Manual Guru Modul A+ Kimia TG 5

Bab
1 Tindak Balas Redoks

Redox Reactions
1.1 Pengoksidaan dan Penurunan

Oxidation and Reduction
A Menerangkan Tindak Balas Redoks

Describe Redox Reactions
IA
1. Pengoksidaan dan penurunan boleh dijelaskan dari segi:
Oxidation and reduction can be explained in terms of:
Pengoksidaan Penurunan
Oxidation Reduction
Reduction
Oksigen Penambahan Kehilangan

oksigen oksigen
Oxygen
Gain Loss
of oxygen of oxygen
Hidrogen
Hydrogen
Elektron
Electron
AS Kehilangan
Loss
Kehilangan
Loss
hidrogen
of hydrogen
elektron
of electrons
Penambahan
Gain
Menerima
Gain
hidrogen
of hydrogen
elektron
of electrons
Nombor pengoksidaan Peningkatan Penurunan

nombor pengoksidaan nombor pengoksidaan
Oxidation number
Increase Decrease
in the oxidation number in the oxidation number
N
2. Tindak balas redoks ialah tindak balas kimia yang melibatkan penurunan dan pengoksidaan yang berlaku secara
serentak. Contoh tindak balas redoks:
Redox reactions are chemical reactions involving reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously. Example of redox reactions:
(a) Pemindahan elektron pada suatu jarak/ Transfer of electron at a distance
(b) Pertukaran ion Fe2+ kepada ion Fe3+ dan sebaliknya/ Change of iron(II) ions, Fe2+ to iron(III) ions, Fe3+ and vice versa
PA
(c) Penyesaran logam daripada larutan garamnya/ Displacement of metal from its salt solution
(d) Penyesaran halogen daripada larutan halidanya/ Displacement of halogen from its halide solution
3. Agen pengoksidaan ialah bahan yang menyebabkan pengoksidaan . Dalam tindak balas redoks, agen
pengoksidaan mengalami penurunan.
oxidation
The oxidising agent is the substance that causes . It is reduced in the redox reaction.
4. Agen penurunan ialah bahan yang menyebabkan penurunan . Dalam tindak balas redoks, agen penurunan
mengalami pengoksidaan.
reduction
The reducing agent is the substance that causes . It is oxidised in the redox reaction.
Agen penurunan/ Reducing agent Agen pengoksidaan/ Oxidising agent
1. Menderma/ Donates hidrogen/ hydrogen 1. Menerima/ Accepts hidrogen/ hydrogen
2. Menerima/ Accepts oksigen/ oxygen 2. Menderma/ Donates oksigen/ hydrogen
3. Menderma/ Donates elektron/ electron 3. Menerima/ Accepts elektron/ electron
4. Pertambahan/ Increase nombor pengoksidaan/ 4. Pengurangan/ Decrease nombor pengoksidaan/

in oxidation number in oxidation number
1
Contoh/ Examples: Contoh/ Examples:
1. Ferum(II) sulfat/ Iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 1. Larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid/ Acidified
2. Kalium iodida/ Potassium iodide, KI potassium manganate(VII) solution, KMnO4/ H+
3. Gas hidrogen/ Hydrogen gas, H2 2. Larutan kalium dikromat(VI) berasid/ Acidified
4. Serbuk zink/ Zink powder, Zn potassium dichromate(VI) solution, K2Cr2O7 / H+
5. Gas sulfur dioksida/ Sulfur dioxide gas, SO2 3. Air klorin/ Chlorine water, Cl2
6. Gas hidrogen sulfida/ Hydrogen sulfide gas, H2S 4. Air bromin/ Bromine water, Br2
Contoh/Example 1
( Pengoksidaan/Oxidation )
Mg + PbO  MgO + Pb
IA
( Penurunan/Reduction )
(a) Magnesium, Mg mengalami pengoksidaan kerana berlaku penambahan oksigen.

oxidises gains
Magnesium, Mg is because it oxygen.
(b) Plumbum(II) oksida, PbO mengalami penurunan kerana berlaku kehilangan oksigen.
reduced loses
Lead(II) oxide, PbO is because it oxygen.
(c) Magnesium, Mg ialah agen
Magnesium, Mg is the
reducing
(d) Plumbum(II) oksida, PbO ialah agen

AS
penurunan kerana menyebabkan
agent. It causes the
pengoksidaan
reduction
kerana menyebabkan
penurunan plumbum(II) oksida, PbO.
of lead(II) oxide, PbO .
pengoksidaan magnesium, Mg.
oxidises oxidation
Lead(II) oxide, PbO is the agent. It causes the of magnesium.
Contoh/Example 2
( Pengoksidaan/Oxidation )
N
H 2S + Cl2  S + 2HCl
( Penurunan/Reduction )
PA
(a) Hidrogen sulfida, H2S mengalami pengoksidaan kerana berlaku kehilangan hidrogen.
oxidises loses
Hydrogen sulphide, H2S is because it hydrogen.
(b) Klorin, Cl2 mengalami penurunan kerana berlaku penambahan hidrogen.
reduced gains
Chlorine,Cl2 is because it hydrogen.
(c) Hidrogen sulfida, H2S ialah agen penurunan kerana menyebabkan penurunan klorin, Cl2.
reducing reduction
Hydrogen sulphide, H2S is the agent. It causes the of chlorine,Cl2.
(d) Klorin, Cl2 ialah agen pengoksidaan kerana menyebabkan pengoksidaan hidrogen sulfida, H2S.
oxidises oxidation
Chlorine,Cl2 is the agent. It causes the of hydrogen sulphide, H2S.
Contoh/Example 3
Zn Zn2+ +2e– (Persamaan setengah/ Half-equation)
Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
Cu2+ + 2e– Cu (Persamaan setengah/Half-equation)
2
(a) Zink, Zn mengalami pengoksidaan kerana kehilangan 2 elektron untuk membentuk ion zink, Zn2+.
oxidises
Zinc, Zn is because it loses 2 electrons to form zinc ion, Zn2+.
(b) Kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 mengalami penurunan kerana ion kuprum(II), Cu2+ menerima 2 elektron
untuk membentuk atom kuprum, Cu.
reduced 2
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 is because copper(II) ion, Cu2+ gains electrons to form copper atom, Cu.
(c) Zink, Zn ialah agen penurunan kerana menyebabkan penurunan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4.
reducing reduction
Zinc, Zn is the agent. It causes the of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4.
(d) Kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 ialah agen pengoksidaan kerana menyebabkan pengoksidaan zink, Zn.
oxidising oxidation
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 is the agent. It causes the of zinc, Zn.
IA
Contoh/Example 4
Nombor pengoksidaan bertambah / The oxidation number increases
H2 + CuO H2O + Cu
(a) Hidrogen, H2 mengalami

0
AS
+2 –2
Nombor pengoksidaan
pengoksidaan
+1 –2
berkurang
0
/ The oxidation number
kerana nombor pengoksidaan bertambah daripada

decreases
0 kepada
+1 .
oxidation 0 +1
Hydrogen, H2 undergoes because the oxidation number increases from to .
(b) Ion kuprum(II), Cu2+ mengalami penurunan kerana nombor pengoksidaan berkurang daripada +2
N
kepada 0 .
+2 0
Copper(II) ion, Cu2+ undergoes reduction because the oxidation number of copper decreases from to .
(c) Ion kuprum(II), Cu2+ ialah agen pengoksidaan ./ Copper(II) ion
ion, Cu2+ is the
oxidation
agent.
(d) Hidrogen, H2 ialah agen penurunan ./ Hydrogen, H2 is the reducing
agent.
PA
Contoh/Example 5
Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
0 +2 +6 –2 +2 +6 –2 0
(a) Zink, Zn mengalami pengoksidaan kerana nombor pengoksidaan meningkat daripada 0 kepada
+2 .
oxidation 0 +2
Zinc, Zn undergoes because the oxidation number increases from to .
(b) Kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 mengalami penurunan kerana nombor pengoksidaan ion kuprum(II), Cu2+ menurun
daripada +2 kepada 0 .
+2
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 undergoes reduction because the oxidation number of copper(II) ion, Cu2+ decreases from to
0
.
(c) Zink ialah agen penurunan ./ Zinc is the reducing
agent.
(d) Kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 ialah agen pengoksidaan ./ Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 is the oxidising
agent.
3
I Pemindahan Elektron pada Suatu Jarak/ Transfer of Electrons at a Distance
1. Dalam tindak balas redoks, agen penurunan menderma elektron kepada agen pengoksidaan.
donates
In a redox reaction, a reducing agent electrons to an oxidising agent.
2. Apabila agen pengoksidaan dan agen penurunan dipisahkan oleh elektrolit dalam suatu tiub-U, elektron
dipindahkan melalui litar luar .
When an oxidising agent and a reducing agent are separated by an electrolyte in a U-tube, the electrons are transferred
external circuit
through an .
3. Pemindahan elektron boleh dikesan dengan galvanometer. Pesongan jarum galvanometer akan menunjukkan
arah aliran elektron.
The transfer of the electrons can be detected by a galvanometer. The deflection of the galvanometer needle will show the
direction
of the flow of electrons.
negatif
IA
4. Elektrod yang diletakkan dalam larutan agen penurunan bertindak sebagai terminal .
negative
The electrode placed in a reducing agent solution acts as the terminal.
5. Elektrod yang diletakkan dalam larutan agen pengoksidaan bertindak sebagai terminal positif .
positive
The electrode placed in an oxidising agent solution acts as the terminal.
AS AKTIVITI 1.1
Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen Wajib
Mengkaji pemindahan elektron pada suatu jarak dalam tindak balas redoks
To investigate the transfer of electrons at a distance in redox reaction
Bahan/ Materials:
Air klorin, larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO4 0.5 mol dm–3 , asid sulfurik cair, H2SO4 2.0 mol dm–3, larutan kalium
dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid larutan kalium iodida, KI 0.5 mol dm-3, larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4
berasid 0.2 mol dm-3, larutan kanji 1%, larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH
Chlorine water, 0.5 mol dm–3 iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution, 2.0 mol dm–3dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4, acidified
potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 solution, 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium iodide, KI solution, 0.2 mol dm-3 acidified potassium
manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution, 1% starch solution, sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution
N
Radas/ Apparatus:
Tiub-U, galvanometer, elektrod karbon, wayar penyambung dengan klip buaya, elektrod karbon, kaki retort
dan pengapit, tabung uji, penitis, penutup satu lubang
U-tube, galvanometer, carbon electrodes, connecting wires with crocodile clips, carbon electrodes, retort stand with
clamp, test tube, dropper, stoppers with one hole
Prosedur/ Procedure:
PA
Elektrod karbon Elektrod karbon

Carbon electrode Carbon electrode
Agen penurunan Agen pengoksidaan

Reducing agent Oxidising agent
Asid sulfurik cair H2SO4

Dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4
Rajah/Diagram 1.1
1. Tiub-U diapit secara menegak pada kaki retort.
A U-tube is clamped upright to a retort stand.
2. Asid sulfurik, H2SO4 cair 1.0 mol dm–3 dituang ke dalam tiub-U sehingga arasnya 6 cm daripada mulut
tiub-U.
1.0 mol dm–3 dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is poured into the U-tube until its levels are 6 cm away from the mouth of
the U-tube.
3. Menggunakan penitis, larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO4 0.5 mol dm–3 ditambahkan dengan berhati-hati pada
lengan kiri tiub-U sehingga lapisan larutan setinggi 3 cm.
Using a dropper, 0.5 mol dm-3 iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution is carefully added into the left arm of the U-tube until
the layer of solution reaches the height of 3 cm.
4
4. Menggunakan cara yang sama seperti langkah 3, 0.2 mol dm-3 larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid,
KMnO4 ditambahkan pada lengan kanan tiub-U.
In a similar manner as in step 3, 0.2 mol dm-3 acidified potassium manganate (VII), KMnO4 solution is added to the
right arm of the U-tube.
5. Elektrod karbon diletakkan ke dalam setiap lengan tiub-U.
A carbon electrode is placed in each arm of the U-tube.
6. Elektrod disambungkan kepada galvanometer seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.1.
The electrodes are connected to a galvanometer as shown in Diagram 1.1.
7. Pesongan jarum galvanometer diperhatikan untuk menentukan elektrod yang bertindak sebagai terminal
positif dan negatif.
The deflection of the galvanometer needle is observed to determine the electrodes that act as the positive and
negative terminal.
IA
8. Susunan radas dibiarkan selama 30 minit. Sebarang perubahan direkodkan.
direkodkan.
The set-up is left aside for 30 minutes. Any change is recorded.
9. Menggunakan penitis yang bersih, 1 cm3 larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO4 dikeluarkan dan dimasukkan ke
dalam tabung uji. Kemudian, beberapa titis larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH dimasukkan ke dalam
tabung uji. Sebarang perubahan direkodkan.
Using a clean dropper, 1 cm3 of iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution is draw and placed in a test tube. Then a few drops
of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution are added to the test tube. Any change is recorded.
10. Langkah 1 hingga 8 diulang dengan menggunakan larutan kalium iodida, KI 0.5 mol dm-3 dan larutan
kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O1 berasid 0.2 mol dm-3.
AS
Steps 1 to 8 are repeated using 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium iodide, KI solution and 0.2 mol dm-3 acidified potassium
dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O1 solution.
11. Menggunakan penitis yang bersih, 1 cm3 larutan kalium iodida, KI dikeluarkan dan dimasukkan ke dalam
tabung uji. Kemudian, beberapa titis larutan kanji dimasukkan ke dalam tabung uji. Sebarang perubahan
direkodkan.
Using a clean dropper, 1 cm3 of potassium iodide, KI solution is draw and placed in a test tube. Then a few drops of
starch solution are added to the test tube. Any change is recorded.
Mentafsir data/ Interpreting data:
1. Larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO4 + larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid, KMnO4
Iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution + Acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution
Pemerhatian/ Observation Inferens/ Inference

N
(a) Pesongan jarum galvanometer menunjukkan Elekron mengalir daripada elektrod dalam larutan
elektrod dalam larutan ferum(II) sulfat bertindak ferum(II) sulfat
kepada elektrod dalam
negatif
sebagai terminal manakala larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid
.
PA
elektrod dalam larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid

The electrons flow from the electrode in
positif
bertindak sebagai terminal . iron(II) sulphate
The deflection of the galvanometer needle shows solution to the electrode in the
that the electrode in iron(II) sulphate solution acts as acidified potassium manganate(VII)
negative solution.
the terminal whereas the electrode in
acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution acts as the
positive
terminal.
(b) Larutan hijau muda larutan ferum(II) sulfat bertukar Ion ferum(II) dioksidakan kepada ion
perang ferum(III).
kepada .
brown Iron(II) ion is oxidised to iron(III) ion.
Pale green iron(II) sulphate solution turns .
(c) Larutan ungu kalium manganat(VII) berasid bertukar Ion manganat(VII) diturunkan kepada ion
tidak berwarna manganese(II).
kepada .
Purple acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution turns Manganate(VII) ion is reduced to
colourless manganese(II) ion.
.
(d) Mendakan perang terbentuk apabila Ion ferum(III) hadir.

ditambah larutan natrium hidroksida. Iron(III) ions are present.
A brown precipitate is formed when sodium
hydroxide solution is added.
5
(e) Ion manganat(VII), MnO4- bertindak sebagai agen pengoksidaan . Ion ferum(II), Fe2+ bertindak sebagai
agen penurunan .
Manganate(VII) ions, MnO4– act as the oxidising agent. Iron(II) ions, Fe2+ act as the reducing agent.
2. Larutan kalium iodida, KI + larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid

Potassium iodide, KI solution + acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 solution
Pemerhatian/ Observation Inferens/ Inference
(a) Pesongan jarum galvanometer menunjukkan Elektron mengalir daripada elektrod dalam larutan
elektrod dalam larutan kalium iodida bertindak kalium iodida kepada elektrod dalam larutan
negatif
sebagai terminal manakala kalium dikromat(VI) berasid
IA
.
elektrod dalam larutan kalium dikromat(VI) berasid
The electrons flow from the electrode in
bertindak sebagai terminal positif . potassium iodide solution to the electrode in the
The deflection of the galvanometer needle shows that
acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution.
the electrode in potassium iodide solution acts as the
negative
terminal whereas the electrode in
acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution acts as the
positive
terminal.
perang .
AS
(b) Larutan tak berwarna kalium iodida bertukar kepada Ion iodida
Iodide ion is
dioksidakan
oxidised
kepada iodin.
to iodine.
brown
Colourless potassium iodide solution turns .
(c) Larutan jingga kalium dikromat(VI) berasid bertukar Ion dikromat(VI) diturunkan kepada ion
hijau kromium(III).
kepada .
Orange acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution turns Dichromate(VI) ion is reduced to chromium
green (III) ion.
.
N
(d) Larutan perang bertukar kepada biru tua Iodin hadir.
apabila ditambah larutan kanji.
kanji. Iodine is present.
The brown solution turns to dark blue when starch

solution is added.
PA
(e) Ion dikromat(VI), Cr2O72- bertindak sebagai agen pengoksidaan . Ion iodida, I- bertindak sebagai agen
penurunan .
Dichromate(VI) ions, Cr2O72- act as the oxidising agent. Iodide ions, I- act as the reducing agent.
Perbincangan/ Discussion
1. Nyatakan bahan-bahan yang mengalami pengoksidaan dan penurunan. Terangkan jawapan anda.
State the substance, that undergoes oxidation and reduction. Explain your answer.
(a) Pengoksidaan/Oxidation:
Ferum(II) sulfat, kerana kehilangan elektron/ Iron(II) sulphate, because loss of electrons
Kalium iodida, kerana kehilangan elektron/ Potassium iodide, because loss of electrons
(b) Penurunan/ Reduction:
Kalium dikromat(VI) berasid, kerana menerima elektron/ Acidified potassium dichromate(VI), because accept
electrons
Kalium manganat(VII) berasid, kerana menerima elektron/ Acidified potassium manganate(VII), because accept
electrons
6
2. Tuliskan persamaan setengah bagi pengoksidaan dan penurunan yang berikut:
Write the half-equations for the following oxidation and reduction:
(a) Tindak balas antara larutan ferum(II), FeSO4 sulfat dengan larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4
berasid
Reaction between iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution with acidified potassium manganate(VII)
manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution
Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation:
Fe2+  Fe3+ + e–
Penurunan/ Reduction:
MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e–  Mn2+ + 4H2O
(b) Tindak balas antara larutan kalium iodida, KI dengan larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid
Reaction between potassium iodide, KI solution with acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 solution
IA
Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation:
2I–  I2 + 2e–
Penurunan/ Reduction:
Cr2O72– + 14H+ + 6e–  2Cr3+ + 7H2O
3. Nyatakan yang berikut/ State the following:

(a) Agen pengoksidaan/ Oxidising agents:
Larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid/ Acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution
AS
Larutan kalium dikromat(VI) berasid/ Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution
(b) Agen penurunan/ Reducing agent:
Larutan ferum(II) sulfat/ Iron(II) sulphate solution
Larutan kalium iodida/ Potassium iodide solution
4. Elektrod dalam agen penurunan bertindak sebagai terminal negatif manakala elektrod dalam
agen pengoksidaan bertindak sebagai terminal positif .
The electrode in the reducing agents acts as the negative terminal while the electrode in the oxidising
positive
N
agents acts as the terminal.
5. Elektron mengalir daripada agen penurunan kepada agen pengoksidaan melalui litar luar.
The electrons flow from reducing agents to oxidising agents through external circuit.
PA
B Tindak Balas Redoks Berdasarkan Perubahan Nombor Pengoksidaan

