering current technology and practices.
The manual gives the Fundamental Concepts, Requirements for protection system, Performance
Indices, Location of CT PTs, Protection of Generator and Generator Transformers, Power
Transformer /Auto Transformers Shunt Reactor, Protection of transmission Lines and cables,
HVDC systems, Busbar Protection, breaker failure Protection, Special protection Schemes,
Protection for Renewable energy sources, Fault Disturbance Recorder and Event logging, DC
battery and aux Power supply system, Switching devices, Communication system for Protection,
Basics for design of Protection schemes based on IEC 61850 standard, series compensated lines
and FACT devices, Validation, acceptance and Field Testing which form important elements of the
protection system.
The Central Board of Irrigation & Power wishes to acknowledge the valuable contributions made
by Expert Group under the Chairmanship of Shri S.G. Patki, Former Chairman CIGRE National
Study Committee B5 on Power System Protection & Automation for preparation of this important
document.
We will be failing in our duty by not making special mention of Shri B.S. Palki, Former Chairman
CIGRE National Study Committee B5 on Protection & Automation and Advisor ABB Ltd., who has
taken the onerous responsibility of synthesizing this manual. His special contribution in the past

v
in helping CBIP for preparation of this manual during the year 1998 & 2005 in the first instance is
indeed laudable.
We also feel indebted to Expert Group members who are specialists in their respective fields
namely, Shri Rajil Srivastava, Shri Abhay Kumar and Shri B.B. Mukherjee from POWERGRID,
Shri P.P. Francis, Shri Subhash Thakur (Presently Chairman CIGRE NSC B5) and Ms. Saroj
Chelluri from NTPC, Shri S.K. Ray Mohapatra, CEA, Shri Rajiv Krishnan, Shri Girish and
Shri Nadeem Shaik from ABB, Shri H.B. Mukund, SIFANG Automation, Shri M.V. Kini, Tata Power,
Shri Uday Trivedi, Adani Power, Shri Kamin Dave, Ashida, Shri Deepak Saxsena, Welspun Energy
Limited, Shri Ritesh Bharat, GE Grid Solutions, Shri Kuldeep Tickoo, Siemens and Shri G.K.
Papneja, Omicron.
The revision of Manual could be accomplished by the untiring efforts and invaluable contribution
of all the Members of the Experts Group we are also thankful to the Special Invitees/Specialists
on the subject belonging to various organizations for their special contributions for the revision
work.
In this edition, two new chapters viz; Chapter 23: Current Transformer and Chapter 24: Voltage
Transformer have been added. Besides, some of the chapters have been revised to bring them in
line with rest of the chapters. These are - Chapter 4: Protection System Engineering, Chapter 5:
Performance indices, Chapter 9: Auto Reclosing, Chapter 11: Shunt Reactors, Chapter 12: Bus
Bar and Chapter 13: LBB.
We thank Shri Bapuji Palki and Shri Abhay Kumar for the initiative they have taken and for the
efforts put in updating the manual by adding additional chapters.
I also appreciate very sincere efforts and contribution made our officers namely Shri P. P. Wahi,
Director and Shri S.K. Batra, Chief Manager, CBIP for their utmost dedication for getting this
document revised & updated.
It is hoped that this Manual would serve as a useful and valuable guide for all the professionals &
stakeholders including Power utilities, Industries and Educational Institutions etc.

