Chapter 4

Analog Signal Conditioning

 Objectives

Design a Wheatstone bridge circuit to convert
resistance change to voltage change.

Design RC low-pass and high-pass filter circuits
to eliminate unwanted signals.

Design an analog signal-conditioning sytem to
convert an input range of voltages to some
desired output range of voltage.

Design an analog signal conditioning so that
some range of resistance variation is converted
into a desired range of voltage variation.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413
UEEA2413 Process
Process Control
Control and
and Instrumentation
Instrumentation 22
 Principle of Analog Signal Conditioning
 A sensor measures a variable by converting information
about that variable into a dependent signal of either
electrical or mechanical nature.
 There are several ways that a signal can be conditioned,
namely:
(1) signal level and bias change,
(2) linearization,
(3) conversion,
(4) filtering,
(5) concept of external loading.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 3

 (1) Signal Level and Bias Change
 One of the most common of signal conditioning involves
adjusting the level (magnitude) and bias (zero value) of
some voltage representing a process variable.
 Example:
sensor output, x = 0.2 to 0.6V
equipment input, y = 0 to 5V

 Signal conditioning:
To change the zero to occur when the sensor output is
0.2V. This can be done by simply subtracting 0.2 from
the sensor output, which is called a zero shift, or a bias
adjustment –
y = (x – 0.2) × 12.5
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 4
 (2) Linearization
 A sensor used in process
control usually does not
have a linear relationship
with the measured
variable.
 A linearization circuit
would ideally be one that
conditioned the sensor
output so that a voltage
was produced which was
linear with the process
variable.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 5

 (3) Conversion: Signal Transmission
 Often in a process the
Industry standards for sensor and the controller
signal transmission – are separated at a
distance in different
Electronic: 4 – 20 mA,
locations.
Pneumatic: 3 – 15 psi.
(20 – 100 kPa)  The signal generated from
the sensor has to be
transmitted in wires.
 Current transmission is
preferred because such a
signal is independent of
load variation.
 voltage to current and
current to voltage
converters are often
required.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 6
 (3) Conversion: Digital Interface

 The use of computers in process control requires

conversion of analog data to digital format to be
recognized by the computer by integrated circuit
devices called analog to digital converters (ADCs).

 For example, the ADC may need a voltage that

varies between 0 and 5 V, but the sensor provides a
signal that varies from 30 to 80 mV.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 7

 (4) Filtering
 Stray signals of considerable strength are present in
the industrial environment, such as the 50 Hz line
frequency signals, example: motor starting.
 It is necessary to use high pass, low pass or band
pass filters to attenuate unwanted signals from the
control loop.
 Such filtering can be implemented by using passive
elements such as inductors, capacitors and resistors,
or using active electronic element such as
operational amplifier.
 Filtering can also be implemented totally using
algorithm in a computer or digital filter.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 8
 (5) Impedance Matching and Loading
 This is one of the most important concerns in analog
signal conditioning since it introduces uncertainty in the
amplitude of a voltage as it is passed through the
measurement process. If this voltage represents some
process variable, then we have uncertainty in the value of
the variable.
 In the figure, the voltage Vy that appears across the load
RL is reduced by the voltage drop across the internal
resistance Rx.

 Rx 
V y = V x 1 − 
 RL + R x 

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 9

 Example 4.1
An amplifier outputs a voltage
that is ten times the voltage on
its input terminals. It has an
input resistance of 10 kΩ. A
sensor outputs a voltage
proportional to temperature
with a transfer function of 20
mV/˚C. The sensor has an
output resistance of 5.0 kΩ. If
the temperature is 50˚C, find
the amplifier output.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 10

 Passive Signal Conditioning
(1) Voltage divider circuits
(2) Bridge circuits
(3) RC filters

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 11

 R2
(1) Divider Circuits
VD = × VS
R1 + R2 Important considerations when using divider
for conversion of resistance to voltage
variation –
i) The variation of VD with either R1 or R2 is
nonlinear; i.e. even if the resistance varies
linearly with the measured variable, the
divider voltage will not vary linearly.
ii) The effective output impedance of the
divider is the parallel combination of R1 and
R2. This may not necessarily be high, so
loading effects must be considered.
iii) In a divider circuit, current flows through
both resistors: that is, power will be
dissipated by both, including the sensor. The
power rating of both the resistor and sensor
must be considered.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 12
 Example 4.2 R1 = 10 kΩ and VS = 5V. If R2 is a sensor with
resistance range 4.00 to 12.0 kΩ, find the min.
and max. VD, the range of output impedance,
and the range of power dissipated by R2.
R2
VD = × VS
R1 + R2