Redox Reaction Based on Changes in Oxidation Number
I Unsur/ Oxidation Number of An element
Nombor Pengoksidaan bagi Unsur
1. Peraturan umum menentukan nombor pengoksidaan/
pengoksidaan General rules to determine oxidation number:
(a) Nombor pengoksidaan bagi atom suatu unsur bebas ialah sifar , 0 .
zero 0
The oxidation number of an atom in its elements state is , .
(b) Nombor pengoksidaan bagi hidrogen biasanya ialah +1 .
+1
The oxidation number of hydrogen usually is .
–2
(c) Nombor pengoksidaan bagi oksigen biasanya ialah .
–2
The oxidation number of oxygen usually is .
(d) Nombor pengoksidaan bagi halogen biasanya ialah –1 .
–1
The oxidation number of Halogen usually is .
(e) Jumlah nombor pengoksidaan bagi semua unsur dalam suatu sebatian neutral mestilah sifar , 0 .
zero 0
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements in a neutral compound must be , .
Contoh/ Example:
(a) Manakah antara persamaan kimia berikut ialah tindak balas redoks?
Which of the following chemical equations is a redox reaction?
Persamaan/ Equation I: Na2SO4 + Ba(NO3)2 → BaSO4 + 2NaNO3
Persamaan/ Equation II: Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu
7
Persamaan II ialah tindak balas redoks sebab ada perubahan pada nombor pengoksidaan. Mg dioksidakan
kepada Mg2+ (0 kepada +2), manakala Cu2+ diturunkan kepada Cu (+2 kepada 0).
Equation II is a redox reaction because there is a change in oxidation numbers. Mg is oxidised to Mg2+ (0 to +2) while
Cu2+ is reduced to Cu (+2 to 0).
(b) Persamaan berikut menunjukkan perubahan Fe2+ kepada Fe3+. Namakan jenis tindak balas yang ditunjukkan?
The following equation shows the change of Fe2+ to Fe3+. Name the type of reaction shown.
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
Pengoksidaan. Fe2+ dioksidakan sebab Fe2+ hilang satu elektron dan nombor pengoksidaan bertambah
daripada +2 kepada +3.
Oxidation. Fe2+ is oxidised because Fe2+ loses one electron and its oxidation number increase from +2 to +3.
(c) Persamaan berikut ialah tindak balas redoks. Yang manakah agen penurunan?
The following equation is a redox reaction. Which is the reducing agent?
Cu + 2Ag+  Cu2+ + 2Ag
Cu bertindak sebagai agen penurunan sebab Cu menurunkan Ag+ kepada Ag. Nombor pengoksidaan Ag
diturunkan daripada +1 kepada 0.
IA
Cu acts as the reducing agent because Cu reduces Ag+ to Ag. The oxidation number of Ag is reduced from +1 to 0.
II Penamaan Sebatian Mengikut Sistem Penamaan IUPAC

Naming Compounds According to the IUPAC Nomenclature
1. Kebanyakan unsur hanya mempunyai satu nombor pengoksidaan. Sesetengah unsur seperti unsur peralihan,
karbon, nitrogen dan sulfur mempunyai lebih daripada satu nombor pengoksidaan.
Many elements have just one oxidation number, but some elements such as transition metals, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur
have more than one oxidation number.
AS
2. Untuk mengelakkan kekeliruan, angka Roman (I, II, III...) dimasukkan dalam nama sebatian dengan unsur yang
mempunyai lebih daripada satu nombor pengoksidaan.
To avoid confusion, Roman numeral (I, II, III, etc) are included in naming of some compound with element which has
more than one
oxidation number.
3. Bagi sebatian ion yang ringkas, angka Roman yang menyatakan nombor pengoksidaan unsur logam ditulis di
dalam kurungan selepas nama logam itu.
brackets
For simple ionic compounds, the Roman numeral of the oxidation number of metal element is written in ,
following the name of the metal.
N
Contoh/Example 6
Formula kimia sebatian Nombor pengoksidaan Nama IUPAC sebatian

Compound chemical formula Oxidation number IUPAC name of the compound
PA
FeCl2 x + 2(–1) = 0, x = +2 Besi(II) klorida/ Iron(II) chloride
FeCl
FeCl3 x + 3(–1) = 0, x = +3 Besi( III ) klorida/ Iron( III ) chloride
Cu2O 2x + (–2) = 0, x = +1 Kuprum( I ) oksida/ Copper( I

) oxide
CuO
O x + (–2) = 0, x = +2 Kuprum( II ) oksida/ Copper( II ) oxide
SnO x + (–2) = 0, x = +2 Stanum( II ) oksida/ Tin( II ) oxide
SnO2 x + 2(–2) =0, x = +4 Stanum( IV ) oksida/ Tin( IV ) oxide
PbO x + (–2) = 0, x = +2 Plumbum( II ) oksida/ Lead( II ) oxide
PbO2 x + 2(–2) = 0, x = +4 Plumbum( IV ) oksida/ Lead( IV ) oxide
Tip SPM
Bagi unsur yang mempunyai hanya satu nombor pengoksidaan, tidak perlu ditulis dalam angka Roman. Contohnya, natrium
klorida, magnesium oksida dan aluminium klorida. Unsur-unsur ini berada di Kumpulan 1, 2 dan 13 dalam Jadual Berkala Unsur.
Tip SPM
For elements with just one oxidation number, do not need to write it in Roman numerals. For example, sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and
aluminium chloride. Such elements are in Groups 1, 2 and 13 in the Periodic Table of Elements.
8
III Pertukaran Ion Fe2+ kepada Ion Fe3+ dan Sebaliknya/ Change of Fe2+ Ions to Fe3+ Ions and Vice Versa
1. Logam besi (ferum) mempunyai dua nombor pengoksidaan/ Iron metal has two oxidation numbers.
(a) Dalam ion ferum(II), Fe2+, nombor pengoksidaan ialah +2/ In iron(II) ions, Fe2+, the oxidation number is +2.
(b) Dalam ion ferum(III), Fe3+, nombor pengoksidaan ialah +3/ In iron(III) ions, Fe3+ the oxidation number is +3.
2. Pertukaran ion ferum(II), Fe2+ kepada ion ferum(III), Fe3+ merupakan proses pengoksidaan .
oxidation
The change of iron(II) ions, Fe2+ to iron(III) ions, Fe3+ is an process.
3. Agen pengoksidaan diperlukan untuk mengoksidakan ion ferum(II), Fe2+ kepada ion ferum(III), Fe3+
oxidising
An agent is required to oxidise the iron(II) ions, Fe2+ to iron(III) ions, Fe3+.
4. Pertukaran ion ferum(III), Fe3+ kepada ion ferum(II), Fe2+ merupakan proses penurunan .
IA
reduction
The change of iron(III) ions, Fe to iron (II) ions, Fe is a
3+ 2+
process.
5. Agen penurunan diperlukan untuk menurunkan ion ferum(III), Fe3+ kepada ion ferum(II), Fe2+.
reducing
A agent is required to reduce the iron(III) ions, Fe3+ to iron(II) ions, Fe2+.
AKTIVITI 1.2
Tujuan/ Aim:
AS
Mengkaji tindak balas pertukaran ion Fe2+ kepada ion Fe3+ dan sebaliknya
Eksperimen Wajib
To investigate the change of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions and vice versa
Bahan/ Materials:
Larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO4 0.5 mol dm–3 yang baharu disediakan, larutan ferum(III) klorida, FeCl3 0.5 mol
dm–3, air bromin, pita magnesium, larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH 2.0 mol dm–3, kertas turas
0.5 mol dm–3 freshly prepared iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution, 0.5 mol dm–3 iron(III) chloride, FeCl3 solution, bromine
water, magnesium ribbon, 2.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution, filter paper
Radas/ Apparatus:
Penitis, spatula, penyepit tabung uji, penunu Bunsen, corong turas, rak tabung uji, silinder penyukat, tabung
uji
N
Dropper, spatula, test tube holder, Bunsen burner, filter funnel, test tube rack, measuring cylinder, test tube
A Pertukaran ion ferum(II), Fe2+ kepada ion ferum(III), Fe3+

Changes of iron(II) ions, Fe2+ to iron(III) ions, Fe3+
PA
1. 2 cm3 larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO4 yang baharu disediakan dituang ke dalam sebuah tabung uji.
2 cm3 of freshly prepared iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution is measured and pour into a test tube.
2. Air bromin ditambah setitik demi setitik ke dalam tabung uji yang berisi larutan dengan menggunakan
penitis sambil digoncang sehingga tiada perubahan warna dapat diperhatikan.
Bromine water is added to the solution in the test tube drop by drop using a dropper until no further changes are
observed.
3. Campuran digoncang dan dihangatkan perlahan-lahan.
The mixture is shaken well and warm gently.
4. Larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH 0.2 mol dm–3 ditambah setitik demi setitik sehingga berlebihan.
Perubahan direkodkan.
0.2 mol dm–3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is added drop by drop until in excess. The changes are recorded.
B Pertukaran ion ferum(III), Fe3+ kepada ion ferum(II), Fe2+

Changes of iron(III) ions, Fe3+ to iron(II) ions, Fe2+
1. 2 cm3 larutan ferum(III) klorida, FeCl3 dituang ke dalam sebuah tabung uji.
2 cm3 of iron(III) chloride, FeCl3 solution is measured and pour into a test tube.
2. 2 cm pita magnesium ditambah ke dalam larutan.
2 cm of magnesium ribbon is added into the solution.
3. Campuran digoncang dan dihangatkan perlahan-lahan sehingga tiada perubahan diperhatikan.
The mixture is shaken well and warm gently until no further changes.
4. Campuran dituras ke dalam sebuah tabung uji.
The mixture is filtered into a test tube.
9
5. Larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH 0.2 mol dm–3 ditambah setitik demi setitik sehingga berlebihan.
Pemerhatian direkodkan.
0.2 mol dm–3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is added drop by drop until in excess. The changes are recorded.
Aktiviti/ Activity Pemerhatian/ Observation Inferens/ Inference
hijau muda kuning Fe2+
A Larutan menjadi . Ion dioksidakan kepada ion
Pale green solution turns yellow .
Fe3+ .
Fe2+ ions are oxidised to Fe3+ ions
Mendakan hijau muda tak larut dalam
larutan natrium hidroksida berlebihan. Fe3+
Mengesahkan kehadiran ion .
Brown precipitate insoluble in excess
Confirms the present of Fe3+ ions
sodium hydroxide solution.
IA
B Larutan perang menjadi hijau muda . Ion Fe3+ diturunkan kepada ion
Brown solution turns pale green .
Fe2+ .
Fe3+ ions are reduced to Fe2+ ions
Mendakan hijau kotor tak larut dalam
larutan natrium hidroksida berlebihan. Fe2+
Mengesahkan kehadiran ion .
Dirty green precipitate insoluble in excess
Confirms the present of Fe2+ ions
AS
sodium hydroxide solution.
Perbincangan/ Discussion:
1. Berdasarkan pengoksidaan ion Fe2+ kepada Fe3+:
Based on oxidation of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ions
ions:
(a) Tuliskan persamaan setengah yang menunjukkan:
Write the half-equations to show:
(i) Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation: Fe2+  Fe3+ + e–
(ii) Penurunan/ Reduction: Br2 + 2e–  2Br-
(b) Nyatakan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi:

N
State the change in oxidation number for:
(i) Agen pengoksidaan/ Oxidising agent:
Air bromin (0 ke -1)/ Bromine water (0 to -1)
(ii) Agen penurunan/ Reducing agent:
Larutan ferum(II) sulfat (+2 ke +3)/ Iron(II) sulphate solution (+2 to +3)
PA
(c) Tuliskan persamaan ion keseluruhan bagi tindak balas redoks yang berlaku.
Write the overall ionic equation for the redox reaction that takes place.
2Fe2+ + Br2  2Fe3+ + 2Br-
2. Berdasarkan penurunan ion Fe3+ kepada ion Fe2+:

Based on reduction of Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ ions:
(a) Nyatakan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi:/ State the change of oxidation number for:
(i) Magnesium/ Magnesium: 0  +2
(ii) Ion ferum(III)/ Iron(III) ions: +3  +2
(b) Namakan agen pengoksidaan:/ Name the oxidising agent:

Larutan ferum(III) klorida/ Iron(III) chloride solution
(c) Namakan agen penurunan:/ Name the reducing agent:

Pita magnesium/ Magnesium ribbon
(d) Tuliskan persamaan ion keseluruhan bagi tindak balas redoks yang berlaku.
Write the overall ionic equation for the redox reaction that takes place.
2Fe3+ + Mg  2Fe2+ + Mg2+
10
C Tindak Balas Penyesaran Sebagai Tindak Balas Redoks
Displacement Reactions as Redox Reactions
I Penyesaran Logam daripada Larutan Garamnya/ Displacement of Metal from its Salt Solution
1. Logam yang berada pada kedudukan yang lebih atas dalam siri elektrokimia adalah lebih elektropositif.
A metal at a higher position in the electrochemical series is more electropositive.
2. Logam ini merupakan agen penurunan yang lebih kuat kerana mempunyai kecenderungan yang lebih
tinggi untuk melepaskan elektron.
It is a stronger reducing agent because it has a higher tendency to lose electrons.
IA
Logam Ion positif
Metal Positive ions
Ca Ca2+ + 2e–
Kecenderungan Mg Mg2+ + 2e–
logam untuk Al Al3+ + 3e–
melepaskan Zn Zn2+ + 2e–
elektron Fe Fe2+ + 2e–
Sn Sn2+ + 2e–
AS Tendency of metal
to lose electron Pb
Cu
Ag
Rajah/Diagram 1.2
Pb2+ + 2e–
Cu2+ + 2e–
Ag2+ + e–
3. Logam yang lebih elektropositif boleh menyesarkan logam yang kurang elektropositif daripada larutan
garamnya.
A more electropositive metals can displace a less electropositive metal from its salt solutions.
Contoh/ Example:
Kepingan zink dimasukkan ke dalam larutan kuprum(II) sulfat./ A zinc strip is placed in copper(II) sulphate solution.
N
(a) Persamaan kimia/ Chemical equation: Zn + CuSO4  Cu + ZnSO4
(b) Persamaan ion/ Ionic equation: Zn + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu
(c) Zink dioksidakan kerana nombor pengoksidaan bertambah daripada 0 ke +2
Zinc is oxidised because the oxidation number increases from 0 to +2.
(d) Cu2+ diturunkan kerana nombor pengoksidaan berkurang daripada +2 ke 0
PA
Cu2+ is reduced because oxidation number decreases from +2 ke 0

(e) Persamaan setengah pengoksidaan/ Oxidation half-equation: Zn  Zn2+ + 2e–
(f) Persamaan setengah penurunan/ Reduction half-equation: Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
Contoh/Example 6
Kepingan kuprum, Cu dimasukkan ke dalam larutan argentum nitrat, AgNO3.
A copper, Cu strip is placed in a silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution.
(a) Persamaan kimia/ Chemical equation: Cu + 2AgNO3  2Ag + Cu(NO3)2
(b) Persamaan ion/ Ionic equation: Cu + 2Ag+  Cu2+ + 2Ag
(c) Kuprum dioksidakan kerana nombor pengoksidaan bertambah daripada 0 ke +2.

Copper is oxidised because the oxidation number increases from 0 ke +2.
(d) Ag + diturunkan kerana nombor pengoksidaan berkurang daripada +1 ke 0 .
Ag is
+ is reduced because the oxidation number decreases from +1 ke 0 .
(e) Persamaan setengah/ Half-equation:
Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation – Hilang elektron/ Lose electrons
Cu  Cu 2+
+ 2e–
Penurunan/ Reduction – Terima elektron/ Gain electrons

Ag+ + e–  Ag
11
AKTIVITI 1.3
Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen Wajib
Mengkaji tindak balas penyesaran logam daripada larutan garamnya

To investigate the displacement reaction of metals from their salt solution
Bahan/ Materials:
Kepingan magnesium, kepingan zink, kepingan besi, kepingan stanum, kepingan plumbum, kepingan
kuprum, larutan garam nitrat 1.0 mol dm–3
Strips of magnesium, zinc, iron, tin, lead, copper, 1.0 mol dm–3 nitrate salt solutions
Radas/ Apparatus:
Tabung uji, rak tabung uji, penitis
Test tubes, test tube rack, droppers
IA
1. Aktiviti dijalankan secara berkumpulan.
The activity is carried out in groups.
2. Aktiviti dirancang dengan menggunakan bahan dan radas yang dibekalkan.
The activity is designed using the materials and apparatus provided.
3. Prosedur aktiviti yang dirancangkan ditulis.
The activity procedure that is planned is written.
4. Jadual untuk merekodkan pemerhatian dan menyatakan inferens dibina.
AS
A table to record the observations and state the inferences is constructed.
constructed.
N
Cu Pb Sn Fe Zn
Rajah/Diagram 1.3
Keputusan/ Result:
Tindak balas penyesaran yang berlaku ditandakan ((✓)/ The displacement reactions that occurs is marked (✓).
PA
Larutan garam nitrat

Nitrate salt solution
Cu(NO3)2 Pb(NO3)2 Sn(NO3)2 Fe(NO3)2 Zn(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2
Logam
Metals
Cu
Pb (A) ✓
Sn (B) ✓ (C) ✓
Fe (D) ✓ (E) ✓ (F) ✓
Zn (G) ✓ (H) ✓ (I) ✓ (J) ✓
Mg (K) ✓ (L) ✓ (M) ✓ (N) ✓ (O) ✓
12
1. Berdasarkan keputusan, lengkapkan jadual.
Based on the result, complete the table.
Persamaan setengah Persamaan setengah

Tindak balas Persamaan ion keseluruhan
pengoksidaan penurunan
Reaction Overall ionic equation
Oxidation half-equation Reduction half-equation
A Pb  Pb2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
penurunan pengoksidaan Pb + Cu2+  Pb2+ + Cu

Agen Agen
IA
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
B Sn  Sn2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
penurunan pengoksidaan Sn
S n + Cu2+  Sn2+ + Cu
Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
Agen
AS
Sn  Sn2+ + 2e–
penurunan
Reducing
agent
Agen
Pb2+ + 2e–  Pb
pengoksidaan
Oxidising
agent
Sn + Pb2+  Sn2+ + Pb
D Fe  Fe2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
penurunan pengoksidaan Fe + Cu2+  Fe2+ + Cu

Agen Agen
N
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
E Fe  Fe2+ + 2e– Pb2+ + 2e–  Pb
penurunan pengoksidaan Fe + Pb2+  Fe2+ + Pb

Agen Agen
PA
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
F Fe  Fe2+ + 2e– Sn2+ + 2e–  Sn
penurunan pengoksidaan Fe + Sn2+  Fe2+ + Sn

Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
G Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
penurunan pengoksidaan Zn + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu

Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
H Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– Pb2+ + 2e–  Pb
penurunan pengoksidaan Zn + Pb2+  Zn2+ + Pb

Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
13
I Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– Sn2+ + 2e–  Sn
penurunan pengoksidaan Zn + Sn2+  Zn2+ + Sn

Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
J Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– Fe2+ + 2e–  Fe
penurunan pengoksidaan Zn + Fe2+  Zn2+ + Fe

Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
IA
K Mg  Mg2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
penurunan pengoksidaan Mg + Cu2+  Mg2+ + Cu

Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
L Mg  Mg2+ + 2e– Pb2+ + 2e–  Pb
penurunan pengoksidaan
M
Agen
Reducing
AS
agent
Mg  Mg2+ + 2e–
Agen
Oxidising
Sn2+ + 2e–  Sn
agent
Mg + Pb2+  Mg2+ + Pb
penurunan pengoksidaan Mg + Sn2+  Mg2+ + Sn

Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
N Mg  Mg2+ + 2e– Fe2+ + 2e–  Fe

N
penurunan pengoksidaan Mg + Fe2+  Mg2+ + Fe
Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
PA
O Mg  Mg2+ + 2e– Zn2+ + 2e–  Zn
penurunan pengoksidaan Mg + Zn2+  Mg2+ + Zn

Agen Agen
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent
1. Logam yang lebih elektropositif dapat menyesarkan logam yang kurang
elektropositif daripada larutan garamnya.
more less
A electropositive metal can displace a electropositive metal from its salt solution.
2. Logam yang lebih elektropositif bertindak sebagai agen penurunan manakala ion bagi logam
yang kurang elektropositif bertindak sebagai agen pengoksidaan .
reducing
The more electropositive metal acts as the agent whereas the ions of less electropositive metal acts
oxidising
as the agent.
3. Susunan logam mengikut kereaktifan menaik:
Arrangement of metals in ascending order of reactivity:
Cu, Pb, Sn, Fe, Zn, Mg
14
III Penyesaran Halogen daripada Halidanya/ Displacement of Halogen from its Halide Solution
1. Unsur-unsur Kumpulan 17 dalam Jadual Berkala Unsur dikenali sebagai halogen. Contoh-contoh halogen
ialah fluorin, klorin, bromin dan iodin.
The elements in Group 17 of the Periodic Table Elements are called the halogens
halogens. Examples of halogens are fluorine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine.
2. Semua atom halogen mempunyai 7 elektron valens. Halogen merupakan agen pengoksidaan yang kuat
kerana atom halogen cenderung menerima satu elektron untuk mencapai susunan elektron oktet yang stabil.
All halogen atoms have 7 valence electrons. As a result, halogens are strong oxidising agents because they tend to
accept an electron to achieve a stable octet electron arrangement.
3. Halogen yang berada pada kedudukan lebih tinggi dalam kumpulan adalah lebih reaktif dan boleh
menyesarkan
IA
halogen yang berada pada kedudukan yang lebih rendah daripada larutan halidanya.
Halogens that located higher in the group are more reactive and can displace the halogens located
lower in the group from their halide solutions.
4. Kuasa halogen sebagai agen pengoksidaan berkurang apabila menuruni kumpulan.

