SPE 108643
Application of Acoustic Waves for Reservoir Stimulation
Jose Gil Cidoncha, Hess Limited
Copyright 2007, Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2007 International Oil Conference and
Exhibition in Mexico held in Veracruz, Mexico, 27–30 June 2007.
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Abstract
Research related to weak elastic wave stimulation of oil
reservoirs started in the late 1950’s. Activity peaked in the
1970’s and 1980’s in the US and in the Soviet Union.
However in recent years there has been a resurgent interest
and research. This interest derives form observations made in
some fields near areas affected by earthquakes and, even
heavy traffic, where changes in water level and oil production
have been observed. For example, some variations in oil
production were noticed in Kern County during the Southern
California earthquake of July 1952. However, mechanism
associated with earthquakes are very complex and variations
in oil production or water level could be consequences not
only of seismic vibrations, but also of rock fracturing and
other effects associated with earthquakes.
Two different types of waves are usually distinguished: high
power frequency (around 20 kHz) and low power frequency
waves (e.g. 40 Hz).
High power frequency waves have a local effect in the
reservoir and are mainly applied for wellbore stimulation.
Their effects are limited to a region close to source due to
higher sound absorption in the porous medium at higher
frequencies.
Low frequency acoustic waves effects can cover a larger
region and are consequently used for reservoir, rather than
well stimulation. They are generally applied by using surface
vibrators, but there are also example of downhole applications.
This paper is primarily focused on waves used for reservoir
stimulation, as opposed to well stimulation. It aimed at
understanding the main mechanisms associated with the
application of vibrational energy in porous media, and
assessing laboratory and field studies.
In this paper, together with potential mechanisms, laboratory
and field trials are discussed.
Mechanisms
When a fluid saturated porous medium is exposted to elastic
vibrations the following waves are dispersed into the medium:
¾ Two longitudinal waves,compression shock and
pressure
¾ A lateral shear wave
The compressional shock wave is mostly attenuated in the
proximity of the source. The pressure wave advances much
further into the reservoir producing changes in the saturated
fluid. Under the effecgt of such waves, due to inertial forces
and differences in density, the saturated phases start to vibrate
with respect to their centres and to the other phases.
Part of the elastic vibration produced at the pore surface is
attenuated and lost in the medium due to several irreversible
processes associated with shear and volumetric viscosity in the
medium, e.g. conversion of vibrations are produced at the pore
level due to micro-heterogeneity of both the porous medium
and the oil-water interface.
The high frequency volumetric pulsations are accompanied by
hydrodynamic microflows about the dispersed phases, as well
as driftage of the diffusive sublayers around them. This results
in loosing and thinning of the surface adsorbed layers around
the phases. Some authors believe that this is likely to be the
reason why reductions in interfactial tension and contact angle
occur.
This technology is believed to have a number of enhancing
effects on oil recovery through:
¾ Decreasing the cohesive and adhesive bonding
and capillary forces
¾ Poroelastic motion giving rise to changes in pore
volume
¾ Heating the oil, causing its viscosity to decrease
¾ Release the trapped that could lead to an increase
in oil mobility by changing rock wettability or to
an increase in gas recovery.
Following these mechanisms are discussed in detail.
2 SPE 108643
Capillary Effects
Capillary forces play an important role in fluid percolation
through fine pore channels. Liquid films tend to move to the
pore walls, reducing the pore cross section. As a consequence,
adsorption of fluids by the surface is likely to reduce fluid
percolation. If the pore size is small, percolation could be
severely reduced. Some authors claim that application of
acoustic waves could restart percolation.
Applied elastic waves would create a mechanical vibration
in the pore surface reducing the adherence of liquid films to
the pore wall, thereby increasing the effective diameter of the
pore throats.