R1 R2
Rout =
R1 + R2
VD2
Power =
R2

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 13

 (2) Bridge Circuit – Wheatstone Bridge

 Used where a sensor

changes resistance with
the process variable
change.
 The object D is a voltage
detector used to compare
the potentials of points a
and b of the network.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 14

 The potential difference, ΔV, between
points a and b, is given by –
∆V = Va − Vb

Va and Vb can be expressed as –

VR3 VR4
Va = , Vb =
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
Then we have:
VR3 VR4 R2 R3 − R1 R4
∆V = − =V
R1 + R3 R2 + R4 (R1 + R3 )(R2 + R4 )
This indicates that whenever a Wheatstone bridge is assembled and
resistors are adjusted for a detector null, i.e. no current flowing
through the detector, the resistor values must satisfy the following
relationship –
R2 R3 = R1 R4
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 15
 Example 4.3
Null occurs when R1 = 1000 Ω, R2 = 842Ω, and
R3 = 500Ω. Find R4.

R1 R4 = R3 R2

R1 = R2 = R3 = 120Ω, R4 = 121Ω. Find the

voltage offset if V = 10V.
R3 R2 − R1 R4
∆V = V
( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 )

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 16

 Galvanometer Detector
R3 R2 − R1 R4
VTh = ×V
( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 )
R1 R3 R2 R4
RTh = +
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
VTh
IG =
RTh + RG
 If a galvanometer is connected into the bridge circuit represented
by RTh, this will cause some bridge offset to occur. This is because
of the internal resistance of the galvanometer.
 The bridge offset can be found by calculating the current flowing
through the galvanometer, this current is called the offset current.
 The offset current can be calculated by converting the bridge
circuit into the Thevenin equivalent circuit between point a and b.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 17
 Example 4.4 A bridge with R1 = R2 = R3 = 2 kΩ and R4 =
2.05 kΩ and a 5V supply. Find the offset
R3 R2 − R1 R4
VTh = ×V current if the detector is a galvanometer
( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 ) with 50Ω internal resistance.
R1 R3 R2 R4
RTh = +
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
VTh
IG =
RTh + RG

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 18

 Bridge Resolution
 It is a function of the resolution of the detector used to
determine the bridge offset.
 Bridge offset can be determined by the value of the offset
voltage.
 An offset voltage occurs when the resistance in one of the
bridge arm changes.
 The resistance resolution is the resistance change in one arm
that causes an offset voltage equal to the detector
resolution.
 The change in resistance that causes the offset can be found
from the detector resolution from the bridge equation –
R3 R2 − R1 R4
∆V = V
( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 )
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 19
 Example 4.5
A bridge has R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 120Ω and supply 10V. A 3½ digit
voltmeter with 200 mV scale is used for the null detector. Find the
resistance resolution for the measurements of R4.
VR3 VR4
∆V = −
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
On a 200-mV scale, the voltmeter measures from 000.0 to 199.9 mV,
so the smallest measureable change is 0.1mV.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 20

 Lead Compensation
 A bridge circuit may be located at a considerable
distance from the sensor whose resistance changes are
to be measured.
 There are many effects that can change the resistance
of long lead wires on a transient basis, such as
frequency, temperature, stress, and chemical vapors.
 Such changes will show up as bridge offset and be
interpreted as changes in the sensor output.
 This problem is reduced using lead compensation,
where any change in lead resistance are introduced
equally into two arms of the bridge circuit, thus,
causing no effective change in bridge offset.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 21
 R1 (cR4 ) − R2 (cR3 ) = c(R1 R4 − R2 R3 )