The strength of halogen as oxidising agents decreases down the group.
Cl2
AS Br2
I2
Kuasa pengoksidaan berkurang
Oxidising power decreases
Rajah/Diagram 1.4
Contoh/Example 7
Air klorin boleh menyesarkan bromin daripada larutan kalium bromida, KBr. Klorin ialah agen pengoksidaan
manakala ion bromida, Br– mengalami pengoksidaan .

oxidising
N
Chlorine water can displace bromine from potassium bromide, KBr solution. Chlorine is an agent while bromide
ions, Br– undergo oxidation .
(a) Persamaan kimia/Chemical equation: Cl2 + 2KBr  2KCl + Br2
(b) Persamaan ion/ Ionic equation: Cl2 + 2Br–  2Cl– + Br2
PA
(c) Persamaan setengah/ Half-equation:

Penurunan / Reduction – Terima elektron/ Gain electrons
Cl2 + 2e–  2Cl–
Pengoksidaan / Oxidation – Hilang elektron/ Lose electrons
2Br  Br2 + 2e
– –
Contoh/Example 8
Air klorin boleh menyesarkan iodin daripada larutan kalium iodida, KI. Klorin ialah agen pengoksidaan
manakala ion iodida mengalami pengoksidaan.

Chlorine water can displace iodine from potassium iodide, KI solution. Chlorine is an oxidising agent while
iodide ions undergo oxidation.
(a) Persamaan kimia/Chemical equation: Cl2 + 2KI  2KCl + I2
(b) Persamaan ion/ Ionic equation: Cl2 + 2I–  2Cl– + I2

Penurunan/ Reduction – Terima elektron/ Gain electrons
Cl2 + 2e–  2Cl–

2I–  I2 + 2e–
15
Contoh/Example 9
Air bromin boleh menyesarkan iodin daripada larutan kalium iodida, KI. Bromin ialah agen pengoksidaan manakala
ion, I– iodida mengalami pengoksidaan .
Bromine water can displace iodine from potassium iodide, KI solution. Bromine is an oxidising agent while iodide ions, I–
undergo oxidation .
(a) Persamaan kimia/ Chemical equation: Br2 + 2KI  2KBr + I2
(b) Persamaan ion/ Ionic equation: Br2 + 2I–  2Br– + I2

Terima
IA
Penurunan/ Reduction – elektron/ Gain electrons
Br2 + 2e–  2Br–

2I–  I2 + 2e–
Tujuan/ Aim:
AS AKTIVITI 1.4
Mengkaji tindak balas penyesaran halogen daripada larutan halidanya.

Eksperimen Wajib
To investigate the displacement reaction of halogen from its halide solutions
Bahan/ Materials:
Larutan kalium klorida, KCl 1.0 mol dm–3, larutan kalium bromida, KBr 1.0 mol dm–3, larutan kalium iodida, KI
1.0 mol dm–3, air klorin, Cl2, air bromin, Br2, larutan iodin, I2, larutan 1,1,1-trikloroetana
N
1.0 mol dm–3 potassium chloride, KCl solution, 1.0 mol dm–3 potassium bromide, KBr solution, 1.0 mol dm–3 potassium
iodide, KI solution, chlorine water, Cl2, bromine water, Br2, iodine solution, I2, 1,1,1-trichloroethane solution
Radas/ Apparatus:
Tabung uji, rak tabung uji, penitis
Test tubes, test tube rack, droppers
PA
1. 2 cm3 larutan kalium klorida, KCl dituang ke dalam 3 buah tabung uji yang berasingan.
2 cm3 of potassium chloride, KCl solution is poured into 3 separate test tubes.
2. 2 cm3 larutan 1,1,1-trikloroetana ditambahkan ke dalam setiap tabung uji.
2 cm3 of 1,1,1-trichloroethane solution is added into each test tube.
3. Air klorin ditambahkan ke dalam tabung uji pertama, air bromin ditambahkan ke dalam tabung uji kedua
dan larutan iodin ditambahkan ke dalam tabung uji ketiga setitis demi setitis sehingga berlebihan dan
tiada perubahan lagi diperhatikan.
Chlorine water is added into the first test tube, bromine water is added into the second test tube and iodine solution
is added into the third test tube drop by drop until excess and until no more changes are observed.
4. Campuran digoncang dan kemudian dibiarkan pada rak tabung uji selama 3 minit.
The mixture is shaken and allow to stand in the test tube rack for 3 minutes.
5. Langkah 1 hingga 4 diulang dengan menggantikan larutan kalium klorida, KCl dengan larutan kalium
bromida, KBr dan larutan kalium iodida, KI.
Steps 1 to 4 are repeated by replacing potassium chloride, KCl solution with potassium bromide, KBr solution and
potassium iodide, KI solution.
6. Pemerhatian direkodkan.
The observations are recorded.
16
Keputusan/ Result:
Larutan halida
Halide solution Kalium klorida Kalium bromida Kalium iodida
Halogen Potassium chloride Potassium bromide Potassium iodide
Halogen
Klorin ✓ ✓
Chlorine
Bromin ✗ ✓
Bromine
IA
Iodin ✗ ✗
Iodine
1. Tuliskan persamaan setengah tindak balas larutan kalium iodida, KI dengan air bromin.
Write the half-equations for reactions of potassium iodide, KI solution with bromine water.
Br2 + 2e–  2Br–
2I–  I2 + 2e– AS
2. Tuliskan persamaan setengah tindak balas larutan kalium bromida, KBr dengan air klorin,.
Write the half-equations for reactions of potassium bromide, KBr solution with chlorine water.
Cl2 + 2e–  2Cl–
2Br-  Br2 + 2e–
3. Tuliskan persamaan ion keseluruhan bagi tindak balas larutan kalium iodida, KI dengan air klorin.
Write the overall ionic equation for reaction of potassium iodide, KI solution and chlorine water.
N
Cl2 + 2I–  2Cl– + I2
4. Campuran larutan kalium iodida, KI dan air bromin di dalam tabung uji membentuk dua lapisan selepas
digoncang.
Mixture of potassium iodide, KI solution and bromine water in test tube form two layers after shaken.
(a) Kenal pasti/ Identify:
PA
Iodin/ Iodine
(i) Lapisan atas/ Upper layer:
Kalium bromida/ Potassium bromide
(ii) Lapisan bawah/ Lower layer:
(b) Cadangkan satu ujian untuk mengenal pasti bahan dalam lapisan atas. Jelaskan.
Suggest a test to identify the substance in the upper layer. Explain.
Titiskan larutan kanji, mendakan biru tua terbentuk
Add drops of starch solution, dark blue precipitate formed
reaktif
5. Halogen yang lebih dapat menyesarkan halogen yang kurang reaktif daripada larutan
halidanya.
reactive
A more halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from its halide solution.
pengoksidaan
6. Halogen yang lebih reaktif bertindak sebagai agen manakala halogen yang kurang
penurunan
reaktif bertindak sebagai agen .
oxidising
The more reactive halogen acts as the agent whereas the less reactive halogen acts as the
reducing
agent.
7. Susunan halogen mengikut kereaktifan menaik.

Arrangement of halogens in ascending order of reactivity.
Iodin, bromin, klorin/ Iodine, bromine, chlorine
17
Uji Kendiri 1.1
1. Nyatakan definisi bagi agen penurunan.
State the definition of a reducing agent.
Agen penurunan ialah bahan yang menurunkan bahan lain. Dalam tindak balas redoks, agen penurunan mengalami
pengoksidaan.
A reducing agent reduces a substance. It is oxidised in the redox reaction.
2. Rajah 1.5 menunjukkan susunan radas bagi mengkaji pengoksidaan dan penurunan berdasarkan pemindahan elektron
pada satu jarak.
Diagram 1.5 shows the apparatus set-up to investigate the oxidation and reduction based on the transfer of electron at a distance.
IA
G
Karbon P Karbon Q
Carbon P Carbon Q
Larutan kalium Air bromin

AS iodida Bromine water
Potassium iodide
solution
Asid sulfurik
Sulphuric acid
Rajah/Diagram 1.5
(a) Tuliskan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi bromin dan iodin dalam tindak balas itu.
Write the change in oxidation number for bromine and iodine in the reaction.
Iodin/ Iodine Bromin/ Bromine

N
–1  0 0  –1
(b) Tuliskan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi tindak balas.

Write the changes in oxidation number for the reaction.
PA
Br2 + 2I–  2Br– + I2
0 –1 –1 0
3. Hitung nombor pengoksidaan mangan, Mn dan namakan sebatian mengikut penamaan IUPAC.
Calculate the oxidation number for manganese, Mn and name the compound according to the IUPAC nomenclature.
KMnO4 MnO2 Mn2O3
+1 + x + 4(–2) = 0 x + 2(–2) = 0 2x + 3(–2) = 0,
x = +7 x = +4 2x = +6
x = +3
Kalium manganat(VII) Mangan(IV) oksida Mangan(III) oksida

Potassium manganate(VII) Manganese(IV) oxide Manganese(III) oxide
18
4. Rajah 1.6 menunjukkan suatu tindak balas penyesaran.
Diagram 1.6 shows a displacement reaction.
Serbuk logam
Metal powder
Kuprum(II) sulfat
Copper(II) sulphate
IA
Rajah/Diagram 1.6
Namakan logam yang dapat menyebabkan keamatan warna biru larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 berkurang. Jelaskan.
Name the metal that can cause the intensity of blue colour of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution to decrease. Explain.
Magnesium atau zink. Logam yang berada di atas kuprum dalam siri elektrokimia mampu menyesarkan kuprum
daripada larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4. Penurunan kepekatan ion Cu2+ akan menyebabkan keamatan warna
biru larutan berkurang.
AS
Magnesium or zinc. Metals located higher than copper in the electrochemical series can displace copper from copper(II)
sulphate, CuSO4 solution. The decrease of Cu2+ ions concentration will cause the intensity of blue colour of the solution to
decrease.
1.2 Keupayaan Elektrod Piawai

Standard Electrode Potential
N
A Keupayaan Elektrod Piawai
Standard Electrode Potential
1. Beza keupayaan merentasi terminal sel ketika arus sifar (tiada beban) akan bertindak sebagai penggerak atau
“tekanan elektrik” yang menolak elektron melalui litar luar . Beza keupayaan ini disebut sebagai daya
PA
gerak elektrik, d.g.e. atau daya keupayaan sel, Esel.

The potential difference across the cell terminals when zero current (no load) will act as a mover or “electric pressure” that
pushes electrons through the external circuit . This potential difference is referred as electromotive force, emf or cell potential
force, Ecell.
2. Nilai d.g.e sel yang diukur pada keadaan piawai disebut sebagai keupayaan elektrod piawai , E0sel
The emf value of a cell measured at standard conditions is referred as standard electrode potential , E0cell
3. Keadaan piawai bagi sel/ Standard condition for cells:

(a) kepekatan akueus ion 1.0 mol dm-3/ aqueous concentration of ions 1.0 mol dm-3
(b) suhu 25 °C atau 298 K/ temperature 25 °C or 298 K
(c) tekanan 1 atm atau 101 kPa/ pressure of 1 atm or 101 kPa
(d) platinum digunakan sebagai elektrod lengai/ platinum is used as inert electrode
4. Dalam elektrokimia, keupayaan elektrod piawai, Eo ditakrifkan sebagai ukuran keupayaan elektrod , berbanding
sel hidrogen dengan elektrod platinum pada keadaan piawai dengan kepekatan akueus ion
1.0 mol dm –3
, suhu 25 °C dan tekanan 1 atm .
In electrochemistry, standard electrode potential, E0 is defined as the measure of electrode potential , compared
to hydrogen cell with platinum electrode at standard conditions with aqueous concentration of ions at
1.0 mol dm–3 , temperature 25 °C and pressure of 1 atm .
19
5. Tenaga keupayaan elektron dalam setiap setengah-sel adalah berbeza.
The electron potential energy in each half-cell is different.
Contoh/Example:
Dalam sel Daniell:/ In Daniell’s cell:
(a) Elektron dalam zink mempunyai tenaga keupayaan yang lebih tinggi berbanding kuprum. Maka, elektron akan
bergerak dari zink ke kuprum.
Electrons in zinc have a higher potential energy than copper. Thus, electrons will move from zinc to copper.
(b) Perbezaan tenaga keupayaan di antara dua elektrod menghasilkan d.g.e sel yang boleh diukur dalam unit Volt.
The potential energy difference between the two electrodes produces a measurable value of a cell emf in Volt units.
Voltmeter
Voltmeter
V
H2 pada 298K dan 1 atm Titian garam
IA
H2 at 298Kand 1 atm Salt bridge
Elektrod platinum Jalur zink
Platinum electrode Zink strip
Larutan asid, H+ 1.0 mol dm–3 Larutan Zn2+ 1

1.0
.0 mol dm–3
Acid solution,1.0 mol dm–3 H+ Solution of 1.0 mol dm–3 Zn2+
Rajah/Diagram 1.7
B
AS
Agen Pengoksidaan dan Agen Penurunan Berdasarkan Nilai Keupayaan Elektrod Piawai
Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent Based on Standard Electrode Potential Values
1. Siri elektrokimia ialah satu siri unsur yang disusun mengikut nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai .
Electrochemical series is a series of elements arranged according to standard electrode potential values.
2. Elektrod hidrogen dianggap mempunyai nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai sifar . Keupayaan elektrod
ditakrif dalam bentuk penurunan .
Hydrogen electrode is assumed to have zero standard electrode potential value. Electrode potential is defined in
N
the form of reduction .
(Pengoksidaan/
(Pengoksidaan/ Penurunan/
(Penurunan/
Oxidants) Reductants) E0 (V)
Kekuatan sebagai agen penurunan bertambah
Lithium Li+ + e–  Li
Litium/ Lithium: – 3.03
Strength as reducing agent increases
PA
Potassium: K + e–  K
Kalium/ Potassium: – 2.92
Kekuatan sebagai agen penurunan bertambah
Kalsium/ Calcium: Ca2+ + 2e–  Ca – 2.87

Strength as reducing agent increases
Natrium/ Sodium:: Na+ + e–  Na – 2.71

Magnesium/ Magnesium
Magnesium: Mg2+ + 2e–  Mg – 2.37
Aluminium/ Aluminium
Aluminium: Al3+ + 3e–  Al – 1.66
Zinc Zn2+ + 2e–  Zn
Zink/ Zinc: – 0.76
Ferum/ Iron: Fe2+
+ 2e  Fe
–
– 0.44
Plumbum/ Lead: Pb 2+
+ 2e  Pb
–
– 0.13
Hidrogen/ Hydrogen: 2H+ + 2e–  H2 0.00
Kuprum/ Copper: Cu 2+
+ 2e  Cu
–
+ 0.34
Argentum/ Silver: Ag+ + e–  Ag + 0.80
Aurum/ Gold: Au3+ + 3e–  Au + 1.50
Rajah/Diagram 1.8
3. Semakin positif nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E0, semakin mudah sesuatu atom atau ion mengalami
penurunan , iaitu sebagai agen pengoksidaan yang kuat.
The more positive the standard electrode potential, E0 value, the easier an atom or ion undergoes reduction , that is as
a strong oxidising agent.
20
4. Semakin negatif nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E0, semakin mudah sesuatu atom atau ion mengalami
pengoksidaan , iaitu sebagai agen penurunan yang kuat.
The more negative the standard electrode potential, E0 value, the easier an atom or ion undergoes oxidation , that is as
a strong reducing agent.
Voltan sel/ Cell voltage, E0sel/cell = E0katod/cathode – E0anod/anode
Contoh/ Example:
Jadual di bawah menunjukkan tiga pasangan logam dalam sel voltan.
Table below shows three pair of metals in voltage cell.
IA
Pasangan logam Beza keupayaan Terminal negatif/
Pair of metals Potential difference (V) Negative terminal
W–Z 1.8 Z
X–W 0.4 X
X–Y 1.0 X
Hitung beza keupayaan bagi sel voltan itu apabila pasangan logam Y dan logam Z digunakan.
AS
Calculate the potential difference for a voltage cell if the pair used is metal Y and metal Z.
Penyelesaian/ Solution:
Z
1.8
1.4 1.4
X
0.4
W
1.0
N
Y 0.6 0.6
Beza keupayaan antara terminal negatif bertambah dengan jarak antara logam dalam siri elektrokimia.
The potential difference between negative terminals increases with the distance between metals in the electrochemical series.
Beza keupayaan/ Potential difference = 1.4 + 0.6

PA
= 2.0 V
Uji Kendiri 1.2

1 Merujuk pada nilai E0 pada Rajah 1.8, pasangan logam manakah yang menghasilkan voltan tertinggi dalam sebuah sel
voltan? Hitungkan nilai daya keupayaan sel, Esel bagi pasangan logam.
Referring to E0 value in Daigram 1.8, which pair of metals produces the highest voltage in a voltage cell? Calculate the cell
potential force, Ecell for the pair of metal.
Zink/Zinc – Argentum/Silver
Magnesium/Magnesium – Plumbum/Lead
Aluminium/Aluminium – Zink/Zinc
Magnesium/Magnesium – Ferum/Iron
Magnesium-Plumbum. Pasangan logam yang paling jauh jarak antara satu sama lain dalam siri elektrokimia.
Magnesium-Lead. Pair of metals the farthest away from each other in the electrochemical series.
E0sel/cell = E0 katod/cathode – E0 anod/anode

= -0.13 – (-2.37)
= 2.24 V
21
1.3 Sel Kimia
Voltaic Cell
A Tindak Balas Redoks dalam Sel Kimia

Redox Reaction in Voltaic Cells
1. Sebuah sel kimia ringkas terdiri daripada dua logam berlainan yang dicelup ke dalam suatu elektrolit
dan disambung kepada galvanometer/ voltmeter yang mencatatkan bacaan.
A simple voltaic cell consists of two different metals which are immersed into an electrolyte and connected to the
galvanometer/ voltmeter that records a reading.
2. Tindak balas redoks yang berlaku dalam sel kimia akan menghasilkan tenaga elektrik.
Redox reaction that occurs in a voltaic cell will produce electricity.
IA
Contoh/Example 1
Elektrod zink dan kuprum dalam asid sulfurik, H2SO4 cair. V

Zinc and copper electrodes in dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4.
Elektrod kuprum Elektrod zink

Copper electrode Zinc electrode
AS Asid sulfurik, H2SO4
Dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4
Rajah/Diagram 1.9
(a) Terminal negatif (anod) dan terminal positif Negatif/ Negative:

(katod) Zink (agen penurunan yang lebih kuat sebagai sumber elektron)
The negative terminal (anode) and positive Zinc (a stronger reducing agent as the source of electrons)
terminal (cathode).
Positif/ Positive:
N
Kuprum/ Copper
(b) Persamaan setengah bagi tindak balas di Negatif/ Negative:

terminal negatif dan terminal positif Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
Half-equations for reactions at the negative and
Positif/ Positive:
positive terminals
PA
2H+ + 2e–  H2 (Penurunan/ Reduction)
(c) Hasil yang terbentuk di terminal negatif Negatif/ Negative:

dan terminal positif Ion zink/ Zinc ions
Products formed at the negative and positive
terminals Positif/ Positive:
Gas hidrogen/ Hydrogen gas
(d) Pemerhatian di terminal negatif

dan Negatif/ Negative:
terminal positif Elektrod zink menipis/ Zinc electrode becomes thinner
Observations at the negative and positive Positif/ Positive:
terminals Gelembung gas tidak berwarna/ Colourless gas bubbles
(e) Arah pengaliran elektron dalam litar luar Dari/ From:

Direction of electron flow in the outer circuit Zink/ Zinc
Kepada/ To:
Kuprum/ Copper
Nilai voltan/ Voltage value:

(f) E0sel/cell = E0 katod/cathode – E0 anod/anode
0.34 – (-0.76) = 1.1 V
22
Contoh/Example 2
Elektrod magnesium dan ferum dalam asid sulfurik, H2SO4 cair.