Poroelastic Motion
A poroelastic motion due to elasticity of fluids can also
ocurr in response to stress and pore pressure, given rises to
changes in pore volume. However, as reported by Pan and
Horne, results from laboratory studies concluded that only a
little benefit should be expected in the recovery of oil from
this mechanism, and only at resonant frequency. They also
concluded that applicability of a resonant frequency in a
porous medium is limited as it depends on some reservoir
properties, such as porosity which may vary substantially
through a reservoir. They claimed that due to the limited
frequency of operation of the available seismic sources, it
would probably be hard to apply a resonant frequency in a
large scale application.
Thermal Effects
Acoustic energy transmitted into the medium by elastic
waves is continuously dissipated into heat through a damping
effect.
Beresnev et al. state that some fluid properties, such as oil
viscosity, could be affected by the heating of the medium due
to ultrasound energy dissipation. These authors associate these
effects with the application of ultrasound (high frequency
waves).
Increased Degassing
An increased degassing of formation fluids could explain
some of the changes produced in an oil-bearing formation
under the effects of acoustic waves. Degassing of formation
fluids under the action of vibration is primarily due to
breaking of thin films, resulting in formation of bubbles.
Laboratory Studies
Many laboratory investigations of the effects of using elastic
waves in porous medium have been carried since the 1960’s.
The main objective of these experiments was to study the
effect of elastic waves on both oil and water relative
permeability, water saturation, oil production rate and the rate
of oil displacement by water. The most reliable early studies to
analyse such effects were conducted by Duhon et al in 1965. A
review of studies up to 1994 was conducted by Beresnev and
Johnson, though more investigations have been performed
since.
Low Frequency Wave Studies
The frequency used for these experiments usually vary
from 10 to 200 Hz. This range is close to that used for seismic
prospecting, 10-100 Hz. Such waves can travel up to a
distance of 1-2 km areally without important attenuation.
Increased oil production rate
Kouznetsov et al assessed the effect of elastic vibration
upon forward and rev when reversed capillary imbibition
using natural cores from the Elabuzhskoye oil field. They
observed that a significant stimulation of forward capillary
imbitition was obtained when vibro-energy was applied. They
claimed that under the effect of an acoustic field, the final oil
recovery increased from 32% to 60%. They also noted that the
recovery was much faster when vibro-energy was used, i.e. 51
hours compared to 300 hours without vibration excitation.
Increases in oil rate have been also claimed by Dyblenko et
al. and Snarskiy et al, both quoted by Beresnev and Johnson.
Similar conclusions were also reached by Gadiev, who
observed an incremental oil recovery of 10-15% but in that
case high frequency waves were applied. Increases in oil rate
have been also observed by many other authors. For example,
Dyblenko et al stated an increase in the oil rate of 12%
applying a 200 Hz frequency wave. On the other hand,
Snarskiy et al claimed and increase of 19% applying lower
frequency waves (9-40 Hz).
From the laboratory results above, it does not seem
obvious a relationship between frequency applied and increase
in oil rate, although positive effects have been observed by
many authors.
Changes in oil viscosity
Many authors have focused their research on the
observation of changes in fluid properties with application of
acoustic waves in a fluid saturated porous medium.
Gadiev conducted a series of studies within a range of low
frequency waves between 30 and 60 Hz, measuring the flow
of a certain volume of polyacrylamide solution through a
viscosimeter. It was observed that the flow increased by a
factor or one to two due to the application of acoustic waves.
The author associated this increase to a reduction in oil
viscosity, however this could not proved quantitatively.
It is not clear and therefore open to a discussion whether this
change of viscosity is directly due to the application of
acoustic waves or a secondary effect due to the dissipation of
acoustic energy followed by heating of the formation fluids.
SPE 108643
Efficiency of displacement of oil by water
One of the main areas of research associated with the
application of acoustic waves in a fluid saturated porous
medium are focused to the efficiency of displacement of oil by
water.
As waterflood being one of the main recovery mechanisms
in oil fields across the word, effects of application of acoustic
waters in potential sweep efficiency worth some further
discussion.