V.K. Kanjlia
Secretary
Central Board of Irrigation & Power

vi
 PREFACE

Power system protection has important role to maintain reliability and stability
of Power system. Well coordinated protection schemes are essential and
important as we have a national grid with interconnections of all regions of
India. This aspect came in focus once again during the incidences of grid
collapse of North and North-east regions in July 2012. Present Protection
Manuals published by CBIP act as guide for Protection Engineers in India.
The first publication No 274, “Manual on Protection of Generators, Generator
Transformers, 220 kV & 400 kV networks “was released in November
1999. This was followed by publication number 296”, Manual on reliable
Fault clearance and Back up protection of EHV and UHV Transmission
Networks”, in September 2005. The complexity of Power system and technology in protection field
has changed rapidly in last decade. Some of the developments are:
• Growth of Generation capacity along with EHV network
• Interconnections of all regions and establishment of National grid
• Use of HVDC, FACTs and other technologies have been deployed
• Special protection schemes to ensure reliability in the event of contingencies
• High penetration of renewable energy resources
• Numerical technology in Relays, IEC61850 standard and developments in communication
technology
In response to above developments, the practices and implementation of protection schemes have
also undergone changes. To address above issues, need was felt for revision of Protection Manuals
and also to update them in line with current practices. It was also felt that both manuals should be
combined together while revising the same. With this objective an expert group was constituted
by CBIP in 2011 comprising of Members from utilities, manufacturers of relays and other domain
experts from Institutions. The committee members deliberated on the subject matter in the context
of Indian Power system and best practices on the issues as per published reports of CIGRE and
IEEE. Some members also participated in the deliberations of the Protection sub-committee of
Task force formed by CEA to analyse events and recommend measures following incidences of
July 2012. These recommendations have been duly incorporated after discussion on the same.
While attempt has been made to provide specific recommendations in most subjects, considering
the evolving nature of applications and practices in few new developments, the content has brought
out issues and some present practices are indicated. I am thankful to all the members of expert
group that contributed to this publications for their commitment and efforts for this revision.
The topics have been dealt in 22 chapters. Mr. B.S. Palki who chaired the committee that brought
out earlier two Manuals was requested to scrutinise the present work of revision of the old Manuals
and the committee is thankful for his inputs.
It is hoped that this Manual will be a useful guide to all practicing engineers on the subject of Power
System Protection .

Sanjay Patki
Chairman of CBIP’s Expert Group
Revision of Manual on Power System Protection

vii
 EXPERT GROUP
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

CHAIRMAN

Shri Sanjay Patki

Former Chairman CIGRE National Study Committee B5 on Protection and Automation
Former Vice President, The Tata Power Company Limited
Mumbai

Members
Shri Rajil Srivastava Shri S.K. Ray Mohapatra
General Manager S/S Chief Engineer
Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. Central Electricity Authority
Plot No 2, Sector 29 Sewa Bhavan, R.K. Puram
Gurgaon 122002 New Delhi 110066

Shri Subhash Thakur Shri P.P. Francis

Chairman CIGRE NSC B5 & Former General Manager
Addl. General Manager (PE-Elect) NTPC Ltd.
NTPC Ltd. EOC, Plot No. A-8A
EOC, Plot No. A-8A, Sector 24 Sector 24
Noida 201301 Noida 201301

Shri Abhay Kumar Ms. C. Saroj

Dy. General Manager (Engg.- S/S, Additional General Manager (PE-Elect)
Power Grid Corporation of India Limited NTPC Ltd.
Plot No. 2, Sector 29 EOC, Plot No. A-8A, Sector 24
Gurgaon 122 001(Haryana) Noida-201301

Shri Biswajit Bandhu Mukherjee Shri H. B. Mukund

Dy. General Manager – Engg (HVDC) Vice-President, Technology & Engineering Services
Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. Sifang Automation India Pvt Ltd.
Plot No. 2, Sector 29 Building No. 3 - Ground Floor & Building No. 4
Gurgaon - 122002 First floor, Sy No. 26/1 A 2, Kenchanahalli,
Kengeri Hobli
T.M. Industrial Estate, 12th KM Mysore Road
R.R. Nagar Zone, Bengaluru 560 059

Shri Rajiv Krishnan Shri M.V. Kini

Substation Automation Systems The Tata Power Co. Ltd.
ABB Limited Corporate Engineering - QA, I & T
PS-SA Technology Trombay Station A, Mahul Road, Chembur
Plot Nos. 5 & 6, II Phase Mumbai 400 074
Peenya Industrial Area
Bangalore 560058

Shri Ritesh Bharat Shri Saurabh Makwana

Director – Applications & Business Development Manager – Applications
GE Grid Solutions (Formerly Alstom Grid) GE Grid Solutions (Formerly Alstom Grid)
19/1 GST Road, Pallavaram 19/1 GST Road, Pallavaram
Chennai 600043 Chennai 600043

ix
Shri Kamin Dave Shri Kuldeep Tickoo
General Manager – Marketing & Application Head – Energy Automation Products
Engineering Siemens Ltd.
ASHIDA RC-IN IC SG EA
Plot No. A-308, Road No. 21 Plot 6A, Sector 18, Maruti Industrial Area
Wagle Industrial Estate HUDA, Gurgaon 122015
Thane (W) 400604, Maharashtra

Shri Shaik Nadeem Shri G.S. Papneja

ABB India Limited OMICRON Energy Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
Plot No. 5 & 6, Peenya Industrial Area Ph-II Unit No. 201E / A, 2nd Floor
Bangalore 560058 D21 Corporate Park
Near Dwarka Sector 8 Metro Station
Sector 21, Dwarka, New Delhi 110075