Magnesium and iron electrodes in dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4.
(a) Terminal negatif (anod) dan positif (katod) Negatif/ Negative:

The negative terminal (anode) and the positive Magnesium (agen penurunan yang lebih kuat)
terminal (cathode)
Magnesium (a stronger reducing agent)
Positif/ Positive:
Ferum/ Iron
IA
terminal negatif dan terminal positif Mg  Mg2+ + 2e–
Half-equations for reactions at the negative and (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
positive terminals Positif/ Positive:

dan terminal positif
terminals
(d) Pemerhatian di
terminal positif
terminal
Observations at the negative and positive

AS
Ion magnesium/ Magnesium ion
Positif/ Positive:
negatif
dan Negatif/ Negative:

Elektrod magnesium menipis
terminals Magnesium electrode becomes thinner
Positif/ Positif:
Gelembung gas tidak berwarna
N
Colourless gas bubbles

Direction of electron flow in the outer circuit Magnesium/ Magnesium
Kepada/ To:
PA
Ferum/ Iron
Nilai voltan / Voltage value:

(f) E0sel/cell = E0 katod/cathode – E0 anod/anode
-0.44 – (-2.37) = 1.93 V
Tip SPM
Voltan sel bertambah apabila beza upaya antara dua elektrod logam bertambah iaitu apabila jarak antara dua elektrod logam
semakin jauh dalam siri elektrokimia.
Tip SPM
Cell voltage increases when the potential difference between the two metal electrodes increases, that is the distance of the two metal electrodes
are farther in the electrochemical series.
2. Dalam sel Daniell, elektrod zink direndam ke dalam larutan zink sulfat , manakala
elektrod kuprum direndam ke dalam larutan kuprum (II) sulfat . Dua larutan itu
dipisahkan dengan pasu berliang .
In the Daniell cell, zinc electrode is immersed into zinc sulphate solution while copper
electrode is immersed into copper (II) sulphate solution . The two solutions are separated by
a porous pot .
23
Suis Voltmeter
Switch Voltmeter
V
Elektrod kuprum Elektrod zink

Copper electrode Zinc electrode
Larutan zink sulfat

Zinc sulphate
Larutan kuprum(II) solution
sulfat
Pasu berliang
Copper(II) sulphate
Porous pot
solution
Rajah/Diagram 1.10
IA
(katod) Elektrod zink (agen penurunan yang lebih kuat)
The negative terminal (anode) and positive Zinc electrode (a stronger reducing agent)
(cathode) Positif/ Positive:
Elektrod kuprum/ Copper electrode
terminal negatif dan terminal positif Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation
Oxidation)
Half-equations for reactions at the negative and Positif/ Positive:
positive terminals Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu (Penurunan/ Reduction)
AS Ion zink/ Zinc ion
Products formed at the negative and positive Positif/ Positive:
terminals Logam kuprum/ Copper metal
(d) Pemerhatian di terminal negatif dan Negatif/ Negative:
terminal positif Elektrod zink menjadi semakin nipis/ Zinc electrode becomes thinner.
Observations at the negative and positive Positif/ Positive:
terminals. Elektrod kuprum menebal/ Copper electrode becomes thicker
thicker.
Direction of electron flow in the outer circuit Zink/Zinc
Kepada/ To:
N
Kuprum/ Copper
(f) Perubahan warna elektrolit Keamatan warna biru larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 berkurang
Change in the colour of electrolyte kerana kepekatan ion Cu2+ berkurang.
Intensity of blue colour of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution decreases
because the concentration of Cu2+ ions decreases.
PA
(g) E0sel/cell = E0 katod/cathode – E0 anod/anode

0.34 – (-0.76) = 1.1 V
Ek stra
Ekstra Tip
Sel Daniell hanya menggunakan zink dan kuprum sebagai elektrod.
Daniell cell only use copper and zinc as electrodes.
3. Sel kimia boleh dibina menggunakan pasangan elektrod logam berlainan jenis dalam larutan akueus masing-
masing dan disambungkan dengan titian garam.
Voltaic cell (chemical cell) can be constructed using two different types of metal electrodes in their respective aqueous solutions
and connected by a salt bridge.
V
Titian garam
Salt bridge
Logam A Logam B
Metal A Metal B
Larutan akueus Larutan akueus

garam A garam B
Aqueous Aqueous solution
solution of salt A of salt B
Rajah/Diagram 1.11
24
Contoh/Example 3
Elektrod ferum dalam larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO4 dan elektrod kuprum dalam larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4.
Iron and copper electrodes in iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 and copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solutions respectively
Fe l Fe2+ ll Cu2+ l Cu

(katod) Ferum agen (penurunan yang lebih kuat)
The negative terminal (anode) and the positive
Iron (a stronger reducing agent)
IA
terminal (cathode)
Positif/ Positive:
Kuprum/ Copper

terminal negatif dan terminal positif Fe  Fe2+ + 2e–
Half-equations for the reactions at the negative (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
and positive terminals
AS Positif/ Positive:

Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
Ion ferum(II)/ Iron(II) ions

(Penurunan/ Reduction)

Logam kuprum/ Copper metal
N
terminal positif Elektrod ferum menipis/ Iron electrode becomes thinner
Elektrod kuprum menebal/ Copper electrode becomes thicker
PA
(e) Arah pengaliran elektron dalam litar luar Dari/ From

From:
Direction of electron flow in the outer circuit Ferum/ Iron
Kepada/ To:
Kuprum/ Copper
(f) Perubahan warna elektrolit Keamatan warna biru larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4
Change in the colour of electrolyte berkurang berkurang
kerana kepekatan ion Cu2+ .
Intensity of blue colour of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution decreases
because the concentration of Cu2+ ions decreases .

(g) E0sel/cell = E0 katod/cathode – E0 anod/anode 0.34 – (-0.44)
= 0.78 V
25
AKTIVITI 1.5
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengenal pasti anod dan katod serta menentukan nilai voltan menggunakan sel Daniell dan sel kimia ringkas
Eksperimen Wajib
To identify anode and cathode and to determine the voltage value by using a Daniell cell and a simple voltaic cell
Bahan/ Materials:
Kepingan magnesium, zink, plumbum dan kuprum dan larutan garam 1.0 mol dm–3, larutan natrium nitrat,
NaNO3 1.0 mol dm–3, kertas turas, kertas pasir
Strips of magnesium, zinc, lead and copper metals, 1.0 mol dm–3 salt solutions, 1.0 mol dm–3 sodium nitrate, NaNO3
solution, filter paper, sand paper
Radas/ Apparatus:
Bikar, voltmeter, wayar penyambung dengan klip buaya, gunting, kertas turas, pasu berliang
Beaker, voltmeter, connecting wires with crocodile clips, scissors, filter paper, porous pot
IA
A Sel Daniell/ Daniell cell
1. Kepingan zink dan kuprum dibersihkan dengan kertas pasir.
Zinc and copper strips are cleaned by using the sand paper.
2. Larutan zink sulfat, ZnSO4 dan larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 dituang ke dalam dua bikar berasingan
sehingga separuh penuh.
Zinc sulphate, ZnSO4 and copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solutions are poured into two separate beakers until half full.
3. Hujung kedua-dua jalur kertas turas yang telah direndam dalam larutan natrium nitrat, NaNO3 dicelup ke
AS
dalam larutan zink sulfat, ZnSO4 dan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 masing-masing di dalam bikar.
Both ends of the filter paper strip which is damped with sodium nitrate, NaNO4 solution is immersed into zinc
sulphate, ZnSO4 and copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solutions respectively in the beakers.
4. Kepingan zink dan kuprum disambungkan kepada voltmeter.
Zinc and copper strips are connected to the voltmeter.
5. Kepingan zink dan kuprum dicelupkan ke dalam larutan garam masing-masing.
Zinc and copper strips are immersed into their salt solutions respectively.
6. Pemerhatian direkodkan di dalam jadual.
Observations is recorded in a table.
Keputusan/ Result:
N
Elektrod Zink Kuprum
Electrode Zinc Copper
Nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E° (V) -0.76 +0.34

Standard electrode potential, E° value (V)
PA
Logam disambungkan pada terminal positif dan

terminal negatif voltmeter Negatif Positif
Metals connected to the positive and negative Negative Positive
terminals of voltmeter
Persamaan setengah bagi tindak balas Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu

Half-equations for the reactions
Pengoksidaan atau penurunan Pengoksidaan Penurunan

Oxidation or reduction Oxidation Reduction
Logam yang bertindak sebagai anod dan katod Anod Katod

Metal that acts as anode and cathode Anode Cathode
B Sel Kimia Ringkas/ Simple Voltaic Cell

1. Activiti dijalankan secara berkumpulan.
The activiti is carried out in groups.
2. Susunan radas berlabel bagi sel kimia yang akan dibina dilukiskan.
A labelled apparatus set-up of the voltaic cell that will be constructed is drawn.
26
3. Susunan radas yang telah dilukis digunakan untuk membina dua sel kimia yang berlainan.
The apparatus set-up that has been drawn is used to construct two different voltaic cells.
4. Terminal positif, negatif dan voltan sel kimia yang dibina direkodkan dalam jadual.
The positive terminal, negative terminal and voltage of the voltaic cells built are recorded in a table.
Keputusan/ Result:
Elektrod Magnesium Kuprum

Electrode Magnesium Copper
Nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E° (V) -2.37 +0.34

IA
Logam disambungkan kepada terminal positif dan
terminal negatif voltmeter Negatif Positif
Metals connected to the positive and negative terminals Negative Positive
of voltmeter
Persamaan setengah bagi tindak balas Mg  Mg2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu

Half-equation for the reactions
Pengoksidaan atau penurunan

Oxidation or reduction AS
Logam yang bertindak sebagai anod dan katod
Metal that acts as anode and cathode
Pengoksidaan
Oxidation
Anod
Anode
Penurunan
Reduction
Katod
Cathode
Elektrod Zink Kuprum

Electrode Zinc Copper
N
Nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E°(V) -0.76 +0.34
Logam disambungkan kepada terminal positif dan

terminal negatif voltmeter. Negatif Positif
PA
Metals connected to the positive and negative terminals Negative Positive

of voltmeter
Persamaan setengah bagi tindak balas Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu

Half-equation for reactions
Pengoksidaan atau penurunan Pengoksidaan Penurunan/

Oxidation or reduction Oxidation Reduction
Logam yang bertindak sebagai anod dan katod Anod Katod

Metal that acts as anode and cathode Anode Cathode

pengoksidaan
1. Anod ialah elektrod di mana berlaku (ion negatif kehilangan elektron) dan katod ialah
penurunan
elektrod di mana berlaku (ion positif menerima elektron).
oxidation
Anode is the electrode where takes place (negative ions lose electrons) and cathode is the
reduction
electrode where takes place (positive ions gain electrons).
anod katod
2. Nilai E° negatif ialah manakala nilai E° positif ialah .
anode cathode
Negative value of E° is the while positive value of E° is the .
27
Uji Kendiri 1.3
Lengkapkan yang berikut bagi sel kimia yang dibina menggunakan elektrod magnesium dalam larutan magnesium nitrat,
Mg(NO3)2 dan elektrod kuprum dalam larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 yang disambungkan dengan titian garam.
Complete the following for chemical cell that is constructed using magnesium and copper electrodes in magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2
and copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solutions respectively connected by a salt bridge.
(a) Terminal negatif (anod) dan terminal Negatif/ Negative:

positif (katod) Magnesium (agen penurunan yang lebih kuat)
The negative terminal (anode) and positive
terminal (cathode) Magnesium (a stronger reducing agent)
Positif/ Positive:
Kuprum/ Copper
IA
terminal negatif dan terminal positif Mg  Mg2+ + 2e–
Half-equations for reactions at the negative (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
and positive terminals Positif/ Positive:
Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu (Penurunan/ Reduction)
terminals
AS
dan terminal positif Ion magnesium/ Magnesium ions
Positif/ Positive:
Atom kuprum/ Copper atoms

terminal positif Elektrod magnesium menipis/ Magnesium electrode becomes thinner
Elektrod kuprum menebal/ Copper electrode becomes thicker
N

Direction of electron flow in the outer circuit Magnesium/ Magnesium
Kepada/ To:
PA
Kuprum/ Copper
(f) Perubahan warna elektrolit Keamatan warna biru larutan kuprum(II) sulfat,
Change in the colour of electrolyte berkurang
CuSO4 kerana kepekatan ion Cu2+
berkurang .
Intensity of blue colour of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution
decreases because the concentration of Cu2+ ions
decreases .

(g) E0sel/cell = E0 katod/cathode – E0 anod/anode
0.34 – (-2.37) = 2.71 V
28
1.4 Sel Elektrolisis
Electrolytic Cell
A Elektrolisis
Electrolysis
1. Elektrolisis ialah proses pertukaran tenaga elektrik kepada tenaga kimia .

Electrolysis is a process of electrical energy converted to chemical energy.
2. Elektrolit ialah bahan yang boleh mengkonduksikan arus elektrik dalam keadaan leburan atau
akueus dan mengalami perubahan kimia .
IA
Electrolytes are substances that can conduct electricity in molten or aqueous states and undergo
chemical changes .
3. Kekonduksian elektrik bagi elektrolit adalah disebabkan kehadiran ion-ion yang bergerak bebas .
Electrical conductivity of electrolyte is due to the presence of free moving ions .
(a) Dalam keadaan leburan, hanya kation dan anion elektrolit sahaja yang hadir.
In a molten state, only cation and anion of the electrolyte are present.
turut hadir. AS
(b) Dalam larutan akueus, selain daripada kation dan anion elektrolit, ion
In an aqueous solution, apart from the cation and anion of the electrolyte,
4. Bukan elektrolit terdiri daripada molekul-molekul kovalen

H+
H+
and
. Bukan elektrolit tidak mengalami sebarang

perubahan kimia kerana tidak mengandungi ion-ion yang bergerak bebas
dan
OH–
OH– daripada air
ions are also present.
Non-electrolytes are composed of molecules . There are no free moving ions. Hence, non-electrolytes will not
undergo any chemical changes.
5. Konduktor ialah bahan yang boleh mengkonduksikan arus elektrik dalam keadaan pepejal atau
N
leburan tetapi tidak mengalami sebarang perubahan kimia .
Conductors are substances that can conduct electricity in solid or molten states but do not undergo
any chemical changes .
pengaliran elektron
PA
6. Kekonduksian elektrik bagi konduktor adalah disebabkan oleh .

Electrical conductivity of conductor is due to the flow of electrons .
AKTIVITI 1.6
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengelaskan bahan kepada elektrolit dan bukan elektrolit
Eksperimen Wajib
To classify substances into electrolytes and non-electrolytes
Bahan/ Materials:
Pepejal plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2, asetamida, CH3CONH2, sulfur, larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH, larutan
gula, larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4
Solid lead(II) bromide, PbBr2, acetamide, CH3CONH2, sulphur, sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution, sugar solution,
copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution
Radas/Apparatus:
Elektrod karbon dan pengapit, wayar penyambung dengan klip buaya, tungku kaki tiga, penunu Bunsen, alas
segi tiga tanah liat, mangkuk pijar, bikar 100 cm3, bateri, mentol, suis
Carbon electrodes with holders, connecting wires with crocodile clips, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, pipe-clay triangle,
crucible, 100 cm3 beaker, batteries, bulb, switch
29
A Bahan leburan/ Molten substances
Bateri
Battery
Suis Mentol
Switch Bulb
Elektrod
Mangkuk
Electrodes
pijar
Crucible
Pepejal
Alas segi tiga plumbum(II)
tanah liat bromida, PbBr2
Pipe-clay Solid lead(II)
triangle Panaskan bromide, PbBr2
Heat
IA
Rajah/Diagram 1.12
1. Pepejal plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2 diisi ke dalam sebuah mangkuk pijar sehingga separuh penuh.
Solid lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 is filled in a crucible until it is half full.
2. Dua elektrod karbon dimasukkan ke dalam pepejal plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2.
Two carbon electrodes are put into the solid lead(II) bromide, PbBr2.
3. Litar dilengkapkan dengan menyambung kedua-dua elektrod kepada suis, mentol dan bateri seperti
ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.12. AS
The circuit is completed by connecting the electrodes to a switch, a bulb and batteries as shown in Diagram 1.12.
4. Pepejal plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2 dipanaskan sehingga lebur sepenuhnya.
The solid lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 is heated until it completely melts.
5. Suis dihidupkan. Perubahan pada mentol dan elektrod diperhatikan dan direkodkan.
The switch is turned on. Any changes at the bulb and electrodes are observed and recorded.
6. Langkah 1 hingga 5 diulang dengan menggantikan pepejal plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2 dengan asetamida,
CH3CONH2 dan sulfur, S8.
Steps 1 to 5 are repeated by replacing the solid lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 with acetamide, CH3CONH2 and sulphur, S8
respectively.
B Larutan akueus/ Aqueous solution

N
Bateri
Battery
Suis
Switch Mentol
PA
Bulb
Elektrod
Electrodes
Bikar
Beaker
Larutan natrium
hidroksida, NaOH
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
solution
Rajah/Diagram 1.13
1. 20 cm larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH dituangkan ke dalam sebuah bikar.
3
20 cm3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is poured into a beaker.

2. Dua elektrod dimasukkan ke dalam larutan itu.
Two electrodes are placed into the solution.
3. Litar dilengkapkan dengan menyambung kedua-dua elektrod kepada suis, mentol dan bateri seperti
ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.13.
The circuit is completed by connecting the electrodes to a switch, a bulb and batteries as shown in Diagram 1.13.
4. Suis dihidupkan. Perubahan pada mentol dan elektrod diperhatikan dan direkodkan.
The switch is turned on. Any observation is recorded.
5. Langkah 1 hingga 4 diulang dengan menggantikan larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH dengan larutan
gula, C6H12O6 dan larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4.
Steps 1 to 4 are repeated by replacing sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution with sugar, C6H12O6 solution and copper(II)
sulphate, CuSO4 solution respectively.
30
Keputusan/ Result:
Adakah mentol Adakah elektrod

Bahan
menyala? berubah?
Substance
Does the bulb light up? Does the electrode change?
Leburan plumbum(II) bromida/ Molten lead(II) bromide Ya/ Yes Ya/ Yes
Leburan asetamida/ Molten acetamide Tidak/ No Tidak/ No
Leburan sulfur/ Molten sulphur Tidak/ No Tidak/ No
IA
Larutan natrium hidroksida/ Sodium hydroxide solution Ya/ Yes Ya/ Yes
Larutan gula/ Sugar solution Tidak/ No Tidak/ No
Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat/ Copper(II) sulphate solution Ya/ Yes Ya/ Yes
1.
AS
Leburan plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2
larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4
apabila arus elektrik mengalir melaluinya.
Molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2
, larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH
adalah elektrolit dan mengalami perubahan kimia
,
sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution
dan
and
copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution
are electrolytes. They undergo chemical changes when
electric current is passed through them.
2. Leburan asetamida, CH3CONH2 , leburan sulfur dan larutan gula

adalah bukan elektrolit dan tidak mengalami sebarang perubahan kimia.
N
Molten acetamide, CH3CONH2 molten sulphur sugar solution
, and are
non-electrolytes. They do not undergo any chemical changes.
PA
B Elektrolisis Sebatian Leburan

Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
AKTIVITI 1.7
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengkaji elektrolisis leburan plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2 dengan elektrod karbon
Eksperimen Wajib
To investigate the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 with carbon electrodes
Bateri
Battery Awas/ Caution
• Jalankan aktiviti ini dalam
Suis Mentol
Switch Bulb kebuk wasap atau tempat
Elektrod yang terbuka.
Mangkuk
Electrodes Carry out the this activity in the
pijar
Crucible fume cupboard or in an open
Pepejal
Alas segi tiga plumbum(II) space.
tanah liat bromida, PbBr2 • Jangan hidu sebarang gas
Pipe-clay Solid lead(II)
triangle Panaskan bromide, PbBr2 yang terbebas.
Heat Do not inhale any gas liberated.
Rajah/Diagram 1.14
31
1. Susunan radas seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.14 disediakan.
The apparatus set-up as shown in Diagram 1.14 is prepared.
2. Plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2 dipanaskan dengan perlahan sehingga melebur.
Lead (II) bromide, PbBr2 is heated gently until all melted.
3. Pemanasan dihentikan selepas 10 minit dan leburan dituang ke dalam mangkuk pijar.
The heating is stop after 10 minutes and the molten substance is poured into a crucible.
Keputusan/ Result:
1. Apakah yang diperhatikan pada anod apabila plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2 mula melebur?
What is observed at the anode when lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 starts to melt?
Wap perang/ Brown fumes
2. Apakah yang termendap di dasar mangkuk pijar?

What is deposited at the base of the crucible?
IA
Manik kelabu kilat/ Shiny grey beads
3. Namakan hasil elektrolisis leburan plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2.