Koutnetsov et al conducted some studies using core
samples from the Elabuzhskiy oil field and sandpacks
prepared from quartz sand and bentonites. A frequency
varying from 100-200 Hz was used for these studies. They
compared separation of oil and water under gravitational
forces only, i.e. differences in fluid density when vibrational
forces were applied. They model was initially saturated by
water which was then displaced by kerosene given a residual
oil saturation of 50%. It was then placed vertically and
separation of oil and water was then observed. It was
concluded that gravitational separation of oil with water
increased by 800-1000 times when vibro-energy was applied.
The authors observed this increase by comparison of the
bottom and top oil/water ratio both with and without
vibrational forces. These observations imply a possible change
in the oil-water relative permeability curves under the effect of
an acoustic field.
Simkin et al. studied the effect of elastic vibrations on a
piston like displacement of oil by water. Once the model was
prepared, it was placed horizontally or set at various angles.
They found that under applications of an acoustic field an
additional 10% oil was recovered. They also observed that oil
droplets grew intensively after two minutes of acoustic
vibrations, due to acoustically induced coalescence.
Increased degassing
Kouznetsov et al also observed the amount of free gas in
the medium increased under the application of an acoustic
field. Some of their experiments also observed the
displacement of oil by carbonated and “gas-free” water under
the effects of vibrations. They observed that although oil
recovery was increased in both cases, the increase was even
greater when carbonated water was used. They observed that
the amount of gas present in the medium increased with time
due to a full degassing of water under the effects of the
acoustic vibration.
It is noted that due to the tendency of gas to move to the
pore walls, the increased presence of gas in the medium would
eventually change rock wettability, having an impact on the
relative permeability curves.
As a general rule, the presence of gas in the medium will
decrease the relative permeability to water. Kouznetsov et al.
also observed changes in oil relative permeability curves but
3
with a clear dependence on water saturation. He observed that
when gas was present in the medium, the oil relative
permeability tended to decrease for any water saturation below
40%, but increased if above 40%. They observed that a
decrease of residual oil saturation to water from 50% to 20%
due to an increase of presence of gas in the medium by 10%.
High Frequency Wave Studies
These studies were performed using frequency waves that
usually ranged from several hundreds of Hz to a few MHz.
Changes in the mobility ratio
Duhon et al. performed laboratory studies at different
frequencies, ranging from 1 MHz to 5.5 MHz. That was to
investigate the role played by wave frequency in enhancing
fluid percolation by acoustic stimulation. High frequency
waves are not likely to be attenuated much in laboratory scale
models. However, that attenuation could be significant in field
applications. It was observed that the increase of oil rate was
inversely proportional to the wave applied. A maximum
recovery of original oil in place of 15% was obtained was
obtained when the lowest frequency wave was applied, i.e. 1
MHz.
The most likely mechanism to explain results above are
capillary effect mechanisms, i.e. increase in fluid percolation
due to high vibrations in the pore surface. There was no
evidency for increased degassing or temperature in the
medium.
Changes in sample permeability
Cherskiy et al. conducted several analyses on a sample
saturated sample with fresh water. They observed that the
sample permeability increased by a factor of 82 under the
effects of an acoustic field. It was also claimed that although
the effects on the sample were seen immediately after the
beginning of the simulation, they finished soon after the
acoustic field was removed.
Changes in oil viscosity
Sokolov et al and Gadiev et al performed studies to
analyize the effect of acoustic waves in oil viscosity. They
claimed that under application of vibro-energy, oil viscosity
can be reduced by 20%. Sokolov et al. observed a sudden
change in oil viscosity after the start of stimulation, but it
gradually returned to its original value after a couple of hours.
Decrease of oil viscosity observed from the experiments above
might be the result on increasing oil temperature by
dissipation of acoustic energy into heat in the medium.