 R4 represents a sensor at a remote location

with lead wires 1 and 2.
 Both wire 1 and wire 2 are subjected to the
same condition; therefore, the external effect
has the same influence on them.
 The net external effect on R3 and R4 becomes
cR3 and cR4.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 22
 Current Balance Bridge
 Split one arm resistor into two;
R4 and R5.
 A current I is fed into the bridge
through R4 and R5.
 Let R4 >> R5 so that the current
flows predominantly through
R5.
 The voltage at point b is:
 R4 + R5 
This is used to provide nulling Vb =   × V + IR5
 R2 + R4 + R5 
of the bridge electronically by
varying the current through a  The bridge offset voltage is –
fix resistor. A close loop ∆V = Va − Vb
system can be used for self- R3 R4 + R5
nulling. = V− V − IR5
R1 + R3 R2 + R4 + R5
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 23
 A current balance bridge has R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ,
Example 4.6 R4 = 950 Ω, R3 = 1 kΩ, R5 = 50 Ω and a high
impedance detector. The supply is 10V. Find
10 kΩ the current required to null the bridge if R3
10 kΩ
changes by 1Ω.
10V

950 Ω
1 kΩ
50 Ω

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 24

 Potential Measurements
 A bridge circuit is use to measure
small potentials at a very high
impedance.
 This type of measurement is
performed by placing the potential to
be measured in series with the
detector.
 The null detector responds to the
potential between points c and b.
 A null condition is established when
Va + V x = Vb ΔV across D = 0; furthermore, no
VR3 VR4 current flows through the unknown
⇒ + Vx = potential when such a null is found.
R1 + R3 R 2 + R4
 Thus, Vx can be measured by varying
 R4 R3  the bridge resistors to provide a null
⇒ Vx = V  −  with Vx in the circuit and solving for
R
 2 + R 4 R1 + R3
Vx using the null condition.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 25
 Example 4.7 R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ, R3 = 605 Ω, R4 = 500 Ω and
the supply is 10V. Find Vx.
R3V R4V
Vx + − =0
R1 + R3 R2 + R4

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 26

 A current balance bridge used for potential
Example 4.8 measurement has R1 = R2 = 5 kΩ, R3 = 1 kΩ,
R4 = 990 Ω, R5 = 10 Ω and the supply is 10V.
5 kΩ
5 kΩ Find the current required to null the bridge
if the potential is 12 mV.
10V

990 Ω
1 kΩ
10 Ω

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 27

 (3) RC Filters

 To eliminate unwanted noise from measurements, it is

often necessary to use circuits that block certain
frequencies or bands of frequencies. These circuits are
called filters.
 A simple filter can be constructed from a single resistor
and a single capacitor.
 The characteristics of a filter is defined by its frequency
response.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 28
 Low Pass RC Filter

 LP filter blocks high frequencies and passes low frequencies.

 The variation of rejection with frequency is shown in the
graph.
 The vertical axis is the ratio of the output voltage to input
voltage Vout/Vin without regard to phase.
 When this ratio is one, the signal is passed without effect;
when it is very small or zero, the signal is effectively blocked.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 29
 Critical Frequency –
1
fc =
2πRC
Input to output voltage ratio –

Vout 1
=
Vin [1 + ( f / f c ) 2 ]1/ 2

 The horizontal axis is the logarithm of the ratio of the

input frequency to a critical frequency.
 The critical frequency is that frequency for which the
ratio of the output to the input voltage is
approximately 0.707 (3dB cutoff).
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 30
 Design Procedure 1
fc =
i) Select a capacitor value in the µF to pF range. 2πRC
ii) Calculate the required resistance value. If it is below 1 kΩ or
above 1 MΩ, try a different value of capacitor so that the
required resistance falls within this range, which will avoid
noise and loading problems.
iii) If design flexibility allows, use the nearest standard value of
resistance to that calculated.
iv) Always remember that components such as resistors and
capacitors have a tolerance in their indicated values. This
must be considered in your design. Quite often, capacitors
have a tolerance as high as ±20%.
iv) If exact values are necessary, it is usually easiest to select a
capacitor, measure its value, and then calculate the value of
the required resistance. Then a trimmer (variable) resistor
can be used to obtain the required value.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 31
 Design a low-pass filter to attenuate noise at 1
Example 4.9 MHz to 1%. What is the attenuation of a signal
at 1 kHz? 1
fc =
2πRC
Vout 1
=
Vin [1 + ( f / f c ) 2 ]1/ 2

Determine the fc when

Vout/Vin= 0.01 at 1MHz
1
0.01 =
Try C = 0.47µF, [1 + (1MHz / f c ) 2 ]1/ 2
1 ∴ f c = 10kHz
R= 4 −6
= 33.9Ω
(2π )(10 )(0.47 × 10 )