Name the products of electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide, PbBr2.
Logam plumbum dan wap bromin
Lead metal and bromine fumes
(a) Ion yang hadir dalam elektrolit

Ions present in the electrolyte
AS Pb2+, Br-
(b) Ion yang tertarik ke anod dan katod Anod/Anode (+):

Ions attracted to the anode and cathode Br-
Katod/Cathode (–):
Pb2+
N
(c) Persamaan setengah tindak balas di anod Anod/ Anode:
dan katod 2Br–  Br2 + 2e–
Half-equations for reactions at the anode and (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
cathode
Katod/ Cathode:
PA
Pb2+ + 2e–  Pb
(d) Hasil yang terbentuk di anod dan di Anod/ Anode:

katod Gas bromin
Products formed at the anode and cathode
Bromine gas
Katod/ Cathode:
Logam plumbum
Lead metal
(e) Pemerhatian di anod dan di katod Anod/ Anode:

Observations at the anode and cathode Gas perang
Brown gas
Katod/ Cathode:
Manik kelabu kilat
Shiny grey beads
32
Contoh/Example 1
Elektrolisis asid sulfurik, H2SO4 cair dengan elektrod karbon Tabung uji
Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 with carbon electrodes Test tube
Karbon elektrod
Carbon electrodes
Asid sulfurik, H2SO4 cair
Dilute sulphuric
acid, H2SO4
Suis
Switch A Ammeter
Ammeter
IA
Bateri
Battery
Rajah/Diagram 1.15

H+, SO42–, OH–
(b) Ion yang tertarik ke anod dan katod Anod/Anode (+):

AS
Ions attracted to the anode and cathode
(c) Ion yang dinyahcas di anod dan katod. Anod/ Anode:

SO42–, OH–
Katod/ Cathode (–):
H+
Nyatakan sebab. OH– . Nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E° lebih positif

Ions discharged at the anode and cathode. State the
reason. OH–. The standard electrode potential, E° value is more positive
Katod/ Cathode:
N
H+
(d) Persamaan setengah bagi tindak balas di anod Anod/ Anode:

dan katod 4OH–  2H2O + O2 + 4e–
cathode
PA
Katod/ Cathode:
2H+ + 2e–  H2 (Penurunan/Reduction)
(e) Hasil yang terbentuk di anod dan katod Anod/ Anode:

Products formed at the anode and cathode Gas oksigen/ Oxygen gas
Katod/ Cathode:
(f) Pemerhatian di anod dan katod Anod/ Anode:

Observations at the anode and cathode Gelembung gas tidak berwarna
Katod/ Cathode:
C Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Elektrolisis Larutan Akueus

Factors Affecting Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
I Nilai Keupayaan Elektrod Piawai, E°/ Standard Electrode Potential, E0 Value
Ion dengan nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E0 yang lebih positif akan dipilih untuk dinyahcas.
Ions with more positive standard electrode potential, E0 value will be selected for discharge.
33
Eksperimen 1.1
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengkaji Eksperimen
kesan nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E0 terhadap pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas pada elektrod
Eksperimen Wajib
To investigate the effect of the standard electrode, E0 value on selective discharge of ions at the electrodes
Penyataan masalah/ Problem statement:

Bagaimanakah nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E0 mempengaruhi pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas di elektrod?
How does the standard electrode potential, E0 value affect the selective discharge of ions at the electrodes?
Hipotesis/ Hypothesis:
Lebih positif nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai E° ion, lebih mudah ion dinyahcas secara pilihan.
The more positive the standard electrode potential, E0 value of an ion, the easier the ion to selectively discharged.
IA
Pemboleh ubah/ Variables:
(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E°/ Standard electrode potential, E0 value
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Hasil elektrolisis/ Products of electrolysis
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Jenis elektrod, kepekatan larutan elektrolit/ Types of electrode, concentration of electrolyte solution
Bahan/ Materials:
Radas/ Apparatus:
AS
Larutan asid sulfurik cair, H2SO4 1.0 mol dm–3, larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 1.0 mol dm–3, kayu uji
1.0 mol dm–3 dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4, 1.0 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution, wooden splinter
Sel elektrolitik, tabung uji, bateri, ammeter, elektrod karbon, wayar penyambung
Electrolytic cell, test tubes, batteries, ammeter, carbon electrodes, connecting wires
Tabung uji
Test tube
N
Karbon elektrod
Carbon electrodes
Asid sulfurik
sulfurik, H2SO4 cair
Dilute sulphuric
acid H2SO4
acid,
Suis
Switch A Ammeter
PA
Ammeter
Bateri
Battery
Rajah/Diagram 1.16
1. Larutan asid sulfurik cair, H2SO4 1.0 mol dm dituang ke dalam sel elektrolitik hingga menutupi elektrod karbon.
–3
1.0 mol dm–3 dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is poured into an electrolytic cell until it covers the carbon electrodes.
2. Tabung uji diisi dengan larutan asid sulfurik cair, H2SO4 1.0 mol dm–3 dan ditengkupkan ke atas elektrod karbon.
The test tubes are filled with 1.0 mol dm–3 dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 and overturn onto the carbon electrodes.
3. Elektrod karbon disambung kepada bateri dengan menggunakan wayar penyambung.
Carbon electrodes are connected to the batteries using the connecting wires.
4. Arus elektrik dialirkan melalui elektrolit selama 15 minit.
The electric current is passed through the electrolyte for 15 minutes.
5. Pemerhatian di anod dan katod direkodkan.
Observations at the anode and cathode is recorded.
6. Gas yang terkumpul di anod diuji dengan kayu uji berbara manakala gas yang terkumpul di katod diuji dengan
kayu uji menyala.
Gas collected at the anode is tested with a glowing wooden splinter while gas collected at the cathode is tested with a burning wooden
splinter.
7. Langkah 1 hingga 6 diulang dengan menggunakan larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 1.0 mol dm–3.
Steps 1 to 6 are repeated by using 1.0 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution.
34
Pemerhatian/ Observation:
Elektrolit Asid sulfurik cair, H2SO4 Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4
Electrolyte Dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4
Anod/Anode (+) Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak
berwarna menyebabkan kayu uji berbara berwarna menyebabkan kayu uji berbara
menyala menyala
Gas bubbles are released. Colourless gas ignites the Gas bubbles are released. A colourless gas ignites the
glowing wooden splinter. glowing wooden splinter.
4OH–  2H2O + O2 + 4e– 4OH–  2H2O + O2 + 4e–
IA
Katod/Cathode (–) Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak Pepejal perang terenap.
berwarna menghasilkan bunyi “pop” dengan Brown solid is deposited
kayu uji menyala.
Gas bubbles released. Colourless gas produces a “pop” Cu2+2+
+ 2e–  Cu
sound with the glowing wooden splinter.
2H+ + 2e–  H2
Kesimpulan/ Conclusion:
AS
Ion yang mempunyai nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E° lebih positif akan dipilih untuk dinyahcas di elektrod.
The ion that have more positive standard electrode potential, E0 value will be selectively discharge at the electrodes.
I Kepekatan Ion dalam Elektrolit/ Concentration of Ions in the Electrolyte

Ion yang mempunyai kepekatan lebih tinggi dalam elektrolit akan dipilih untuk dinyahcas.
Ions with higher concentration in the electrolyte will be selected for discharge.
N
Eksperimen 1.2
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengkaji Eksperimen
PA
kesan kepekatan ion dalam elektrolit terhadap pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas pada elektrod
Eksperimen Wajib
To investigate the effect of the concentration of ions on the selective discharge of ions at the electrodes

Bagaimanakah kepekatan ion dalam elektrolit mempengaruhi pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas di anod?
How does the concentration of ions in the electrolyte affect the discharge of ions at the anode?
Ion halida yang mempunyai kepekatan lebih tinggi akan dinyahcas secara pilihan di anod
Halide ions of higher concentrations will be selectively discharged at the anode

(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Kepekatan elektrolit/ Concentration of electrolyte
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Jenis elektrod, jenis elektrolit/ Types of electrode, type of electrolyte
Bahan/ Materials:
Asid hidroklorik, HCl 2.0 mol dm–3, asid hidroklorik, HCl 0.001 mol dm–3, kertas litmus biru, kayu uji
2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, 0.001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, blue litmus paper, wooden splinter
Radas/ Apparatus:
Sel elektrolisis, tabung uji, bateri, ammeter, elektrod karbon, wayar penyambung
Electrolytic cell, test tubes, batteries, ammeter, carbon electrodes, connecting wires
35
Tabung uji
Test tube Asid hidroklorik, HCl
Hydrochloric
acid, HCl
Karbon elektrod
Carbon electrodes
Bateri Suis
Ammeter A Battery Switch
Ammeter
Rajah/Diagram 1.17
1. Sebuah sel elektrolisis diisi dengan asid hidroklorik, HCl 2.0 mol dm–3 sehingga separuh penuh.
An electrolytic cell is filled with 2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl until it is half full.
IA
2. Litar dilengkapkan dengan menyambungkan elektrod karbon, suis, bateri dan ammeter dengan wayar penyambung
seperti dalam Rajah 1.17.
The circuit is completed by connecting the electrodes to the switch, ammeter and batteries as shown in Diagram 1.17.
3. Suis dihidupkan.
The switch is turned on.
4. Gas di anod dan di katod dikumpulkan dan diuji dengan kertas litmus biru lembap, kayu uji berbara dan kayu uji
menyala. Pemerhatian direkodkan.
AS
The gases produced at the anode and the cathode are collected and tested with a moist blue litmus paper, a glowing wooden splinter
and a lighted wooden splinter. The observation is recorded.
5. Langkah 1 hingga 4 diulang dengan menggunakan asid hidroklorik, HCl 0.001 mol dm–3.
Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using 0.001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl.
Elektrolit Asid hidroklorik, HCl 2.0 mol dm–3 Asid hidroklorik, HCl 0.001 mol dm–3
Electrolyte 2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl 0.001 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl
Anod/ Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas kuning Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak
N
Anode (+) kehijauan yang berbau sengit berwarna menyebabkan kayu uji
dibebaskan. Kertas litmus biru lembap menjadi berbara menyala .
merah dan kemudian dilunturkan .
Gas bubbles are released. A colourless
Gas bubbles are released. A greenish-yellow gas ignites
gas the glowing wooden
PA
with a pungent smell is released. Moist splinter.

blue litmus paper turns red and
then bleached .
Katod/ Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak
Cathode (–) berwarna menghasilkan bunyi berwarna menghasilkan bunyi
“pop” dengan kayu uji menyala. “pop” dengan kayu uji menyala.
Gas bubbles are released. A colourless Gas bubbles released. Colourless gas
gas produces a “pop” sound with the lighted produces a “pop” sound with the lighted
wooden splinter. wooden splinter.
1. Elektrolisis asid hidroklorik, HCl 0.001 mol dm–3 menghasilkan gas oksigen di anod manakala
elektrolisis asid hidroklorik, HCl 2.0 mol dm–3 menghasilkan gas klorin di anod.
Electrolysis of 0.001 mol dm hydrochloric acid, HCl produces
–3 oxygen gas at the anode. Electrolysis of 2.0 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid, HCl produces chlorine gas at the anode.
36
2. Ion halida yang berkepekatan tinggi di dalam elektrolit akan dipilih untuk dinyahcas.
Halide ion with a higher concentration in the electrolyte will be selectively discharged.
1. Asid hidroklorik, HCl 0.001 mol dm-3 dengan elektrod karbon
0.001 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl with carbon electrodes

H+, Cl–, OH–
(b) Ion yang tertarik ke anod dan katod. Anod/ Anode (+):
Ions attracted to the anode and cathode Cl–, OH–
IA
H+

Nyatakan sebab. OH– (lebih pekat daripada Cl–)
OH– (more concentrated than Cl–)
reason.
AS
(d) Persamaan setengah bagi tindak balas di Anod/ Anode:
anod dan katod
Half-equations for reactions at the anode and
Katod/ Cathode:
H+
4OH-  2H2O + O2 + 4e– (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)

cathode Katod/ Cathode:

Anod
Products formed at the anode and cathode
N
Gas oksigen/ Oxygen gas
Katod/ Cathode:
(f ) Pemerhatian di anod dan katod Anod/ Anode:

PA
Observations at the anode and cathode Gelembung gas tidak berwarna/ Colourless gas bubbles
Katod/ Cathode:
Gelembung gas tidak berwarna/ Colourless gas bubbles
2 Asid hidroklorik, HCl 2.0 mol dm-3 dengan elektrod karbon

2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl with carbon electrodes
H+, Cl–, OH–
(b) Ion yang tertarik ke anod dan katod Anod/ Anode:

Ions attracted to the anode and cathode Cl–, OH–
Katod/ Cathode:
H+

Nyatakan sebab. Cl– (lebih pekat daripada OH–)
Ions discharged at anode and cathode. State the
reason.
Cl– (more concentrated than OH–)
Katod/ Cathode:
H+
37
anod dan katod. 2Cl–  Cl2 + 2e–
2 H+ + 2e–  H2 (Penurunan/Reduction)

Products formed at the anode and cathode Gas klorin/ Chlorine gas
Katod/ Cathode:
IA
Observations at the anode and cathode Gelembung gas kuning kehijauan
Greenish-yellow gas bubbles
Katod/ Cathode:
III Jenis Elektrod/ Types of Electrode AS

1. Apabila elektrod aktif (argentum, kuprum, nikel atau merkuri) digunakan, anod aktif akan mengion.
When active electrodes (silver, copper, nickel or mercury) are used, active anode will ionise.
2. Kepekatan kation di dalam elektrolit tidak berubah kerana kadar pengionan atom logam di anod adalah
sama dengan kadar nyahcas ion logam di katod.
The concentration of cations in the electrolyte does not change because the rate of ionisation of metal at the anode is equal
to the rate of discharge of metal ion at the cathode.
Eksperimen 1.3
N
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengkaji Eksperimen
kesan jenis elektrod terhadap pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas di elektrod
Eksperimen Wajib
To investigate the effect of the types of electrode on the selective discharge of ions at the electrodes

PA
Bagaimanakah jenis elektrod mempengaruhi hasil yang terbentuk semasa elektrolisis?

How does the types of electrode affect the types of products formed during the electrolysis?
Apabila elektrod kuprum digunakan untuk menggantikan elektrod karbon, hasil yang terbentuk pada anod dan katod
adalah berbeza.
When copper electrodes are used instead of carbon electrodes, the types of products formed at the anode and cathode are different.
Bahan/ Materials:
Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 1.0 mol dm–3, kayu uji, kepingan logam kuprum, kertas pasir
1.0 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4, wooden splinter, copper metal plates, sand paper
Radas/ Apparatus:
Sel elektrolitik, tabung uji, bateri, ammeter, elektrod karbon, wayar penyambung, bikar
Electrolytic cell, test tubes, batteries, ammeter, carbon electrodes, connecting wires, beakers
Pemboleh ubah/Variables:
(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Jenis elektrod/ Types of electrode
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Kepekatan elektrolit, jenis elektrolit/ Concentration of electrolyte, types of electrolyte
38
Tabung uji
Test tube Larutan kuprum(II)
sulfat, CuSO4
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4
solution
Karbon elektrod
Carbon electrodes
Suis
Ammeter A
Switch
Ammeter
Bateri
IA
Battery
Rajah/Diagram 1.18
1. Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 dituangkan ke dalam bikar hingga separuh penuh.
Copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4 is poured into a beaker until half full.
2. Elektrod karbon disambungkan kepada bateri serta ammeter dengan menggunakan wayar penyambung seperti
yang ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.18.
Carbon electrodes are connected to the batteries and ammeter using the connecting wires as shown in Diagram 1.18.
3. Elektrod karbon dimasukkan ke dalam larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4.
AS
Carbon electrodes are immersed into the copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4.
4. Arus elektrik dialirkan melalui elektrolit selama 15 minit.
Electric current is passed through the electrolyte for 15 minutes.
5. Pemerhatian pada anod, katod dan elektrolit direkodkan.
Observations at the anode, cathode and electrolyte are recorded.
6. Langkah 1 hingga 5 diulang dengan menggantikan elektrod karbon dengan elektrod kuprum.
Steps 1 to 5 are repeated by replacing carbon electrodes with copper electrodes.
Pemerhatian/ Observations:
Elektrod Anod Katod Elektrolit
N
Electrode Anode (+) Cathode (–) Electrolyte
Karbon Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Pepejal perang Keamatan warna biru berkurang
Carbon Gas tidak berwarna terenap. kerana kepekatan ion Cu2+
menyebabkan kayu uji berbara Brown solid is berkurang
PA
.
menyala . deposited. decreases
The intensity of blue colour
Gas bubbles are released. A because the concentration of Cu2+
colourless gas ignites decreases
ions .
the glowing wooden splinter.
Kuprum Elektrod menipis . Elektrod menebal . Keamatan warna biru tidak berubah
Copper
Electrode becomes thinner Electrode becomes kerana kepekatan ion Cu2+ tidak
thicker . berubah .
.
The intensity of blue colour unchanged
because the concentration of Cu2+

ions remains unchanged .
1. Elektrolisis larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 dengan elektrod karbon menghasilkan oksigen dan
air di anod serta logam kuprum di katod.
Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution using carbon electrodes produces oxygen and water at
the anode and copper metal at the cathode.
39
2. Elektrolisis larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 dengan elektrod kuprum menghasilkan ion kuprum(II) di
anod dan logam kuprum di katod.
Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution using copper electrodes produces copper(II) ions at the anode and
copper metal at the cathode.
1. Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 dengan elektrod karbon
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution with carbon electrodes

Cu2+, H+, SO42–, OH-
IA
(b) Ion yang tertarik ke anod dan katod Anod/ Anode (+):
Ions attracted to the anode and cathode SO42–, OH–
Katod/ Cathode (–) :
Cu2+, H+

AS
Nyatakan sebab. OH– . Nilai Eo lebih positif
.
OH –
positive
reason. . Eo value more .
Katod/ Cathode:
Cu2+ . Nilai Eo lebih positif .
Cu 2+
positive
. Eo value more .

anod dan katod 4OH-  2H2O + O2 + 4e– (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
N
Half-equations for reactions at the anode and
PA

Products formed at the anode and cathode Gas oksigen/ Oxygen gas
Katod/ Cathode:
Logam kuprum/ Copper metal

Observation at the anode and cathode Gelembung gas tidak berwarna
Katod/ Cathode:
Pepejal perang terenap
Brown solid deposited
(g) Perubahan warna elektrolit Keamatan warna biru berkurang disebabkan kepekatan
Change in the colour of the electrolyte
ion Cu2+ berkurang .
The intensity of blue colour decreases because the concentration
of Cu2+ ions decreases .
40
2. Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 dengan elektrod kuprum
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution with copper electrodes
(a) Persamaan setengah bagi tindak balas di Anod/ Anode:

anod dan katod Cu  Cu2+ + 2e–
Half-equations of reactions at the anode and cathode (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
Katod/ Cathode:
(b) Hasil yang terbentuk di anod dan katod Anod/ Anode:
IA
Products formed at the anode and cathode Ion kuprum(II), Cu2+
Copper (II) ions, Cu2+
Katod/ Cathode:
Logam kuprum
Copper metal
(c) Pemerhatian di anod dan katod
AS
Observation at the anode and cathode
Anod/ Anode:
Elektrod kuprum menipis
Copper electrode becomes thinner
Katod/ Cathode:
Elektrod kuprum menebal
Copper electrode becomes thicker
(d) Perubahan warna elektrolit Keamatan warna biru kekal kerana kepekatan ion
Change in the colour of the electrolyte kekal tidak berubah
N
Cu 2+
.
Intensity of blue colour unchanged because the concentration of
Cu ions
2+ remains unchanged .
PA
D Membanding Sel Kimia dan Sel Elektrolisis

Comparing Voltaic Cell and Electrolytic Cell
I Tindak Balas Redoks dalam Sel Elektrolisis/ Redox Reactions in Electrolytic Cells
1. Sebuah sel elektrolisis terdiri daripada bateri, elektrolit dan dua elektrod yang disambung kepada bateri.
An electrolytic cell consists of a battery, an electrolyte and two electrodes which are connected to the battery.
Bateri
Battery
e–
e– e–
+ –
Anod Katod
Anode Cathode
–
– + +
Rajah/Diagram 1.19
2. Elektrod yang disambung kepada terminal positif bateri dikenali sebagai anod manakala elektrod
yang disambung kepada terminal negatif bateri dikenali sebagai katod .
The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is known as anode while the electrode connected
to the negative terminal of the battery is known as cathode .
41
3. Dalam sel elektrolisis, elektron mengalir melalui litar luar dari anod ke katod.
In an electrolytic cell, electrons are flowed from anode to cathode through the external circuit .
4. Semasa elektrolisis, anion (ion negatif) tertarik ke anod manakala kation (ion positif) tertarik
ke katod .
During electrolysis, anions (negative ions) are attracted to anode whereas cations (positive ions) are attracted
to cathode .
5. Di anod, anion dinyahcas dengan menderma elektron kepada anod. Oleh itu, proses
pengoksidaan berlaku di anod.
At the anode, anions are discharge by donating electrons to anode. Thus, oxidation occurs at anode.
6. Di katod, kation dinyahcas dengan menerima elektron daripada katod. Oleh itu, proses
penurunan berlaku di katod.
IA
At the cathode, cations are discharge by accepting electrons from cathode. Thus, reduction occurs at
cathode.
II Tindak Balas Redoks dalam Sel Kimia/ Redox Reactions in Voltaic Cells
1. Sebuah sel kimia ringkas terdiri daripada dua logam berlainan yang dicelup ke dalam suatu elektrolit dan
disambung dengan wayar penyambung
A simple voltaic cell consists of two different metals which are immersed into an electrolyte and connected by wire.
AS e–
Voltmeter
Voltmeter
V
e–
– +
Terminal e– Terminal
negatif (anod) e –
positif (katod)
Negative Positive
terminal (anode) terminal (cathode)
e – e–
e–
+
N
Rajah/Diagram 1.20
2. Logam yang lebih elektropositif bertindak sebagai terminal negatif (anod) manakala logam yang
kurang elektropositif bertindak sebagai terminal positif (katod).
The more electropositive metal acts as the negative terminal (anode) and the less electropositive metal acts as
PA
the positive terminal (cathode).