Fairbanks et al also conducted several experiments at
different temperatures using a 20Hz acoustic waves. Vibro-
4 SPE 108643
energy was applied to stimulate a sandstone cores. An increase
in oil rate was observed, specially for experiments performed
at temperatures between 100 and 110 degrees C. This results
could be also the consequence of a reduction in oil viscosity
due to an increase in temperature.
Changes in surface tension
Gadiev performed some studies to investigate changes in
the surface tension as a function of the wave frequency. He
used a wide range of wave frequencies, between 40 Hz and 15
kHz. He concluded that the surface tension decreased with
frequency and time. A decrease of surface tension would lead
to a decrease in capillary forces and therefore an increase in
oil rate.
Mechanisms associated with those changes are unclear, but
some authors believe that might be due to dissipation of
energy in the medium.
Changes in the rate of segregation of oil by water
Gadiev also conducted some studies on saturated,
unconsolidated sandstones exposed to a wide range of medium
to high frequency waves. He concluded that the efficiency of
the displacement of oil by water increased with the application
of vibro-energy by 10-15%. He also observed that the
displacement was about three times faster than without vibro-
energy excitation.
Conclusions
The following notes are concluded from laboratory studies:
¾ These studies have been conducted within a range
of frequencies between a few Hz to several MHz.
A very high frequency wave cannot be provided
by the surface vibrators currently available in the
industry.
¾ The laboratory studies do not give an indication
of the spatial distance covered by the wave
applied for each study.
¾ Several factors could influence the effects
produced by elastic waves such as application
time, frequency applied, material used and oil
temperature.
¾ Some of the laboratory studies claim an additional
recovery of oil is obtained when elastic vibration
have been applied on samples previously water
flooded.
Some of the laboratory analysis claim an increase in oil
production rate due to a decrease in oil viscosity. It is still not
clear whether or not the decrease in oil viscosity is a direct
effect from vibro-energy or a secondary effect due to
dissipation of energy in the medium.
¾ It has also been observed an increase in oil
production rate under the effect of acoustic
vibrations for different type of displacements such
as gravitational segregation of oil and water,
piston-like displacement and capillary dominated
displacements.
¾ Many analyses have also observed an increase in
oil rate due to relative permeability effects and
increase of degassing in the medium.
Field Trials
Most of the field trials with acoustic vibrations have been
conducted in onshore Russian oil fields, some producing only
a few tens of barrels a day. Kouznetsove et al. noted that the
range of frequency used for the studies conducted on these
fields varies from 10 to 200 Hz. For some of the field trials
described here, the wave frequency has been stated separately.
Abuzi Oil Field
The first field trials with surface vibrators were performed
in the Abuzi oil field located in the Krasnodarskiy region of
Russia in 1987. The resevoir was located at a depth of 1500 m
with an average water saturation of 97%. Two 50 kW
vibrators were placed at 50 m apart.
The following results were obtained:
¾ The volume of gas samples at a depth of 1150-
2500 m (oil bearing formations) was increased by
25-40 times, which suggests that increased
degassing of formation fluids under the effect of
elastic waves might be the one of the mechanisms
involved.
¾ Water cut was reduced by an average of 20-60%.
Some of the wells showed a maximum decrease
in water cut of 50%. This might be due to changes
in rock wettability due to an increasing presence
of gas in the medium.
¾ The values of light adsorption coefficients for the
oil samples decreased for the production wells in
the productive intervals (depth interval of 1150-
2500) which suggest that a capillary effect
mechanism might be involved.
Changirstah Oil Field
Another field study was conducted in 1988 on the
Changirstah onshore oil field, in Kirgizstan. The reservoir area
is approximately 14 km2 (4.5 km by 3.1 km). Average depth
of the oil-bearing formations is 410-570 m. The oil-bearing
formation is represented by relative homogeneous, fine-
grained sandstones with thin layers of clay. Total thickness of
the oil-bearing formation is 25 m, whereas the net to gross is
approximately 25%. Porosity varies between 10% and 23%,
where permeability values range from 0.1 to 30 D and the
initial water saturation was 60%. At the time of the trials, the
oil production rate was 0.5-1 tons-d, about three times less that
initial production rate. Before the start of the stimulation, 31%
SPE 108643
of the original oil place had been already recovered with a
90% water-cut ratio.