Shri Deepak Kumar Saxena Shri M.V. Girish

Vice President ABB India Limited
Welspun Energy PS-SAS Technology
Plot Nos 5 & 6, 2nd Phase
Bangalore 560058

Shri V.K. Kanjlia Shri Uday Trivedi

Secretary Associate Vice President– Protection & Metering
Central Board of Irrigation and Power Adani Power Ltd.
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri 8-A, ‘Sambhav,’ Opp. Judge’s Bungalow
New Delhi 110021 Bodakdev, Ahmadabad 380 015

Shri P.P. Wahi Shri S.K Batra

Director Chief Manager - Technical
Central Board of Irrigation and Power Central Board of Irrigation and Power
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri
New Delhi 110021 New Delhi 110021

Reviewer
Shri Bapuji Palki
Former Chairman CIGRE National Study Committee B5 on Protection and Automation
Domain Advisor
India Development Center
ABB GISL
Bhoruka Tech Park, Whitefield Road, Mahadevapura
Bangalore, Karnataka 560048

x
 Contents
Message iii
Foreword v
Preface vii
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2 : FUNDAMENTALS 4
2.1 Fault Clearance Systems 7
2.2 Back-Up Protection 8
2.3 Remote Back-Up Protection 9
2.4 Circuit Local Back Up Protection 9
2.5 Substation Local Back Up Protection 9
2.6 Duplicated Main Protections 9
2.7 Breaker Failure Protection 10
2.8 Recommendation for Application of Single Failure Criterion 10
Chapter 3 : Requirements for Protection System 17
3.1 External Requirements 17
3.2 Power System Requirements 18
3.3 Norms Used Transmission Planning in Indian Power System 18
3.4 Protection Criteria 19
3.5 Fault Current Withstand Capability 19
3.6 Recommendations for System Planners and Protection Engineers 20
Chapter 4 : Guidelines for Protection System Engineering 21
4.1 Introduction 21
4.2 Engineering of Protection System 21
4.3 DC Distribution 25
4.4 Panel Design 27
4.5 Fault Signaling 28
4.6 Interlocking 28
4.7 Documentation 28
4.8 Location of Cts and Vts 29
Chapter 5 : Performance Indices 36
5.1 Correct Performance 36
5.2 Dependability of Protections 36
5.3 Security of Protections 36
5.4 Reliability of Protections 37
5.5 Dependability of Switching Devices 37
5.6 Fault Clearance Time 38
5.7 Typical Example for Calculation of Various Performance Indices 39
5.8 Recommendations for Measurement of Performance Indices and Actions for Improvement 39
5.9 Adoption of Relay Setting and Functional Verification of Setting at Site 40
5.10 Storage and Management of Relay Settings 40
5.11 Root Cause Analysis of Major Protection Tripping (Multiple Element Outage)
Along with Corrective and Improvement Measures 40
5.12 Periodic Protection Audit 40

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Chapter 6 : Generator and Generator Transformer Protection 41
6.1 General 41
6.2 Requirements and Setting Guidelines 43
6.3 Generator-Transformer Protection 55
6.4 Unit Auxiliary Transformer Protections 57
6.5 Engineering Recommendations 59
Chapter 7 : Protection of Transmission Lines and Cables 64
7.1 Typical Transmission Circuit Arrangements 64
7.2 Complex Transmission Circuits 66
7.3 Transmission Circuit Failure Modes and Rates 70
7.4 Transmission Circuit Protection Requirements 71
7.5 Transmission Circuit Protection Schemes 72
7.6 Recommendations for Line Protection Relay 83
7.7 Requirements of Protection Relays / Functions 85
7.8 Transmission Circuit Protection Setting Criteria : Uncompensated Transmission Lines 87
7.9 Transmission Circuit Protection Setting Criteria : Series Compensated Transmission Lines 94
7.10 Setting Document for Multifunction Ied 94
7.11 Application Notes 94
Chapter 8 : Protection of Series CompEnsated Lines 96
8.1 Introduction 96
8.2 Challenges in Protection of Series Compensated and Adjacent Power Lines 96
8.3 Impact of Series Compensation on Protective Relays of Adjacent Lines 103
8.4 Distance Protection 104
8.5 Directional Residual Overcurrent Protection 106
8.6 Line Back-Up Protection Philosophies 107
8.7 Distance Protection Setting Guide Lines 107
8.8 Current Differential Protection 108
8.9 Simulation Studies 109
Chapter 9 : Auto-Reclosing 110
9.1 General 110
9.2 Basic Parameters of an Autoreclose Scheme 111
9.3 Requirements 115
9.4 Setting Guidelines 115
9.5 Recommendations 116
9.6 Application Notes 116
Chapter 10 : Protection of Power Transformers 118
10.1 Transformer Design 118
10.2 Typical Transformer Arrangements 118
10.3 Failure Rates of Power Transformer 119
10.4 Transformer Protection Requirements 119
10.5 Protection Schemes 120
10.6 Transformer Protection Scheme: 134
10.7 Recommendations 135
10.8 Requirements and Setting Guidelines 135
10.9 Engineering Guidelines 139
10.10 Application Notes 140
10.11 Typical Prot. Scheme of 400/220 kV Auto Transformer 140