3. Logam yang lebih elektropositif akan menderma elektron. Elektron akan mengalir melalui litar luar
dari terminal negatif (anod) ke terminal positif (katod).
The more electropositive metal donates electrons. The electrons are flowed from negative terminal (anode) to
positive terminal (cathode) through the external circuit .
4. Di elektrod positif (katod), kation (ion positif) daripada elektrolit akan menerima elektron daripada
terminal positif (katod).
At the positive electrode (cathode), cations (positive ions) from the electrolyte will accept the electrons from
the positive terminal (cathode).
5. Di terminal negatif (anod), logam yang lebih elektropositif terkakis dengan menderma elektron. Oleh
itu, pengoksidaan berlaku di terminal negatif (anod).
At the negative terminal (anode), the more electropositive metal is corroded by donating electrons. Thus,
oxidation occurs at the negative terminal (anode).
6. Di terminal positif (katod), kation dalam elektrolit dinyahcas dengan menerima elektron daripada
katod. Oleh itu, penurunan berlaku di terminal positif (katod).
At the positive terminal (cathode), cations in the electrolyte are discharge by accepting electrons from cathode.
Thus, reduction occurs at the positive terminal (cathode).
42
Contoh/Example 2
Rajah 1.21 menunjukkan suatu sel kimia yang dibina dengan menggunakan elektrod zink dan kuprum. Kedua-dua elektrod
disambung kepada voltmeter dengan wayar penyambung dan litar dilengkapkan dengan titian garam.
Diagram 1.21 below show a voltaic cell constructed using zinc and copper electrodes. Both electrodes are connected to the voltmeter using
the connecting wires and the circuit is completed with a salt bridge.
e– Titian garam e–
Salt bridge
– +
IA
Larutan zink Larutan kuprum(II)
sulfat, ZnSO4 sulfat, CuSO4
Zinc sulphate, ZnSO4 Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4
solution solution
Rajah/Diagram 1.21
Zink yang merupakan agen penurunan lebih kuat daripada kuprum akan menjadi terminal negatif dengan
menderma elektron.
Kuprum akan menjadi terminal

Copper will become the positive
AS
Zinc which is a stronger reducing agent compared to copper will be the
Zn→ Zn2+ + 2e-
positif
terminal by
dengan
accepting
negative
menerima
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu (Penurunan/ Reduction)

electrons.
terminal by
(Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
elektron.
donating electrons.
III Perbezaan antara Sel Kimia dan Sel Elektrolisis/ Differences Between a Voltaic Cell and an Electrolytic Cell
N
Sel elektrolisis/ Electrolytic cell Sel kimia/ Voltaic cell
+ –
e–
e–
+ –
+ –
Elektrod
Elektrod
Electrodes
Electrodes
PA
Elektrolit
Elektrolit
Electrolyte
Electrolyte
Rajah/Diagram 1.22 Rajah/Diagram 1.23
Elektrod daripada bahan yang sama atau berbeza. Elektrod mesti daripada jenis logam berbeza .
The electrodes are from the same or different The electrodes must be from different types of
materials. metal.
Tenaga elektrik ditukar kepada tenaga kimia . Tenaga kimia ditukar kepada tenaga elektrik.
Electrical energy is converted to chemical energy . Chemical energy is converted to electrical energy.
Elektron mengalir daripada anod Elektron mengalir daripada logam lebih elektropositif
kepada katod melalui litar luar. kepada logam kurang elektropositif melalui litar luar.
Electrons flow from anode to anode Electrons flow from more electropositive metal to
through external circuit. less electropositive metal through external circuit.
Penurunan berlaku pada katod (–). Ion positif Penurunan berlaku pada katod (+). Ion positif
menerima elektron. menerima elektron.
Reduction occurs at cathode (-). Positive ions accept Reduction occurs at cathode (+). Positive ions accept
electrons. electrons.
43
Pengoksidaan berlaku di anod (+). Ion negatif Pengoksidaan
berlaku di anod (-). Logam lebih
menerima elektron. menderma
elektropositif terkakis dengan
Oxidation occurs at anode (+). Negative ions donate elektron untuk membentuk kation.
electrons. Oxidationoccurs at anode (-). More electropositive
metal corroded by donating electrons to form
cations.
E Penyaduran dan Penulenan Logam secara Elektrolisis

Electroplating and Purification of Metals by Electrolysis
I Penyaduran Logam/ Electroplating of Metals
IA
1. Dalam proses penyaduran, objek yang hendak disadur dijadikan katod manakala logam penyadur
yang tulen dijadikan anod .
In electroplating process, object to be electroplated is used as the cathode while the pure plating metal is used
as the anode .
2. Elektrolit yang digunakan ialah larutan akueus yang mengandungi ion logam penyadur .
The electrolyte used is an aqueous solution that contains the
AS plating metal ions.
3. Menyadur sudu besi dengan logam kuprum:/To electroplate an iron spoon with copper:
Kuprum sebagai logam penyadur

Copper metal as the plating metal
Sudu besi yang akan disadur

Iron spoon to be electroplated Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat sebagai elektrolit
Copper(II) sulphate solution as the electrolyte
N
Rajah/Diagram 1.24
(a) Sudu besi digunakan sebagai katod , manakala logam kuprum digunakan sebagai anod .
The iron spoon is used as the cathode , while copper metal is used as the anode .
(b) Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat digunakan sebagai elektrolit.

PA
Copper(II) sulphate solution is used as the electrolyte.
(c) Ion Cu2+ akan dinyahcas di katod dan terenap pada permukaan sudu besi.
Cu ions will be discharged at the
2+ cathode and deposited on the surface of the iron spoon.
Anod/ Anode: Cu  Cu + 2e2+ –
(Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
Katod/ Cathode: Cu + 2e  Cu
2+ –
II Penulenan Logam/ Purification of Metals

1. Kuprum dan perak tulen boleh diperoleh melalui elektrolisis.
Pure copper and silver can be obtained through electrolysis.
2. Menulenkan logam kuprum:/ To purify copper metal:
(a) Logam kuprum tidak tulen digunakan sebagai anod .
The impure copper metal is used as the anode .
(b) Logam tulen kuprum digunakan sebagai katod .
The pure copper metal is used as the cathode .
(c) Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat digunakan sebagai elektrolit.
Copper(II) sulphate solution is used as the electrolyte.
44
A
Logam kuprum tulen

+ –
Pure copper metal
Logam kuprum tidak tulen Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4

Impure copper metal sebagai elektrolit
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution
as the electrolyte
Rajah/Diagram 1.25
(d) Anod akan mengion dan kekotoran akan jatuh ke dasar bikar.
IA
The anode will ionise and the impurities will settle to the bottom of the beaker.
Anod/ Anode: Cu  Cu2+ + 2e– (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
(e) Ion Cu2+ dan H+ akan tertarik ke katod. Ion Cu2+ akan dinyahcas secara pilihan di katod. Lapisan
secara
kuprum dienapkan pada kuprum tulen.
Cu2+ and H+ ions will attracted to the cathode. Cu2+ ions are selectively discharged at the cathode. A layer of
copper is formed on the pure copper.
Uji Kendiri 1.4

AS
Katod/ Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu (Penurunan/ Reduction)
1. Lengkapkan yang berikut bagi elektrolisis leburan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 menggunakan elektrod karbon.
Complete the following for the electrolysis of molten copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 with carbon electrodes.

Cu2+, H+, SO42–, OH-
N
(b) Ion yang tertarik kepada anod dan katod Anod/ Anode (+):
Ions attracted to the anode and cathode SO42–, OH–
PA
Cu2+, H+
(c) Ion yang dipilih untuk dinyahcas di anod Anod/ Anode:

dan katod. Nyatakan sebab. OH– . Nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E° lebih positif
Ion selected for discharge at the anode and
cathode. State the reason. OH–. Standard electrode potential, E° value is more positive
Katod/ Cathode:
Cu2+. Nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E° lebih positif
Cu2+. Standard electrode potential, E° value is more positive
(d) Persamaan setengah tindak balas di anod Anod/ Anode:

dan di katod. 4OH–  2H2O + O2 + 4e–

Products formed at the anode and cathode Gas oksigen
Oxygen gas
Katod/ Cathode:
Logam kuprum
Copper metal
45
(f) Pemerhatian di anod dan di katod Anod/ Anode:
Observations at the anode and cathode Gelembung gas tidak berwarna
Katod/ Cathode:
Pepejal perang terenap
Brown solid deposited
(g) Perubahan warna elektrolit Keamatan warna biru berkurang disebabkan kepekatan ion Cu2+
Change in the colour of the electrolyte berkurang.
The intensity of blue colour decreases because the concentration of Cu2+
ions decreases.
IA
2. Lengkapkan yang berikut bagi elektrolisis plumbum(II) bromida, PbBr2 lebur menggunakan elektrod karbon.
Complete the following for the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 with carbon electrodes.
(a) Ion bromida mengalami pengoksidaan di anod .
Bromide ions undergo oxidation at the anode .
Anod/ Anode: 2Br–  Br2 + 2e– (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
katod
AS
(b) Ion plumbum(II) mengalami penurunan di
Lead(II) ions undergo reduction at the
Katod/ Cathode:
cathode
Pb 2+
.
+ 2e–  Pb
.
1.5 Pengestrakan Logam daripada Bijihnya

Extraction of Metals from Their Ores
A Pengekstrakan Logam Reaktif daripada Bijihnya melalui Proses Elektrolisis

N
Extraction of Reactive Metals from Their Ores through Electrolysis
1. Logam reaktif seperti aluminium boleh diekstrak daripada bauksit yang mengandungi aluminium oksida, Al2O3
melalui elektrolisis.
Reactive metal such as aluminium can be extracted from bauxite, which contains aluminium oxide, Al2O3 by electrolysis.
PA
2. Elektrolisis aluminium oksida lebur menggunakan elektrod karbon .

Electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide used carbon electrodes.
3. Kriolit ditambah untuk menurunkan takat lebur aluminium oksida, Al2O3 kepada 980 °C.
Cryolite is added to lower the melting point of aluminium oxide, Al2O3 to 980 °C.
Al2O3Δ 2Al3+ + 3O2–
Katod/ Cathode: Al3+ + 3e–  Al (Penurunan/ Reduction)
Anod/ Anode: 2O2–  O2 + 4e– (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
4. Pengekstrakan aluminium daripada bauksit boleh mendatangkan kesan buruk terhadap alam sekitar.
Extraction of aluminium from bauxite can have a harmful effect on the environment.
(a) Proses peleburan dan pemprosesan membebaskan gas seperti karbon dioksida , karbon monoksida ,
sulfur dioksida dan perfluorokarbon yang boleh mencemarkan udara serta menyebabkan hujan asid dan
pemanasan global.
The smelting and processing processes release gases such as carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide
and perfluorocarbons that can pollute the air, as well as cause acid rain and global warming.
(b) Perlombongan bauksit akan mengakibatkan hakisan tanah dan memusnahkan habitat hidupan liar.
Bauxite mining will cause soil erosion and destroy wildlife habitats.
46
(c) Lumpur dan sisa toksik yang termendap di lombong yang digali akan meresap ke dalam tanah dan
mencemarkan sumber air .
Mud and toxic waste deposited in excavated mines will seep into the soil and pollute the water sources .
(d) Tanah yang telah dilombong akan menjadi tidak subur dan tidak sesuai untuk pertanian.
Land that has been mined will be infertile and unsuitable for agriculture.
B Pengekstrakan Logam daripada Bijihnya melalui Proses Penurunan oleh Karbon

Extraction of Metals from Their Ores through Reduction by Carbon
IA
I Pengekstrakan Besi/ Extraction of Iron
1. Logam besi diekstrak daripada bijihnya, iaitu hematit dan magnetit melalui proses penurunan oleh
karbon di dalam relau bagas.
Iron is extracted from its ores, hematite and magnetite through a reduction process in a blast furnace.
Bijih besi + arang kok

+ batu kapur
Iron ore + coke
+ limestone
AS Gas buangan
yang panas
Hot waste
gases
800°C
1 500°C
Gas buangan yang panas
(disalur semula ke
bahagian bawah relau)
Hot waste gases
(recycled to heat
the furnace)
2 000°C
Udara panas Udara panas

N
Hot air Hot air
Leburan besi Leburan sanga

Molten iron Molten slag
Rajah/Diagram 1.26
2. Hematit mengandungi ferum(III) oksida, Fe2O3 manakala magnetit mengandungi triferum tetraoksida, Fe3O4.
PA
Hematite contains iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3 while magnetite contains triiron tetraoxide, Fe3O4.
3. Tindak balas kimia dalam relau bagas./ Chemical reactions in the blast furnace.
(a) Karbon bertindak balas dengan oksigen dalam udara panas untuk menghasilkan karbon dioksida .
The carbon reacts with oxygen in the hot air to form carbon dioxide .
C + O2 → CO2
(b) Karbon dioksida yang terhasil bertindak balas dengan karbon selebihnya untuk membentuk
karbon monoksida (agen penurunan yang kuat).
Carbon dioxide formed reacts with more hot carbon to form carbon monoxide (strong reducing agent)
CO2 + C → 2CO
(c) Karbon monoksida dan karbon menurunkan oksida besi kepada besi.
Carbon monoxide and carbon reduce the iron oxides to iron.
2Fe2O3 + 3C 4Fe + 3CO2

Hematit/Hematite Karbon/Carbon
2Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
Hematit/Hematite Karbon monoksida/Carbon monoxide
Fe3O4 + 2C 3Fe + 2CO2
Magnetit/ Magnetite Karbon/Carbon
Fe3O4 + 4CO 3Fe + 4CO2
Magnetit/ Magnetite Karbon monoksida/Carbon monoxide
47
4. Pada suhu yang tinggi dalam relau bagas, besi yang terbentuk wujud dalam keadaan leburan .
Leburan besi mengalir ke bahagian bawah relau.
At high temperature in the blast furnace, the iron formed is in molten state. The molten iron flows to the bottom
of the blast furnace.
5. Besi lebur dituang ke dalam acuan dan dibiarkan menyejuk. Besi yang diperoleh dikenali sebagai besi tuangan
dan mengandungi kira-kira 4% karbon dan benda asing lain.
The molten iron is poured into moulds and is allowed to cool. The iron obtained is known as cast iron and contains about 4%
of carbon and other impurities.
6. Pada suhu yang tinggi, batu kapur terurai untuk membentuk kalsium oksida dan karbon dioksida. Kalsium oksida
bertindak balas dengan bendasing berasid seperti pasir (silikon dioksida) untuk membe
membentuk leburan sanga.
At high temperatures, limestone is decomposed to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Calcium oxide reacts with
acidic impurities, for example sand (silicon dioxide) to produce a molten slag.
7. Di bahagian bawah relau leburan sanga terapung di atas lapisan leburan besi. Leburan sanga dikeluarkan mengikut
IA
sela masa yang ditetapkan.
At the bottom of the furnace, slag floats on top of the molten iron. The slag is tapped off at regular intervals.
8. Kaedah yang digunakan dalam pengekstrakan logam daripada bijihnya bergantung kepada kedudukan
logam dalam siri kereaktifan.
The method used to extract the metal from its ore depends on the position of the metal in the reactivity series.
9. Siri kereaktifan merupakan satu senarai logam yang disusun berdasarkan kereaktifan logam terhadap
oksigen .
AS
The reactivity series is a list of metal which are arranged according to their reactivity with oxygen .
10. Logam-logam yang berada di atas dalam siri kereaktifan ialah agen penurunan yang kuat. Logam-
logam ini dapat menurunkan oksida bagi logam yang kurang reaktif.
Metals at higher position in the reactivity series are strong reducing agent. They can reduce the oxides of less
reactive metals.
Logam Kaedah pengekstrakan

Metals Extraction method
K
N
Na
Elektrolisis leburan klorida/ Electrolysis of molten chloride
Ca
Mg
Al Elektrolisis leburan oksida/ Electrolysis of molten oxide

PA
Zn
Fe
Penurunan oksida oleh karbon/ Reduction of oxide by carbon
Sn
Pb
Cu
Ag Memanaskan bijih secara terus dalam udara/ Heating ores directly in air
Hg
Au Wujud sebagai logam bebas/ Exist as free metals
Uji Kendiri 1.5

Tuliskan persamaan setengah tindak balas penurunan dan pengoksidaan dalam elektrolisis leburan natrium klorida, NaCl.
Write the half-equation reactions of reduction and oxidation in the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, NaCl.
NaCl Δ Na+ + Cl-
Katod/ Cathode: Na+ + 1e–  Na (Penurunan/Reduction
Anod/ Anode: 2Cl–  Cl2 + 2e– (Pengoksidaan/Oxidation)
48
1.6 Pengaratan
Rusting
A Proses Pengaratan sebagai Tindak Balas Redoks

Rusting Process as a Redox Reaction
1. Pengaratan ialah kakisan besi. Pengaratan besi memerlukan kehadiran kedua-dua oksigen dan
air .
Rusting is the corrosion of iron. The rusting of iron requires both oxygen and water .
2. Mekanisme elektrokimia bagi pengaratan besi:
Electrochemical mechanism for corrosion of iron:
IA
Udara/ Air
Karat/ Rust
Fe2O3. xH2O
O2 Titisan air
Fe2+
Water droplet
Katod/ Anod/
AS Cathode
e–
O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–
O2 + 4H+ + 4e– → 2H2O
Rajah/Diagram 1.27
Anode
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e–
Besi/ Iron
dioksidakan
(a) Permukaan besi, di tengah titisan air bertindak sebagai anod. Di anod, atom besi
dengan kehilangan dua elektron dan membentuk ion Fe2+.
Iron surface, in the centre of a water droplet acts as the anode. At the anode iron atoms are oxidised by
N
lose two electrons and form Fe2+ ions.
Anod/ Anode: Fe  Fe2+ + 2e– (Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation)
(b) Permukaan besi di pinggir titisan air bertindak sebagai katod. Elektron bergerak ke pinggir
titisan air. Elektron diterima oleh oksigen dan molekul air membentuk ion hidroksida ,OH–. Proses
PA
penurunan berlaku.
Iron surface at the edge of the water droplet serves as the cathode. Electrons flow to the edge of the water
droplet. The electrons are received by oxygen and water molecules to form hydroxide ions OH–. A reduction
process occurs.
Katod/ Cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e–  4OH– (Penurunan / Reduction)
(c) Ion Fe2+ bergabung dengan ion OH- membentuk pepejal berwarna hijau , ferum(II) hidroksida,
Fe(OH)2.
Fe2+ ions combine with OH- ions to form green substance, iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2.
Fe 2+
+ 2OH–  Fe(OH)2
(d) Dalam kehadiran udara, ferum(II) hidroksida dioksidakan oleh oksigen membentuk ferum(III) oksida
terhidrat, Fe2O3.xH2O. Bahan berwarna perang ini dikenali sebagai karat.
In the presence of air, iron(II) hydroxide is oxidised by oxygen to form hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.xH2O. This
brown substance known as rust.
Fe(OH)2  Fe2O3.xH2O
49
B Mencegah Pengaratan Besi
To Prevent Rusting of Iron
1. Pengaratan besi dapat dicegah atau sekurang-kurangnya diminimumkan dengan melindungi permukaan besi
daripada terdedah kepada oksigen dan kelembapan.
Rusting of iron can be prevented, or at least minimised, by shielding the iron surface from oxygen and moisture.
2. Tiga kaedah untuk mencegah pengaratan:
The three methods to prevent rusting:
(a) Pelindungan fizikal – melindungi permukaan besi dengan mengecat, menyapu gris, menyalut dengan plastik
dan penyaduran dengan logam kurang reaktif seperti kromium, kuprum dan stanum.
Physical protection – covers the surfaces of iron from water and air by painting, applying grease, coating with plastic and
electroplating with metals that are less reactive such as chromium, copper and tin.
(b) Perlindungan elektrokimia – menyadurkan permukaan besi dengan logam yang lebih elektropositif seperti
zink.
IA
Electrochemical protection – electroplating the surface of iron with metals that are more electropositive such as zinc.
(c) Penggalvanian – menyalut permukaan ferum dengan lapisan logam zink

. Zink adalah lebih
elektropositif berbanding ferum. Oleh itu, atom zink lebih mudah dioksidakan berbanding
ferum. Maka, pengoksidaan atom ferum yang menyebabkan pengaratan besi dapat dielakkan.
Galvanising – a process of covering the surface of iron with a layer of zinc metal. Zinc is more electropositive
compared to iron. So, atom zinc is easier to be oxidised compared to iron. Thus, the oxidation of iron atoms which caused
rusting is prevented.
AS Zn  Zn2+ + 2e–
Eksperimen 1.4
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengkaji Eksperimen
kesan logam lain yang bersentuhan dengan besi terhadap pengaratan besi
Eksperimen Wajib
To investigate the effect of other metals in contact with iron on the rusting of iron

Bagaimana logam berlainan jenis yang bersentuhan dengan besi mempengaruhi pengaratan besi?
N
How do different types of metal in contact with iron affect the rusting of iron?
Logam yang lebih elektropositif akan menghalang pengaratan besi. Logam yang kurang elektropositif akan
mempercepatkan pengaratan besi.
PA
A more electropositive metal will prevent iron from rusting. A less electropositive metal will speed up rusting.