Trials were conducted in two different areas in the
Changirstah field. The first pilot was conducted in a small area
(0.4 km2) and shallow depth (240-448 m) with a permeability
of 200 mD. The second trial was performed in a larger area
(2.25 km2), deeper depth (511-708 m), but similar
permeability, 150 mD. Current yearly in the first area was 800
tons, I.e. 2% of the original oil in place. On the other hand,
2540 tones, I.e. 7% of OOII, were being annually produced
from the second tested area.
Acoustic stimulation was applied combined with WAG in
the second trial. Vibrations were produced by using two
electromagnetic hammers separated 50 m each other and at an
average 200 m distance from the monitored producer wells.
The surface vibrators provided 10 Hz waves.
The following results were noted:
¾ The application of acoustic stimulations in the
pilot area one provided 300 tons of additional oil
during a period of 8 months, I.e. 0.8% of OOIIP.
¾ Area two produced 1000 tons of additional oil,
I.e. 3% of OOIP, under the effect of an acoustic
field. These effects lasted for 4 months.
¾ An increase of light components in both gas and
oil samples was observed. Increased degassing of
formation fluids could be one of the causes. The
authors did not note any increased in the produced
GOR.
¾ The mean water cut was decreased by 20-25%.
The increased presence of gas at the pore level
could have reduced the water and oil relative
permeability curves differentially.
This trial was conducted using a waveguide to transmit the
energy directly from the surface vibrators to the net pay. It was
noted a loss of energy between 5 and 10% for 1 km depth.
Lopukhov et al. compared the monitored wave energy in
the oil-bearing formation with that in the neighboring
formations. They concluded that the acoustic noise level after
the stimulation was higher than the background noise before
the stimulation in al the formations. It was also observed that
the increase in acoustic noise level in the oil-bearing
formations was 1 to 3 times higher than that in the neighboring
formations. This illustrates the efficiency of the technique
used to transmit vibrational energy directly from the surface to
the target formations.
Jirnovskiy Oil Field
Field trials were carried out in the Jirnovskiy oil field,
Russia, between 1991 and 1993. In contrast to the previous
mentioned field analyses, these studies were not performed on
a high water saturation area.
5
Average properties for the tested reservoir are 18-35%
porosity are core permeabilities vary from 4mD to 5D.
These trials were conducted using a new system. The
vibrator was placed at the borehole located at the centre of the
tested area. The vibration energy was transmitted from the
surface to the oil-bearing layer (1000 m depth) using a special
waveguide which was lowered into the borehole. The wave
energy was monitored in an area of 15 km2, the radius of
vibration was 2.2 km.
The trials were conducted in two stages. During the first
pilot which lasted two months, the intensity of the wave
energy was monitored in a well located at a certain distance
from the source. The second pilot, whose duration was also
two months, was conducted to measure changes in the
producer well located in the proximity of the source.
The main results are summarized below:
¾ Most of the monitored wells, in the vicinity of the
source, were affected by the vibration energy
giving an increase in oil recovery. Unfortunately,
the distance from the monitored wells to the
source well is not reported.
¾ During the first phase, wave energy was
monitored in a well located at 850 m of the
borehole source. Monitoring showed that the
seismic energy in the oil-bearing formation was
200 times greater than before the stimulation.
¾ It was also observed that the magnitude of the
seismic wave in the neighboring formation was
1.5 to 2 times lower than the seismic wave energy
in the oil-bearing formation.
¾ A sudden increase in oil production was observed
after the start of the second test. The effects lasted
for two years from the beginning of the
stimulation (note that the application lasted for
two months).