1
R=
2πf c C
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 32
Solution....
This is a very small R, which could lead to excessive current and
loading.
Try C = 0.01 µF,1
R= 4 −6
= 1591Ω
(2π )(10 )(0.01×10 )

Try a standard R = 1.5 kΩ

1
f = −6
= 10610Hz
(2π )(1500)(0.01× 10 )
So the noise at 1 MHz is
Vout 1
= 2 1/ 2
= 0.0099995
Vin [1 + (1MHz / 10610Hz) ]
Check the effect of the filter on the signal at 1 kHz,
Vout 1
= 2 1/ 2
= 0.996 The data has been reduced by
Vin [1 + (1kHz / 10610Hz) ] about 4%
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 33
 High Pass RC Filter
 A high pass filter passes high frequencies
and blocks low frequencies. A filter of this
type can be constructed using a resistor and
a capacitor.
 An equation for the ratio of output voltage
to input voltage as a function of the
frequency for the high pass filter is found to
be –

Vout ( f / fc )
=
Vin [1 + ( f / f c ) 2 ]1/ 2

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 34

 Example 4.10 Design a filter to reduce 60 Hz
noise for transmitting 2000 Hz
pulses for driving a stepping motor.
Signal loss no more than 3 dB.
Find the voltage ratio corresponds
to a 3-dB reduction
− 3dB = 20 log(Vout / Vin )
Vout / Vin = 0.707

(2kHz / f c ) The critical frequency is that frequency

0.707 = for which the output is attenuated by
[1 + (2kHz / f c ) 2 ]1/ 2 3dB. Thus, in this case, fc = 2 kHz.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 35

Solution....
The effect on 60Hz noise is,
Vout (60 / 2000)
= 2 1/ 2
= 0.03
Vin [1 + (60 / 2000) ]

The noise has been reduced by 97%.

Try C = 0.01 µF,

1
R= −6
= 7.96kΩ
(2π )(2000)(0.01× 10 )

Perhaps design criteria would allow use of either a 7.5kΩ or 8.2kΩ,

because these are standard values.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 36

 Band Pass RC Filter

 A filter that blocks frequencies both below a low limit and above
a high limit while passing frequencies between the limits.
 The lower critical frequency, fL, defines the frequency below
which the ratio of output voltage to input voltage is down by at
least 3 dB, or 0.707. The higher critical frequency, fH, defines the
frequency above which the ratio of output voltage to input
voltage is down by at least 3 dB, or 0.707. The frequency range
between fL and fH is called the pass-band.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 37
 The ratio of the magnitude of
output voltage to input voltage
for this filter as a function of
frequency. This equation includes
the effects of loading by a
constant, r, which is the ratio of
the high pass filter resistance to
the low pass filter resistance, r =
RH/RL is given by –

Vout fH f
=
Vin ( f 2 − f H f L ) 2 + [ f L + (1 + r ) f H ] f
2 2

RH 1 1
r= fH = fL =
RL 2πR L C L 2πR H C H

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 38

 A signal uses the band 6 to 60 kHz to carry
Example 4.11 information. Design a bandpass filter to reduce
noise at 120 Hz and 1 MHz by 90%. Check the
signal attenuation.
The critical high-pass and low-pass frequency can be found as below:
(120 / f L ) Vout ( f / fc )
0.1 = 2 1/ 2
⇒ f L = 1200 Hz Vin
=
[1 + ( f / f c ) 2 ]1/ 2
[1 + (120 / f L ) ]
1 Vout 1
0.1 = 6 2 1/ 2
⇒ f H = 100 kHz V
= 2 1/ 2
[1 + (10 / f H ) ] in [1 + ( f / f c ]
)

RH
r=
RL

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 39

 Vout fH f
Solution... =
Vin ( f 2 − f H f L ) 2 + [ f L + (1 + r ) f H ] f 2
2

The effect on the signal can be found by evaluating the above equation at 6kHz and
60kHz, respectively.

For f = 6kHz, voltage ratio is 0.969 (3% reduction)

For f = 60kHz, voltage ratio is 0.851 (15% reduction)

1 1
fH = fL =
2πR L C L 2πR H C H
To pick component values, we must have r = 0.01, so if we pick RL = 100kΩ, RH = rRL =
1kΩ.