(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Jenis logam/ Types of metal
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Pengaratan paku besi/ Kehadiran warna biru
Rusting of iron nails/ Presence of blue colouration
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Paku besi, suhu persekitaran/ Iron nails, temperature of the surroundings
Bahan/ Materials:
Paku besi, pita magnesium, jalur kuprum, larutan agar-agar panas, larutan kalium heksasianoferat(III), K3[Fe(CN)6],
penunjuk fenolftalein
Iron nails, magnesium ribbon, copper strip, hot agar-agar solution, potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), K3[Fe(CN)6] solution, phenolphthalein
indicator
Radas/ Apparatus:
Tabung uji, rak tabung uji, kertas pasir
Test tubes, test tube rack, sand paper
50
Agar-agar + kalium heksasianoferat(III) + fenolftalein

Agar-agar + potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) + phenolphthalein
A B C
Rak tabung uji
Paku besi Paku besi Test tube rack
Iron nail Iron nail
IA
Pita magnesium Jalur kuprum Paku besi
Magnesium ribbon Copper strip Iron nail
Rajah/Diagram 1.28
1. Tiga batang paku besi, pita magnesium dan jalur kuprum dibersihkan dengan kertas pasir.
Three iron nails, magnesium ribbon and copper strip are cleaned using a sand paper.
2. Pita magnesium dililitkan pada paku besi pertama dan jalur kuprum dililitkan pada paku besi kedua.
The magnesium ribbon is wrapped onto the first iron nail and the copper strip is wrapped onto the second iron nail.
dalam Rajah 1.28.

AS
3. Paku besi kemudian dimasukkan ke dalam tiga tabung uji dan dilabelkan
dilabelkan dengan A, B dan C seperti ditunjukkan
The iron nails are then inserted into three test tubes labelled as A, B and C as shown in Diagram 1.28.
4. Larutan agar-agar panas yang ditambahkan dengan kalium heksasianoferat(III) dan penunjuk fenolftalein dituang
ke dalam setiap tabung uji sehingga menutupi seluruh paku besi.
Hot agar-agar solution is added with potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) and phenolphthalein indicator is poured into each test tube
until it covers the whole iron nail.
5. Tabung uji dibiarkan pada rak tabung uji selama tiga hari. Pemerhatian direkodkan.
The test tubes are kept in a test tube rack for three days. The observations are recorded.
N
Pemerhatian/ Observations:
Keamatan warna biru Keamatan warna merah
Tabung uji Inferens
Intensity of the blue jambu/ Intensity of the
Test tube Inference
colouration pink colouration
Fe2+
PA
A Tiada warna biru terbentuk Warna merah jambu Tiada ion hadir. Banyak
No blue colour formed dengan keamatan tinggi ion OH– hadir. Magnesium
terbentuk mencegah
High intensity pink colour pengaratan.
formed Fe 2+
ions not presence. A lot of OH– ions
present. Magnesium prevents rusting.
B Warna biru dengan keamatan Tiada warna merah jambu Banyak ion Fe hadir. Kuprum
2+
tinggi terbentuk terbentuk menggalakkan pengaratan.

High intensity blue colour formed No pink colour formed Fe2+
A lot of ions present. Copper
promotes rusting
C Warna biru dengan keamatan Ion Fe2+ hadir. Besi berkarat.

rendah terbentuk Fe2+ ions presence. Iron undergoes rusting.
Low intensity blue colour formed
Logam yang lebih elektropositif daripada besi akan mencegah pengaratan manakala logam
yang kurang elektropositif daripada besi akan menggalakkan pengaratan.
Metals that are more electropositive than iron will prevent rusting while metals that are less
electropositive than iron will speed up rusting.
51
1. Larutan kalium heksasianoferat(III), K3[Fe(CN)6], digunakan untuk mengesan kehadiran ion Fe2+. Apabila ion
Fe2+. hadir, warna biru tua terhasil. Semakin banyak ion Fe2+terhasil, semakin tinggi
keamatan warna biru tua .

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), K3[Fe(CN)6] solution is used to detect the presence of Fe2+ ions. When Fe2+ ions presence, a
dark blue colour produced. The more Fe2+ ions formed, the higher the intensity of the dark blue colour formed.
2. Penunjuk fenolftalein digunakan untuk mengesan kehadiran ion OH−. Kehadiran ion OH− meningkatkan
kealkalian larutan dan memberi warna merah jambu kepada larutan.
Phenolphthalein indicator is used to detect the presence of OH– ions. The presence of OH– ions increases the alkalinity of the solution
and gives pink colour to the solution.
IA
3. Tuliskan persamaan setengah bagi proses pengoksidaan yang berikut.
Write the half-equations for the following oxidation processes.
Tabung uji Persamaan setengah

Test tube Half-equation
AS
A
B
Mg  Mg2+ + 2e–
Fe  Fe2+ + 2e–
C Fe  Fe2+ + 2e–
N
4. Eksperimen dalam tabung uji B telah diulang dengan menggantikan jalur kuprum, Cu dengan jalur zink, Zn.
Experiment in test tube B is repeated by replacing copper strip, Cu with zinc strip, Zn.
(a) Ramalkan pemerhatian.
Predict the observations.
PA
Warna merah jambu dengan keamatan tinggi terbentuk.

High intensity pink colour formed.
(b) Nyatakan inferens.

State the inference.
Zink yang lebih elektropositif daripada besi akan mencegah pengaratan.
Zinc which is more electropositive than iron will prevent rusting.
Ek stra
Ekstra Tip
• Larutan kalium heksasianoferat(III) ditambahkan untuk mengesan kehadiran ion Fe2+. Semakin banyak ion Fe2+, semakin tinggi
keamatan warna biru yang dihasilkan terhasil.
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution is added to detect the presence of Fe2+ ions. The more Fe2+ ions formed, the higher the intensity of the
blue colour produced.
• Penunjuk fenolftalein ditambahkan untuk mengesan kehadiran ion OH–. Ion OH– meningkatkan kealkalian larutan dan
memberikan warna merah jambu kepada larutan.
Phenolphthalein is added to detect the presence of OH– ions. OH– ions increases the alkalinity of the solution and gives pink colour to the
solution.
52
Contoh/Example 1
Rajah 1.29 menunjukkan aktiviti yang dijalankan untuk mengkaji kesan logam yang berlainan terhadap pengaratan besi.
Diagram 1.29 shows an activity carried out to investigate the effect of other metals on the rusting of iron.
Agar-agar + kalium Agar-agar + kalium

heksasianoferat(III) heksasianoferat(III)
+ fenolftalein + fenolftalein
Agar-agar + potassium Agar-agar + potassium
hexacyanoferrate(III) hexacyanoferrate(III)
+ phenolphthalein + phenolphthalein
Paku besi Paku besi
IA
Iron nail Iron nail
Pita magnesium Jalur kuprum

Magnesium ribbon Copper strip
I II
Rajah/Diagram 1.29
Set
Pair of metals
AS
Jadual di bawah menunjukkan keputusan aktiviti.
Table below shows the results of the activity.
Pasangan logam Pemerhatian

Observation
I Besi + Magnesium Warna merah jambu dengan keamatan tinggi terbentuk

Iron + Magnesium High intensity pink colour formed.
II Besi + Kuprum Warna biru dengan keamatan tinggi terbentuk.

N
Iron + Copper High intensity blue colour formed.
1. Logam magnesium menghalang pengaratan besi manakala logam kuprum mempercepatkan pengaratan besi.
PA
Magnesium metal prevents the rusting of iron while copper metal speed up the rusting of iron.
2. Logam magnesium ialah agen penurunan yang lebih kuat berbanding besi. Magnesium akan mengion
sebelum besi . Maka, besi dihalang daripada berkarat.
Magnesium metal is a stronger reducing agent compared to iron. Magnesium will ionise before
iron . Thus, iron is prevented from rusting.
3. Logam kuprum ialah agen penurunan yang kurang kuat berbanding besi. Besi akan mengion
sebelum kuprum . Maka, pengaratan besi dipercepatkan .
Copper metal is a weaker reducing agent compared to iron. Iron will ionise before copper .
Thus, the rusting of iron is speed up .
53
Uji Kendiri 1.6
Lengkapkan pemerhatian dan inferens bagi pasangan logam yang berikut.
Complete the observations and inferences of the following pair of metals.
Keamatan/ Intensity of
Pasangan logam Inferens
Pair of metals warna biru warna merah jambu Inference
blue color pink colour
Ferum sahaja Rendah Tiada Ion Fe2+ hadir.

Iron only Low None Fe2+ ions presence.
(kawalan/ control)
berkarat
IA
Ferum .
Iron undergoes rusting .
Ferum + magnesium Tiada Tinggi Tiada ion Fe2+ hadir.

Iron + magnesium None High Fe2+
No ions presence.
Banyak ion OH– hadir.

AS A lot of
Magnesium
Magnesium
OH–
menghalang
prevents
ions present.
rusting.
pengaratan.
Ferum + kuprum Sangat tinggi Tiada Banyak ion Fe2+ hadir.

Iron + copper Very high None Fe2+
A lot of ions present.
N
Kuprum mempercepatkan pengaratan.
Copper spped up rusting.
Ferum + zink Tiada Tinggi Tiada ion Fe2+ hadir.

PA
Iron + zinc None High Fe2+

No ions presence.
Banyak ion OH– hadir.

A lot of OH– ions present.
Zink menghalang pengaratan.

Zinc prevents rusting.
Ferum + stanum Tinggi Tiada Ion Fe2+ hadir.

Iron + tin High None Fe2+ ions presence.
Ferum berkarat .
Iron undergoes rusting .
54
Bab
2 Sebatian Karbon
Carbon Compound
2.1 Jenis-jenis Sebatian Karbon

Types of Carbon Compound
A Memahami Sebatian Karbon

Understanding Carbon Compound
IA
1. Sebatian karbon ialah sebatian yang mengandungi karbon sebagai salah satu unsur juzuknya.
Carbon compounds are compounds which contain carbon as one of its constituent elements.
2. Sebatian karbon dapat dikelaskan kepada dua kumpulan:
Carbon compounds can be classified into two groups:
(a) Sebatian organik/ Organic compounds
(b) Sebatian tak organik/ Inorganic compounds
AS
3. Sebatian organik ditakrifkan sebagai sebatian yang mengandungi unsur
sebatian organik ialah petroleum, gas asli, urea, kanji, glukosa, protein dan etanol.
Organic compounds are defined as carbon
natural gas, urea, starch, glucose, protein and ethanol.
karbon . Contoh-contoh
containing compounds. Examples of organic compounds are petroleum,
benda bukan hidup

4. Sebatian tak organik ialah sebatian yang diperoleh daripada yang mengandungi unsur
karbon . Contoh-contoh sebatian tak organik yang mengandungi unsur karbon ialah karbon dioksida,
CO2, kalsium karbonat, CaCO3 dan kalium sianida, KCN.
Inorganic compounds are compounds from non-living things , which contain carbon element. Examples
of inorganics compounds which contain carbon element are carbon dioxide, CO2, calcium carbonate, CaCO3 and potassium
N
cyanide, KCN.
5. Hidrokarbon ialah sebatian organik yang mengandungi atom hidrogen dan karbon sahaja.
Sumber utama hidrokarbon ialah arang batu, petroleum dan gas asli.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds which contain hydrogen and carbon atoms only. The most common
PA
sources of hydrocarbons are coal, petroleum and natural gas.

6. Bukan hidrokarbon ialah sebatian organik yang mengandungi unsur-unsur lain seperti nitrogen, oksigen, fosforus
atau halogen selain daripada hidrogen dan karbon .
Non-hydrocarbons are organic compounds which contain other elements such as nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus or halogens
besides hydrogen and carbon .
7. Hidrokarbon dapat dikelaskan kepada: / Hydrocarbons can be classified into:
(a) Hidrokarbon tepu ialah hidrokarbon yang mengandungi hanya ikatan tunggal antara semua
atom karbon.
Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms.
(b) Hidrokarbon tak tepu ialah hidrokarbon yang mengandungi sekurang-kurangnya satu ikatan
ganda dua atau ganda tiga antara atom karbonnya.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double or
triple bond between carbon atoms.
B Sumber Hidrokarbon
Sources of Hydrocarbon
1. Sumber utama hidrokarbon ialah petroleum, arang batu dan gas asli.
The most common sources of hydrocarbons are petroleum, coal and natural gas.
2. Petroleum, arang batu dan gas asli ialah sumber tenaga tidak boleh dibaharui . Sumber tenaga ini mengambil
masa berjuta-juta tahun untuk terbentuk.
Petroleum, coal and natural gas are a non- renewable source of energy. It took millions of years to form.
55
3. Sebanyak 90% daripada petroleum digunakan sebagai bahan api manakala 10% lagi digunakan untuk
menghasilkan barangan keperluan seperti plastik, detergen, ubat, getah sintetik dan lain-lain.
As much as 90% of petroleum is used as fuel while 10% more is used to produce other necessities such as plastic,
detergent, medicine, synthetic rubber and others.
4. Cara untuk mengurangkan penggunaan petroleum sebagai bahan api:
Ways to reduce the use of petroleum as fuel:
(a) Menggunakan peralatan gas dan elektrik yang menjimatkan tenaga/ Use energy-saving gas and electrical appliances.
(b) Mengurangkan pembaziran tenaga/ Reduce energy wastage
(c) Menggunakan kenderaan yang menjimatkan bahan api/ Use vehicles that save fuel
(d) Menggalakkan perkongsian kenderaan/ Encourage carpooling
(e) Mengitar dan mengguna semula bahan/ Recycle and reuse materials
(f) Menggunakan sumber tenaga boleh dibaharui/ Use renewable source of energy
IA
(g) Kurangkan penggunaan kenderaan bermotor/ Reduce the use of motor vehicles
(h) Memandu kereta kecil yang memerlukan kurang petrol/ Drive smaller cars that require less petrol
(i) Gunakan pengangkutan awam/ Use public transports
5. Bahan api alternatif:/ Alternative fuels:

(a) Tenaga solar / Solar energy
nuklear Nuclear
(b) Tenaga
(c)
(d)
Biodiesel
Biodiesel
Etanol
Ethanol
AS /
daripada minyak sawit
from palm oil
daripada tebu atau jagung
energy
from sugar cane or corn

(e) Biogas (50% metana) daripada haiwan dan tumbuhan.
Biogas (50% methane) from animals and plants.
6. Petroleum terdiri daripada campuran pelbagai hidrokarbon. Hidrokarbon dalam petroleum boleh diasingkan kepada
N
pecahan melalui penyulingan berperingkat .
Petroleum consists of a mixture of various hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons in petroleum can be isolated into fractions through
fractional distillation .
Gas petroleum Kegunaan pecahan petroleum

PA
1 Use of petroleum fractions

Petroleum gas
< 30°C
Bahan api memasak
1
Cooking fuel
Petrol (minyak)
2
Petrol (oil)
Bahan api enjin
40°C – 75°C 2
Engine fuel
3 Nafta
Naphtha
Bahan mentah industri petrokimia
75°C – 150°C 3
Raw materials for petrochemical industry
Petroleum Kerosin
4
Petroleum Kerosene Bahan api kapal terbang
150°C – 230°C 4
Air craft fuel
Diesel
5
Diesel
Bahan api lori dan bas
230°C – 250°C 5
Bus and lorry fuel
Minyak pelincir
6 Lubricant
250°C – 300°C Pelincir mesin
6
Minyak bahan api Machine lubricant
7 Fuel oil
300°C – 350°C Bahan api kapal
7
Relau Ship fuel
Furnace
Bitumen
8
Menara penyulingan Bitumen
Bitumen jalan raya
Distillation tower > 350°C 8
Bitumen on roads
Rajah/ Diagram 2.1
56
7. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan bilangan atom karbon per molekul bagi beberapa pecahan petroleum.
The table below shows the number of carbon atoms per molecule of several fractions of petroleum.
Pecahan Takat lebur Bilangan atom karbon per molekul

Fractions Melting point (oC) Number of carbon atoms per molecule
Gas petroleum
Bawah/ Below 30 1–4
Petroleum gas
Petrol
40 – 75 5 – 10
Petrol
Nafta
75 – 150 7 – 14
Naphtha
Kerosin
IA
150 – 230 11 – 16
Kerosene
Diesel
230 – 250 16 – 20
Diesel
8. Hidrokarbon rantai pendek lazimnya digunakan dalam penjanaan tenaga elektrik, pengangkutan dan penghasilan
pelbagai produk untuk kegunaan manusia.
Shorter-chain hydrocarbons are commonly used for electricity generation, transportation and production of various products
for human use.
proses peretakan
cracking
Peretakan
AS
9. Hidrokarbon rantai panjang kurang digunakan kerana sukar dibakar. Hidrokarbon rantai panjang akan melalui
bermangkin untuk menghasilkan hidrokarbon rantai pendek yang lebih berguna.
Longer-chain hydrocarbons are less used because they are difficult to burn. Long-chain hydrocarbons will go through a catalytic
process to produce shorter-chain hydrocarbons that are more useful.
10. bermangkin akan memecahkan molekul hidrokarbon rantai panjang menjadi molekul
hidrokarbon rantai pendek yang lebih berguna.
Catalytic cracking will break down long-chain hydrocarbon molecules into more useful short-chain hydrocarbon
molecules.
N
2.2 Siri Homolog
Homologous Series
A Menerangkan Siri Homolog

Explain Homologous Series
PA
1. Siri homolog ialah kumpulan sebatian karbon yang mempunyai formula am dan sifat kimia
yang sama.
A homologous series is a group of carbon compounds that have a similar general formula and chemical properties.
2. Kumpulan berfungsi ialah bahagian yang paling aktif dalam sebatian karbon dan terlibat dalam tindak balas
kimia .
Functional groups are the most active parts ini carbon compounds and participate in chemical reactions.
Siri homolog Formula am Kumpulan berfungsi

Homologous series General formula Functional group
Alkana Ikatan tunggal antara atom karbon, – C – C –
CnH2n+2
Alkane Carbon-carbon single bond, C – C
Alkena Ikatan ganda dua antara atom karbon, – C = C –
CnH2n
Alkene Carbon-carbon double bond, – C = C –
Alkuna Ikatan ganda tiga antara atom karbon, – C ≡ C –
CnH2n–2
Alkyne Carbon-carbon triple bond, – C ≡ C –
Alkohol Kumpulan hidroksil, – OH
CnH2n+1OH
Alcohol Hydroxyl group, – OH
Asid karboksilik Kumpulan karboksil, – COOH
CnH2n+1COOH
Carboxylic acid Carboxyl group, – COOH
Ester Kumpulan karboksilat, – COO
CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1
Ester Carboxylate group, – COO
57
3. Ciri-ciri ahli dalam siri homolog yang sama:/ Characteristics of members in the same homologous series:
(a) Setiap ahli mempunyai formula am yang sama.
Each member has the same general formula .
(b) Setiap ahli mempunyai satu atom karbon dan dua atom hidrogen lebih daripada ahli
sebelumnya.
Each member has one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms more than the previous member.
(c) Ahli-ahli mempunyai sifat fizik yang berubah secara beransur-ansur apabila bilangan atom
karbon per molekul bertambah .
Members have the physical properties that change gradually as the number of carbon atoms in a molecule
increases .
(d) Kumpulan berfungsi menentukan tindak balas kimia bagi molekul organik. Semua ahli dalam siri
IA
homolog yang sama mempunyai sifat kimia yang sama .
Functional group determines the chemical reactions of the organic molecules. All members of a homologous series
have very similar chemical properties.
(e) Ahli-ahli dalam suatu siri homolog yang sama boleh disediakan dengan kaedah yang sama .
Member of a homologous series are prepared by using similar methods.
B Formula Molekul, Formula Struktur dan Menamakan Ahli Siri Homolog

AS
Molecular Formulae, Structural Formulae and Naming the Members of the Homologous Series
1. Formula molekul ialah formula kimia yang menunjukkan bilangan sebenar atom-atom setiap jenis
unsur dalam satu molekul bahan.
A molecular formula is a chemical formula that gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of
a substance.
2. Formula struktur ialah formula kimia yang menunjukkan jenis ikatan dan cara atom-atom
diikat antara satu sama lain dalam satu molekul bahan.
A structural formula is a chemical formula that show the types of bond and the way atoms are
bonded to each other in a molecule of a substance.
N
3. Penamaan alkana berdasarkan sistem IUPAC:/ Naming alkanes based on IUPAC system:
(a) Tentukan bilangan atom karbon dalam rantai lurus terpanjang alkana.
Determine the number of carbon atoms in a straight-chain molecules of alkane.
(b) Pilih nama induk yang betul./ Select the correct root name.
Bilangan atom karbon Nama induk
PA
Number of carbon atoms Root name