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Chapter 11 : Protection of Shunt Reactors 141
11.1 Reactor Construction 141
11.2 Shunt Reactor Failure Modes and Rates 142
11.3 Typical Shunt Reactor Arrangements 142
11.4 Shunt Reactor Protection Requirements 142
11.5 Protection Schemes 144
11.6 Typical Main-1 Protection Schemes (Group A) 146
11.7 Main-2 and Back Up Protection Schemes (Group B) 146
11.8 Recommendations 146
11.9 Requirements and Setting Guide Lines 147
11.10 Engineering Guidelines 151
11.11 Application Notes 152
Chapter 12 : Protection of Busbar 153
12.1 Typical Busbar Arrangements 153
12.2 Location of Current Transformers 154
12.3 Failure Statistics 155
12.4 Busbar Protection Requirements 155
12.5 Protection Schemes 155
12.6 Backup Protection 159
11.7 Recommendations 160
12.8 Requirements and Setting Guide Lines 161
12.9 Application Notes 162
Chapter 13 : Local Breaker Backup Protection 163
13.1 Types of Circuit Breakers 163
13.2 Requirements of Circuit Breakers 163
13.3 Reliability of Circuit Breakers 163
13.4 Duplication of Trip Coils 164
13.5 Circuit Breaker Failure Protection 164
13.6 Tripping Schemes 167
13.7 Adjacent Circuit Breakers 168
13.8 Trip Coil and Close Coil Supervision 168
13.9 Supervision of Operating Mechanism 168
13.10 Recommendations 168
13.11 Requirements and Setting Guidelines 169
13.12 Application Notes 170
Chapter 14 : Protection of Facts (Fsc and Tcsc) 172
14.1 General on Series Compensation (Fsc & Tcsc) 172
14.2 Protection of Capacitor Elements and Units 174
14.3 Protection of Series Capacitor Banks 175
14.4  Additional Protections for Tcsc Banks 180
14.5 Platform Power 182
14.6 Power Supply for Spark Gap Firing Circuits 183
14.7 Power Supply for Ground Mounted Equipment 183
14.8 Signal Transmission 184

xiii
Chapter 15 : Protection of Facts (Svc & Statcom) 185
15.1 Introduction 185
15.2 Parallel Compensation 186
15.3 Static Compensator (Statcom) 188
15.4  Protection of Facts (Parallel Compensation Elements) 189
15.5 Protection System for Statcom 195
15.6 Recommendation 196
Chapter 16 : Protection of Hvdc Systems 199
16.1 Hvdc System Overview 199
16.2 Purpose of Protection System 202
16.3 Protection Philosophy 203
16.4 Protective Actions 204
16.5 Zones of Protections 206
16.6 DC Protections 206
16.7 AC Protections 226
Chapter 17 : Protection Schemes Based On Communication Systems 234
17.1 Protection Systems 234
17.3 Common Teleprotection Schemes 238
17.4 Noise and Interference Created by the Power System 242
17.5 Reliability of the Information Link 243
11.6 Output Power of Power Line Carrier Sets 244
17.7 Coupling Modes of Teleprotection Channels 245
17.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Most Commonly Used Links 245
17.9 Redundancy Requirements 247
17.10 Interfaces Between Teleprotection and Multiplexer Equipment 249
17.11 Use of Iec 61850 for The Communication between Substations 249
17.12 Recommendations for Selection of Communication Channels 250
Chapter 18 : Basics for Designing Protection Schemes Based On Iec 61850
Standard 252
18.1 Preface 252
18.2 Introduction to Iec 61850 253
18.3 History 253
18.4 Concepts 254
18.5 Interoperability 254
18.6 The Data Model 255
18.7 Iec 61850 Basic Architecture 257
18.8. Traffic Patterns Found in Iec 61850 Substations 259
18.9 Performance 260
18.10 Applications 260
18.11 Cyber Security 262
18.12  Security Tools 263
18.13  Benefits of Iec 61850 264
18.14  Challenges in Iec 61850 Implementation 267
18.15  Requirements for Network Communication and Processing 268
18.16  Specifying Iec 61850 Based Protection Schemes 269
18.17 Goose for Iec 61850 Implementation 270