¾ Although the produced water cut ratio decreased
at the beginning, an increased was observed later
on.
The following conclusions are noted:
¾ Most of the monitored wells were located in the
vicinity of the well, however the distances from
the source well were not provided. A relationship
between distance from the source well and degree
of changes in oil rate could give a further
indication on the area covered by acoustic
stimulation.
¾ A lower loss of energy in the medium is expected
by addressing the elastic wave directly to the
formation through a well borehole.
¾ It is believed that the increase in the observed
water cut was not directly due to the application
of elastic waves, but to a simple increase in water
6 SPE 108643
production once most of the oil in the pilot area
had been already been produced.
¾ An increase in light components or gas samples
was not reported. It seems that the increase in oil
production is likely to be due to capillary effects,
I.e. reduction of the adherence of fluids to the
pore surface.
Pavloskoe Oil Field
Trials were also conducted in the Russian oil field
Pavlovskoe. This onshore oil field is located in a Russian
region close to the Urals.
Geological structure is an anticline fold and the target
reservoir, located at 1440 m depth, mainly contains
sandstones. Average permeability in the tested area was 350
mD.
At the time studies were conducted, October 1995, the
average fluid and oil production was 43.7 and 7.4 tons/d, I.e.
an average 83% of water production.
A waveguide was used to transmit the vibratory energy
form the surface to the oil-bearing formation, similar to that
used for two of the field trials previously cited: Jirnovskiy and
Changirstah. The role of this waveguide is to decrease the loss
of acoustic energy in the medium. An electromagnetic
hammer was placed at the bottom of the waveguide, with an
operating frequency of 12 Hz. The vibro energy was applied
for a period of one month.
Unfortunately, few results from this field trial have been
published. The following results were observed:
¾ A high increase in oil production was observed
after the first cycle of vibration.
¾ A 5% decrease in water production was also
observed.
Conclusions
The following conclusions on field trials are noted:
¾ Application of vibro-acoustic stimulation have
been mainly applied to onshore fields.
¾ In all field trials, the frequency of vibro-energy
varies between 20-200 Hz. That is close to the
range provided by waves during a seismic
processing (10-100 Hz).
¾ Trials carried out in the Jirnovskiy oil field were
conducted in a low water saturation are. That
contrasts with one of the conclusions previously
reached by Beresnev et al that claimed that
potential oil field applications should have water
saturation higher than 90%.
¾ The effects of vibro-energy have been only tested
in medium-deep reservoirs, down to about 1500
m. It is noted that the effects of acoustics sound
may be substantially attenuated with depth.
¾ Not much information is give about the geology
and formations in which this technique has been
applied.
¾ Overall results show an increase oil cut and
improved oil recovery. The oil production rate
change occurs suddenly after the start of the
stimulation.
¾ An increase of light components in oil and gas
samples was observed in one of the field trials.
The field trials results are consistent with some of the
results obtained from the laboratory studies, such as changes
in oil/water relative permeabilities and increased degassing of
formation fluids. Other changes reported in the laboratory
analyses, such as in oil viscosity, are not mentioned in the
field trials.
The field trials discussed above have been conducted in a
range of depths going from a shallow reservoir in the
Changirstah oil field, I.e average 500 m, to a medium deep
reservoir in the Abuzin oil field, I.e. 1500 m and Pavloskoe oil
field, I.e 1440 m depth. For all of the field trials, except Abuzi,
a waveguide was used to directly transmit the vibrational
energy from the surface to the oil-bearing formation in order
to reduce the loss of acoustic energy in the medium. However,
not much information has been included on the attenuation of
waves with depth during these field trials.
Due to attenuation of waves with depth, the effectiveness
of this process could be severely affected by reservoir depth,
e.g. offshore oil fields.
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action”, Bashkir Research and Design Institute of Oil, 1989.
SPE 108643 7

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