The capacitor values are then found from above equations to be CH = 0.133 µF and CL
= 15.9 µF

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 40

 Operational Amplifier
 The operational amplifier is
an electronic circuit
element designed to be
used with other circuit
elements to perform a
specified signal processing
operation.
 The power supplies, V+ and
V-, are used to bias the op-
amp and cause certain
conditions that are required
for it to function properly.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 41

 Op Amp Transfer
Function
 The output voltage, Vo, is plotted versus
the difference between the two input
voltages, V2 – V1. This input is called
differential input voltage.
 When V2 is much larger than V1, the
V2 – V1 output is saturated at some negative
voltage, -VSat. Conversely, when V1 is
much larger than V2, the output is
saturated at some positive voltage, +VSat.
 Other characteristics of the op amp are
that the input impedances are very high,
typically exceeding 1 MΩ, whereas the
output impedance is very low, typically
less than 100 Ω.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 42
 Ideal Inverting Amplifier

 R2 is used to feed back the output to the inverting

input and R1 connects Vin to the summing point.
 The +ve terminal is grounded.
 The currents at the summing point –
I1 + I 2 = 0

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 43

 The summing point potential is assumed to be zero, by ohm’s law –
Vin Vout
+ =0
R1 R2
R2
Vout = − × Vin
R1
 The circuit is an inverting amplifier with gain R2/R1 that is shifted
180° in phase from the input.
 This device is also an attenuator by virtue of making R2 < R1.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 44
 Example 4.12
Fix the values of R1 and R2 to obtain a gain = – 4.5. Max. op amp
operating current is ≈ 20 mA.

R2
Vout = − × Vin
R1

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 45

 Op Amp Circuits In
Instrumentation
Typical op amp circuits and their basic characteristics,
together with a derivation of the circuit response by assuming
an ideal op amp –
1. Voltage follower,
2. Inverting amplifier,
3. Summing amplifier,
4. Non-inverting amplifier,
5. Instrumentation differential amplifier,
6. Voltage to current convertor,
7. Current to voltage convertor
8. Integrator,
9. Differentiator.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 46
 (1) Voltage Follower
Vout = Vin
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon
 An op amp circuit with unity gain and
very high input impedance typically
100 MΩ.
 The input impedance is essentially
the input impedance of the op amp
itself.
 The voltage output tracks the input
over a range defined by the plus and
minus saturation voltage outputs.
 The unity gain voltage follower is
essentially an impedance
transformer in the sense of
converting a voltage at high
impedance to the same voltage at
low impedance
 Output current is limited to short
circuit current of the op amp, and
output impedance is typically less
then 100 Ω.
UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 47
 (2) Inverting Amplifier

R2
Vout = − × Vin
R1

 Inverts the input signal, and may have either attenuation or

amplification, depending on the ratio of input resistance, R1,
and feedback resistance, R2.
 The input impedance of this circuit is essentially equal to R1, the
input resistance.
 In general, this resistance is not large, and hence the input
impedance is not large. The output impedance is low.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 48
 (3) Summing Amplifier

 R2 R2 
Vout = −  V1 + V2 
 R1 R3 

 Used to sum the total input voltages.

 The sum can be scaled by proper selection of resistors.
 If R1 = R2 = R3, the output is simply the sum of V1 and V2.
 The average can be found by making R1 = R3 and R2 =
R1/2.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 49

 Example 4.13 Set up an op amp circuit to obtain –
Vout = 3.4Vin + 5

 R2 R2 
Vout = −  V1 + V2 
 R1 R3 
A 2nd inverting amp is required to
give the correct polarity.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 50

 (4) Non-Inverting Amplifier
 The input is taken directly
into the non-inverting input
of the op-amp, the input
impedance is very high,
since it is effectively equal to
the op amp input impedance.
The output impedance is
very low.
 The gain depends on the
ratio of R1 and R2, this gain is
not used for voltage
attenuation because the
ratio is added to 1.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 51

 Example 4.14 Design a high-impedance amplifier with
voltage gain = 42.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 52

(5) Instrumentation Differential Amplifier
 An ideal differential
amplifier provides an
output voltage with respect
to ground that is some gain
times the difference
between two input voltages.
 A is the differential gain and
both V1 and V2 are voltages
 differential amplifier with with respect to ground.
high input impedance
and low output
impedance. One
disadvantage of this
circuit is that changing
gain required changing
two resistors and having
them carefully matched
in value. With voltage followers for input isolation.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 53
 Example 4.15
Design a high input impedance circuit to convert a sensor output of
20 to 250 mV to become 0 to 5V. Use a 6.2 V zener diode to stabilise
the bias from a 12 V supply.
Vout = mVin + V0