xiv
18.18  Topology Considerations 273
18.19  Engineering Tools 277
18.20  Testing and Maintenance 278
18.21  Edition 2 of Iec 61850 285
Chapter 19 : Protection of Electrical Systems With renewable Energy
Resources 289
19.1 Background on Distributed Energy Resources and Current Practices 289
19.2 Basic Considerations 290
19.3 Protection Requirements 291
19.4 Ungrounded MV Connection 296
19.5 Solidly Grounded MV & HV Connection 297
19.6 Solidly Grounded MV and Delta HV 297
19.8 Transformer Connections 300
19.9 Recommended Der Interconnection Requirements 301
19.10 Protection of Distribution System with Distributed Energy Resources 302
19.11 Trends In Protection Systems 303
19.12  Protection Schemes for Future Distribution Networks with Der 305
19.13 Conclusion 309
Chapter 20 : Dc AuxiliAry Supply Systems 310
20.1 Charactristics of DC Auxiliary Sources 310
20.2 Station Battery Technology used in Substations 310
20.3 Duplication of Auxiliary DC Supply Systems 311
20.4 Duplication of DC Fuses on Auxiliary Supply 312
20.5 Duplication of Trip Coils 312
20.6 Battery Ground Fault Detectors 313
20.7 Recommendations for Duplication of DC Supply Systems and DC Distribution Schemes 313
Chapter 21 : Disturbance Recorder, Alarms and Event Logging 315
21.1 Introduction 315
21.2 Definitions 315
21.3 Types of Disturbances 315
21.4 Disturbance Recording Considerations 316
21.5 Types of Records 317
21.6 Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) 318
21.7 Protective Relays with Fault Disturbance Recording and Event Recording 319
21.8 Time Synchronization 319
21.9 Processing 320
21.10 Present Day Disturbance Record and Recorded Signals 321
21.11 Recommended Digital Signals (Typical) & Trigger Options for DRS 322
21.12 Special Comments 322
21.13 Recommendations 323
Chapter 22 – Validation, Acceptance and Field Testing Techniques for
Testing of Protection Relays 324
22.1 Introduction 324
22.2 Factory Acceptance Tests (Fat) 324
22.3 Sat/Commissioning Tests 324
22.4 Periodic Maintenance Tests 325

xv
22.5 Application Tests 325
22.6 Methods to Test Protection Devices 327
22.7 Recommendation of before Start to Test Relaying Scheme by Using Computerized
Relay Testing Kit 328
22.7.4  Application Notes 336
Appendix-A 337
Appendix-B 339
Appendix-C 341
Appendix-D 343
Appendix-E 346
Chapter 23 : Current Transformers 347
23.1 Introduction 347
23.2 Current Transformer Output 347
23.3 Metering Cores 348
23.4 Protection Cores 348
23.5 Over Dimensioning of Current Transformers and Transient Performance 349
23.6 Protective Current Transformers as per Iec Standards 352
23.7 Protection Current Transformers as per Indian Standards 354
23.8 Selection of CT Cores 355
23.9 CT Requirements 356
23.10 Current Transformer Classification 357
23.11 Typical Example of Arriving at Eal for a Numerical Distance Relay 357
23.12 Current Transformer Requirements for Cts According to Class P and PX
of Iec and Class P and PS of IS 358
23.13 Optical Current and Voltage Transducers 359
Appendix-I 361
Chapter 24 : Voltage Transformers 365
24.1 Introduction 365
24.2 Measuring Error 365
24.3 Voltage Transformers with Several Secondary Windings 366
24.4 Voltage Factor 368
24.5 Inductive Voltage Transformers as per Iec 61869-3 368
24.6 Capacitive Voltage Transformers as per Iec 61869-5 369
24.7 Inductive Voltage Transformers as per Is 371
24.8 Capacitive Voltage Transformers as per IS 373
24.9 Ferro-Resonance 374
24.10 Fusing of Secondary Circuits 374
24.11 Voltage Drop in Secondary Cabling 374
24.12 Non-Conventional Instrument Transformers 375