? kΩ

? kΩ
?V
? kΩ
?Ω

? kΩ
Zener diode
to stabilise ? kΩ
the supply.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 54
Solution

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 55

Solution…

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 56

 (6) Voltage to Current Converter
R2
I =− Vin
R1 R3

R1 (R3 + R5 ) = R2 R4
Vsat 
( R4 + R5 )  − R3 
 Im 
Rml =
R3 + R4 + R5

Rml = max. load resistance,

Signals in process control are most often Vsat = op amp saturation
transmitted as a current. It is often voltage,
necessary to employ a linear voltage to Im = max. current.
current converter. Such a circuit must be
capable of sinking a current into a number
of different loads without changing the
voltage to current transfer characteristics.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 57
 Design a circuit to convert a sensor output
Example 4.16 of 0 to 1 V to 0 to 10 mA with load
resistance if the op amp saturates at ±10 V.
R2 Use R1 = R2,
I =− Vin
R1 R3 R3 = 1 / 10 × 10-3 = 100 Ω.

R1 (R3 + R5 ) = R2 R4
Use R5 = 0, R3 = R4 = 100 Ω.

Vsat 
( R4 + R5 )  − R3 
Rml =  Im 
Rml =
[
100 × 10 /(10 ×10 −3 ) − 100
= 450Ω
]
R3 + R4 + R5 200
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 58
 (7) The Current-to-Voltage Converter

Vout = − I in ⋅ R

 A current to voltage converter, converts the current Iin

back to voltage.
 The resistor R1 is employed to provide temperature
stability to the configuration.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 59

 (8) Integrator

Vin dV
+ C out = 0
R dt

1
Vout =−
RC ∫ Vin dt

This consists of an input resistor and a feedback

capacitor.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 60

 Example 4.17 Use an integrator to produce a ramp
voltage with rate of 10 V per ms.
1
Vout =−
RC ∫ Vin dt

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 61

 (9) Differentiator
dVin Vout
C + =0
dt R
dVin
Vout = − RC
dt

This consists of an input capacitor and a feedback resistor.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 62

 Design a high input impedance voltage-to-
Example 4.18 voltage converter with input range –2.4 to –
Vout = mVin + V0 1.1V from a sensor and output 0 to 2.5V to
feed an ADC. Use 15V supply.

Set to ? V
? kΩ ? kΩ

? kΩ
? kΩ ? kΩ
? kΩ

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 63

Solution

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 64

Solution

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 65

 A RTD has a linear range from 280 to 1060 Ω
Example 4.19 measuring temperature from 250° to 450°C
±2°C. Power dissipated in the sensor to be
Vout = mRS + V0 below 5 mW. Design a signal conditioning
circuit to provide output –5 to +5V to feed a
high-impedance recorder.
? kΩ
? kΩ Sensor current,
Set ? V
? kΩ P = I 2R
?Ω
? kΩ
? kΩ
Set ? V
?Ω

?Ω
?
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 66
Solution

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 67

Solution

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 68

 Error detector
1 With floating power supply,
the 4 to 20 mA signal
produces a voltage IR. The
setpoint voltage Vsp is
tapped from a variable
resistor. The error Ve = Vsp –
IR.
2 Using differential amplifier,
only when the transducer
current is referenced to
ground. The sensor current
passes to ground through RL
giving the signal voltage Vm =
IRL. Error Ve from differential
amplifier output.
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 69
 Two Position Mode
When controller input V reaches a
value VH, the comparator output
goes ON (V0). When input voltage
falls below VL, comparator output
switch to OFF or 0 V. Input V1 is
compared with setpoint Vsp.

VH = Vsp

R1
VL = Vsp − V0
R2

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 70

 Example 4.20
A transducer measures the level in a tank giving 0.2 V/m. A pump is
turned on with a 5 V applied when the level exceeds 2 m. The pump is
to be turned off when level drops to 1.5 m. find R1 and R2 for the
controller.

VH = Vsp
R1
VL = Vsp − V0
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon
R2 71
UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation
Solution

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 72

 P-mode control
p = K P e p + p0

Vout = GPVe + V0
Vout = output voltage,
GP = gain, R2/R1,
Ve = error voltage,
V0 = output with zero error.
∆Vout
GP = K P
∆Vm
∆Vout = range of output voltage,
∆Vm = range of measured voltage.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 73

 Example 4.21
A temperature controller outputs 0 to 5 V with a sensor range 2 to 8
V. What is the circuit gain if the proportional gain 4% per percent?
∆Vout
GP = K P
∆Vm

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 74

 Example 4.22
A controller outputs 0 to 10 V for 0 – 100%. If R2 = 10 kΩ and full scale
error range is 10 V, find V0 and R1 for a 20% proportional band with
50% zero-error output. What error Ve will give 40% controller output?

Vout = GPVe + V0

∆Vout R2
GP = =
∆Ve R1

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 75

 I-Mode Control

t
p(t ) = K I ∫ e p dt + p (0)
0

t
Vout = GI ∫ Ve dt + Vout (0)
0

Vout = output voltage,

GI = 1 / RC, gain,
Ve = error,
Vout(0) = initial output.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 76

 Example 4.23
An I-mode controller has a measurement range 0.4 to 2.0 V and
output 0 to 6.8 V. If KI = 4% per percent-min., find R if C = 100 µF.
GI = 1 / RC

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 77

 D-Mode Control
de p
p (t ) = K D
dt
dVe
Vout = − RC
dt
This mode cannot be implemented by the equation directly. With a
high frequency noise Ve = V0sin(2πft), the output |Vout| = 2πfRC|Ve|
will be very large and overwhelms the controller. A series resistance is
used to modify the equation to –
dVout dVe
Vout + R1C = − R2C
dt dt
Amplifier gain = –(R2/R1), 2πfR1C << 1 (2πfmaxR1C = 0.1). With this
condition R1 can be ignored and the circuit gain GD = R2C.

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 78

 Example 4.24
A D-controller with gain KD =
0.04% per percent/min.
control the flow in a pipe.
The flow surges with period
2.2 s. Input is 0.4 to 2.0 V
and output 0 to 5 V. find R1 if 2πfmaxR1C = 0.1
C = 20 µF. GD = R2C

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 79

 PI Mode Control

t
p = K P e p + K P K I ∫ e p dt + pI (0)
0

R2 R2 1 t
Vout = Ve +
R1 R1 R2C ∫0
Ve dt + Vout (0)

R2
GP =
R1
1
GI =
R2C

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 80

 Example 4.25
A PI controller with
proportional band 30%
and KI = 0.1% per percent-
sec. Input at 4 to 20 mA is
converted to 0.4 to 2 V
R2 1
and the output is 0 to 10 V. GP = GI =
If C = 10 µF, find R1 and R2. R1 R2C

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 81

PD Mode Control
de p
p = K Pep + K P K D + p0
dt

R1 dVout R2 R2 dVe
Vout + R3C = Ve + R3C + V0
R1 + R3 dt R1 + R3 R1 + R3 dt
R1 R3
Writing R =
R1 + R3
With the condition to limit high frequency gain, 2πf max RC = 0.1
R2 R2 dVe
Vout = Ve + R3C + V0
R1 + R3 R1 + R3 dt
R2
Where GP = and GD = R3C
R1 + R3
Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 82
 R2 R2 dVe
Example 4.26 Vout =
R1 + R3
Ve +
R1 + R3
R3C
dt
+ V0
A PD controller has input range 0.4 to 2.0 V and output 0 to 5 V, KP =
5% per percent and KD = 0.08% per percent/min. Highest rate of
signal change is 1.5 s. Using C = 100 µF, work out the values for R1, R2
and R3. R2
GP = GD = R3C
R1 + R3

R1 R3
R=
R1 + R3

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 83

 PID 3-mode t
p = K P e p + K P K I ∫ e p dt + K P K D
de p
+ p I ( 0)
0 dt
control R2 R2 1 R2 dVe
− Vout = Ve +
R1 R1 RI C I ∫ Ve dt +
R1
RD C D
dt
+ Vout (0)

R2 1
GP = , GD = RD C D , GI =
R1 RI C I

2πf max R3C = 0.1

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 84

 Q&A

Prepared by Wong Chee Woon UEEA2413 Process Control and Instrumentation 85