1 Met-/ Meth-
2 Et-/ Eth-
3 Prop-/ Prop-
4 But-/ But-
5 Pent-/ Pent-
6 Heks-/ Hex-
7 Hept-/ Hept-
8 Okt-/ Oct-
9 Non-/ Non-
10 Dek-/ Dec
(c) Tambahkan akhiran -ana./ Add the ending -ane.
Tip SPM
Ahli pertama alkena ialah etena. Metena tidak wujud sebab atom karbon memerlukan 4 ikatan kovalen untuk mencapai susunan
elektron yang stabil. The first member of alkenes is ethene. Methene does not exist because carbon atom requires 4 covalent bonds to achieve
Tip SPM
a stable electron arrangement.
58
Contoh/Example 1
Siri homolog/ Homologous series: Alkana/ Alkanes
Formula am/ General formula: CnH2n+2
Bilangan atom karbon Nama Formula molekul Formula struktur

Number of carbon atoms Name Molecular formula Structural formula
H
Metana H–C–H
1 Methane
CH4
IA
H
H H
Etana H–C–C–H
2
Ethane
C2H6
H H
H H H
Propana H–C–C–C–H
3 C3H8
4
AS
Propane
Butana
Butane
C4H10
H H H
H H H H
H–C–C–C–C–H
H H H H
H H H H H
Pentana H–C–C–C–C–C–H
5 C5H12
Pentane
H H H H H
N
H H H H H H
Heksana H–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
6 C6H14
Hexane
H H H H H H
PA
H H H H H H H
Heptana
7 C7H16 H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
Heptane
H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
Oktana C8H18
8 H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
Octane
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H
Nonana
9 C9H20 H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
Nonane
H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H H
10 Dekana
C10H22 H –C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
Decane
H H H H H H H H H H
4. Penamaan alkena berdasarkan sistem IUPAC:/ Naming alkenes based on IUPAC system:
(a) Tentukan bilangan atom karbon dalam rantai lurus molekul alkena yang mempunyai ikatan ganda dua.
Determine the number of carbon atoms in a straight-chain molecules of alkene that have a double bond.
(b) Pilih nama induk yang betul. / Select the correct root name.
(c) Tambahkan akhiran -ena./ Add the ending -ene.
59
Contoh/Example 2
Siri homolog/ Homologous series: Alkena/ Alkenes
Formula am/ General formula: CnH2n

Etena H H
2 C2H4
Ethene H– C=C –H
IA
H H H
Propena H– C=C – C –H
3
Propene
C3H6
H
H H H H
But-1-ena H– C=C – C – C –H
4 C4H8
But-1-ene
H H
5
Pent-1-ena
Pent-1-ene
AS C5H10
H H H H H
H– C=C – C – C – C –H
H H H
H H H H H H
Heks-1-ena H– C=C – C – C – C – C –H
6
Hex-1-ene
C6H12
H H H H
N
H H H H H H H
Hept-1-ena H– C=C – C – C – C – C – C –H
7
Hept-1-ene
C7H14
H H H H H
PA
H H H H H H H H
Okt-1-ena H– C=C – C – C – C – C – C – C –H
8
Oct-1-ene
C8H16
H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H
Non-1-ena H– C=C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C –H
9
Non-1-ene
C9H18
H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H H
10 Dek-1-ena
C10H20 H – C=C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C –H
Dec-1-ene
H H H H H H H H
5. Penamaan alkuna berdasarkan sistem IUPAC: / Naming alkynes based on IUPAC system:
(a) Tentukan bilangan atom karbon dalam rantai lurus alkuna yang mempunyai ikatan ganda tiga.
Determine the number of carbon atoms in a straight-chain molecules of alkyne that have a triple bond.
(b) Pilih nama induk yang betul./ Select the correct root name.
(c) Tambahkan akhiran -una./ Add the ending -yne.
60
Contoh/Example 3
Siri homolog/ Homologous series: Alkuna/ Alkyne
Formula am/ General formula: CnH2n + 2

Etuna
IA
2 C2H2 H– C≡C –H
Ethyne
H
Propuna
3 C3H4 H– C – C≡C –H
Propyne
4
ASButuna
C4H6
H
H H
H– C – C – C≡C –H
Butyne
H H
N
H H H
Pentuna H– C – C – C – C≡C –H
5
Pentyne
C5H8
H H H
PA
H H H H
Heksuna H– C – C – C – C – C≡C –H
6 C6H10
Hexyne
H H H H
H H H H H
Heptuna H– C – C – C – C – C – C≡C –H
7
Heptyne
C7H12
H H H H H
6. Penamaan alkohol rantai lurus berdasarkan sistem IUPAC:

Naming straight-chain alcohols based on IUPAC system:
(a) Dapatkan nama alkana yang sepadan berdasarkan bilangan atom karbon.
Obtain the name of corresponding alkane based on the number of carbon atoms.
(b) Gantikan huruf -a pada hujung nama alkana dengan -ol.
Replace the letter -e at the end of the name of the alkanes with -ol.
(c) Tulis nombor atom karbon di hadapan -ol untuk menunjukkan kedudukan kumpulan hidroksil, -OH yang terikat
kepada rantai lurus atom karbon.
Write the number of carbon atom in front of the -ol to indicate where the hydroxyl group, -OH is attached to the straight-chain
carbon atoms.
61
Contoh/Example 4
Siri homolog/ Homologous series: Alkohol/ Alcohol
Formula am/ General formula: CnH2n+1 OH

H
Metanol H–C–O–H
1 CH3OH
Methanol
H
IA
H H
Etanol H–C–C–O–H
2 C2H5OH
Ethanol
H H
3
Propan-1-ol
Propan-1-ol
AS C3H7OH
H H H
H–C–C–C–O–H
H H H
H H H H
Butan-1-ol H–C–C–C–C–O–H
4 C4H9OH
Butan-1-ol
N
H H H H
H H H H H
PA
Pentan-1-ol H–C–C–C–C–C–O–H
5 C5H11OH
Pentan-1-ol
H H H H H
H H H H H H
Heksan-1-ol H–C–C–C–C–C–C–O–H
6 C6H13OH
Hexan-1-ol
H H H H H H
7. Penamaan rantai lurus asid karboksilik berdasarkan sistem IUPAC

IUPAC:
Naming straight-chain carboxylic acids based on IUPAC system:
(a) Dapatkan nama alkana yang sepadan berdasarkan bilangan atom karbon.
Obtain the name of the corresponding alkane based on the number of carbon atoms.
(b) Gantikan huruf a pada hujung nama alkana dengan -asid -oik.
Replace the letter -e at the end of the alkane with -oic acid.
62
Contoh/Example 5
Siri homolog/ Homologous series: Asid karboksilik/ Carboxylic acid
Formula am/ General formula: CnH2n+1 COOH

Asid metanoik O
0 HCOOH
IA
Methanoic acid H–C–O–H
H O
Asid etanoik H–C–C–O–H
1 CH3COOH
Ethanoic acid
H
2
AS
Asid propanoik
Propanoic acid
C2H5COOH
H H O
H–C–C–C–O–H
H H
H H H O
Asid butanoik H–C–C–C–C–O–H
3 C3H7COOH
Butanoic acid
H H H
N
H H H H O
Asid pentanoik H–C–C–C–C–C–O–H
4 C4H9COOH
Pentanoic acid
PA
H H H H
H H H H H O
Asid heksanoik H–C–C–C–C–C–C–O–H
5 C5H11COOH
Hexanoic acid
H H H H H
C Sifat Fizik Sebatian dalam Siri Homolog

Physical Properties of the Compounds in a Homologous Series
I Alkana/ Alkanes
1. Alkana ialah sebatian kovalen yang terdiri daripada molekul-molekul ringkas . Molekul-molekul
ini ditarik bersama oleh daya tarikan antara molekul yang lemah.
Alkanes are covalent compounds consisting of simple molecules. These molecules are held together by weak
intermolecular forces of attraction .
2. Sifat fizik ahli alkana berubah secara beransur-ansur apabila bilangan atom karbon per molekul
bertambah .
The physical properties of alkanes change gradually as the number of carbon atoms per molecule
increases .
63
Jisim molar Takat lebur Takat didih Ketumpatan
Nama Formula molekul
Molar mass Melting point Boiling point Density
Name Molecular formula
(g mol-1) (oC) (oC) (g cm-3)
Metana
CH4 16 –182 –161 0.0007
Methane
Etana
C2H6 30 –183 –88 0.0013
Ethane
Propana
C3H8 44 –188 –44 0.0018
Propane
Butana
C4H10 58 –188 –1 0.0024
Butane
Pentana
IA
C5H12 72 –130 36 0.6260
Pentane
Heksana
C6H14 86 –96 69 0.6600
Hexane
Heptana
C7H16 100 –97 99 0.6800
Heptane
Oktana
C8H18 114 –57 126 0.7030
Octane
Nonana
Nonane
Dekana
Decane
C9H20
AS
C10H22
128
142
–54
–30
151
179
0.7180
0.7300
3. Setiap ahli alkana berbeza daripada ahli sebelumnya dengan penambahan satu unit – CH2 .
Each alkane member differs from a previous member by adding a unit of – CH2 .
4. Takat didih dan takat lebur bertambah secara beransur-ansur. Apabila saiz molekul semakin besar,
N
daya tarikan antara molekul alkana semakin kuat. . Lebih banyak tenaga haba diperlukan untuk
mengatasi daya tarikan antara molekul.
The boiling and melting points increase
gradually. As the molecular size of alkanes increases, the intermolecular
forces of attraction between the molecules become stronger . More heat energy is required to overcome
these intermolecular forces.
PA
5. Empat ahli pertama merupakan gas.

First four members are gases.
6. Alkana tidak larut dalam air tetapi larut dalam pelarut organik seperti
1,1,1-trikloroetana dan toluena.
Alkanes insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane and
toluene.
7. Alkana tidak mengkonduksi elektrik kerana terdiri daripada molekul-molekul yang neutral.
Alkanes cannot conduct electricity because consist of neutral molecules.
8. Kurang tumpat daripada air. Ketumpatan bertambah secara beransur-ansur apabila saiz
molekul alkana semakin bertambah.
Less dense than water. The density of an alkane increases gradually as the molecular size increases.
9. Kelikatan bertambah
secara beransur-ansur. Molekul-molekul yang semakin panjang akan berbelit
antara satu sama lain menyebabkannya tidak mudah mengalir.
Viscocity increases gradually. The molecules become longer and get entangled together causing it
to flow less easily .
64
II Alkena/ Alkenes
1. Alkena ialah sebatian kovalen. Molekul-molekul alkena ditarik bersama oleh daya tarikan antara molekul
yang lemah.
Alkenes are covalent compounds. The intermolecular forces of attraction are weak.
2. Oleh itu, alkena mempunyai sifat fizik yang hampir sama dengan alkana.
Thus, alkenes have almost similar physical properties as alkanes.
Jisim molar Takat lebur Takat didih Ketumpatan
Nama Formula molekul
Molar mass Melting point Boiling point Density
Name Molecular formula
(g mol-1) (oC) (oC) (g cm-3)
Etena
C2H4 28 –169 –104 0.0011
Ethene
IA
Propena
C3H6 42 –185 –47 0.0018
Propene
But-1-ena
C4H8 56 –185 –6
–6 0.0023
But-1-ene
Pent-1-ena
C5H10 70 –138 30 0.6430
Pent-1-ene
Heks-1-ena
C6H12 84 –140 63 0.6750
Hex-1-ene
Hept-1-ena
Hep-1-ene
Okt-1-ena
Oct-1-ene
Non-1-ena
AS C7H14
C8H16
98
112
–119
–102
94
121
0.6980
0.7160
C9H18 126 –94 146 0.7310

Non-1-ene
Dek-1-ena
C10H20 140 87 171 0.7430
Dec-1-ene
3. Takat didih dan takat lebur bertambah beransur-ansur dengan bilangan atom karbon dalam molekul.
N
The melting and boiling points increase gradually as the number of carbon atoms per molecules increases.
4. Empat ahli pertama merupakan gas.

First four members are gases.
PA
5. Tidak larut dalam air tetapi larut dalam pelarut organik seperti 1,1,1-trikloroetana dan
toluena.
Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane and toluene.
6. Alkena tidak mengkonduksi elektrik kerana alkena daripada molekul-molekul yang neutral.
Alkenes cannot conduct electricity because alkenes consist of neutral molecules.
molekul alkena semakin bertambah.
Less dense than water. The density of an alkene increases gradually as the molecular size increases.
8. Kelikatan bertambah
secara beransur-ansur. Molekul-molekul yang semakin panjang akan berbelit
antara satu sama lain menyebabkannya tidak mudah mengalir.
Viscocity increase gradually. The molecules become longer and get entangled together causing it to flow
less easil .
III Alkuna/ Alkynes

1. Alkuna ialah kumpulan hidrokarbon yang tidak tepu .
Alkynes is a group of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
2. Molekul alkuna mempunyai sekurang-kurangnya satu ikatan ganda tiga di antara dua atom karbonnya.
Alkynes molecules have at least one triple bond between two carbon atoms.
65
Jisim molar Takat lebur Takat didih
Nama Formula molekul Ketumpatan
Molar mass Melting point Boiling point
Name Molecular formula Density (g cm-3)
(g mol ) -1
( C)
o
( C)
o
Etuna
C2H2 26.04 –88.0 –80.7 0.377
Ethyne
Prop-1-una
40.06 –102.7 –23.2 0.607
Prop-1-yne C3H4
But-1-una/
C4H6 54.09 –125.7 8.08 0.678
But-1-yne
Pent-1-una
C5H8 68.12 –90.0 40.1 0.691
Pent-1-yne
Heks-1-una
IA
C6H10 82.14 –132.0 71.4 0.718
Hex-1-yne
Hept-1-una
C7H12 96.17 –81.0 99.0 0.736
Hep-tyne
3. Takat didih dan takat lebur bertambah beransur-ansur dengan bilangan atom karbon dalam molekul.
The melting and boiling points increase gradually as the number of carbon atoms per molecules increases.
4. Titik didih alkuna lebih tinggi berbanding alkena kerana terdapat satu ikatan tambahan pada
5.
karbon.
Tiga
lain adalah pepejal.
AS
The boiling points of alkynes are slightly
ahli pertama adalah gas,

higher
lapan
than alkenes due to one extra bond at the carbon.
ahli seterusnya adalah cecair manakala yang
The first three members are gases, the next eight are liquids while others are solids.
6. Tidak larut dalam air tetapi larut dalam pelarut organik seperti eter, tetraklorometana
dan benzena.
Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ether, carbon tetrachloromethane and
N
benzene.
molekul semakin bertambah.
Less dense than water. The density increase gradually as the molecular size increases.
PA
IV Alkohol/ Alcohols
1. Alkohol ringkas adalah cecair tak berwarna pada suhu bilik, mudah meruap dan mudah tersejat.
Simple alcohols are colourless liquids at room temperature, volatile and evaporate easily.
Jisim molar Takat lebur Takat didih

Nama Formula molekul Keadaan fizikal
Molar mass Melting point Boiling point
Name Molecular formula Physical state
(g mol-1) (oC) (oC)
Metanol Cecair
CH3OH 32 –97 65
Methanol Liquid
Etanol Cecair
C2H5OH 46 –117 78
Ethanol Liquid
Propan-1-ol Cecair
C3H7OH 60 –126 97
Propan-1-ol Liquid
Butan-1-ol Cecair
C4H9OH 74 –90 118
Butan-1-ol Liquid
Pentan-1-ol Cecair
C5H11OH 88 –79 138
Pentan-1-ol Liquid
Heksan-1-ol Cecair
C6H13OH 102.17 –44.6 157
Hexan-1-ol Liquid
66
2. Takat didih alkohol adalah tinggi secara relatif jika dibandingkan dengan alkana yang sepadan.
Ini disebabkan kehadiran kumpulan hidroksil .
The boiling points of alcohols are relatively higher compared to corresponding alkanes. This is because of the
presence of hydroxyl group.
3. Empat ahli pertama alkohol wujud sebagai cecair yang mudah meruap .
First four members of alcohols exist as volatile liquids .
4. Alkohol larut dalam air dan pelarut organik . Keterlarutan alkohol

berkurang apabila bilangan atom karbon semakin bertambah.
IA
Alcohols soluble in water and organic solvents. The solubility of alcohols decreases as
the number of carbon atoms increases.
Ek stra
Ekstra Tip
Molekul alkohol membentuk ikatan hidrogen dengan molekul air. Ini menyebabkan alkohol larut di dalam air
walaupun merupakan sebatian kovalen dan mempunyai takat didih yang lebih tinggi daripada yang dijangka.
Alcohol molecules form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. This cause the alcohols to be soluble in water although they are
covalent compounds and have higher than expected boiling points.
AS
V Asid Karboksilik/ Carboxylic Acids
1. Asid karboksilik ialah sebatian karbon dengan kumpulan berfungsi yang dinamakan
Carboxylic acids are a carbon compounds with the functional group known as carboxyl group
kumpulan karboksil
.
.
Nama Formula molekul Takat didih Keterlarutan dalam air

Name Molecular formula Boiling point (oC) Solubility in water
Asid metanoik Sangat larut

HCOOH 101
Methanoic acid Very soluble
N
Asid etanoik Sangat larut
CH3COOH 118
Ethanoic acid Very soluble
Asid propanoik Sangat larut

C2H5COOH 141
Propanoic acid Very soluble
PA
Asid butanoik Sangat larut

C3H7COOH 164
Butanoic acid Very soluble
Asid pentanoik Sangat larut

C4H9COOH 186
Pentanoic acid Very soluble
Asid heksanoik Sangat larut

C5H11COOH 205
Hexanoic acid Very soluble
2. Takat didih asid karboksilik adalah lebih tinggi secara relatif berbanding dengan alkana yang
sepadan. Ini adalah disebabkan kehadiran kumpulan karboksil .
The boiling points of carboxylic acids are relatively higher than corresponding alkanes. This is due to the
presence of carboxyl group .
3. Asid karboksilik yang mempunyai empat atau kurang bilangan atom karbon larut dalam air
dan mengion separa untuk membentuk asid lemah . Keterlarutan asid karboksilik berkurang
dengan pertambahan bilangan atom karbon per molekul.
Carboxylic acids with four or less carbon atoms are soluble in water and ionise partially to form
weak acids . The solubility of carboxylic acid decreases with increasing number of carbon atoms per
molecule.
4. Apabila bilangan atom karbon dalam suatu molekul bertambah, ketumpatan asid karboksilik akan
bertambah .
As the number of carbon atoms in a molecule increases, the density of carboxylic acid will increase .
67
5. Asid karboksilik dengan saiz molekul yang kecil adalah cecair the berwarna dan mempunyai bau
yang tajam. Asid karboksilik dengan saiz molekul yang besar adalah pepejal contohnya lilin.
Small molecules of carboxylic acids are colourless liquids with a pungent smell. Large molecules of carboxylic acids
are solids , for example candle.
VI Ester/ Ester
1. Ester dihasilkan melalui tindak balas pengesteran .
Esters are produced by the esterification reaction.
2. Ester terbentuk apabila asid karboksilik bertindak balas dengan alkohol menggunakan
asid sulfurik pekat sebagai mangkin.
An ester is formed when a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid as
the catalyst.
IA
3. Sifat fizikal ester:/ Physical properties of esters:
(a) Cecair the berwarna dengan bau wangi buah-huahan.
buah-huahan Colourless liquids with a sweet fruity smell.
(b) Sebatian kovalen yang tidak larut air.

dalam air
Covalent compounds which are insoluble in water.
(c) Kurang tumpat dan terapung di atas air./ Less dense and floats on water.
2.3
(d) Neutral dan
electricity.
AS
tidak boleh mengkonduksikan elektrik. / Neutral and
Sifat Kimia dan Saling Pertukaran antara Siri Homolog

cannot conduct
Chemical Properties and Interconversion between the Homologous Series
A Sifat Kimia Setiap Siri Homolog

Chemical Properties of Each Homologous Series
I Alkana/ Alkanes
N
1. Alkana merupakan sebatian hidrokarbon tepu . Setiap atom karbon dalam molekul alkana telah
terikat kepada bilangan atom yang maksimum.
maksimum
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbon compounds. Each carbon atom in an alkane molecule is already
bonded to a maximum number of atoms.
PA
2. Pembakaran alkana:/ Combustion of alkanes:

(a) Alkana terbakar lengkap dalam oksigen berlebihan untuk menghasilkan karbon dioksida dan
air sahaja. Pembakaran alkana menghasilkan banyak tenaga haba .
Alkanes burn completely
in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water only. The
combustion of alkanes produces a lot of heat energy.
Contoh/Example:
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
2C2H6 + 7O2  4CO2 + 6H2O
(b) Pembakaran tidak lengkap alkana berlaku dalam oksigen yang terhad. Alkana terbakar untuk
menghasilkan campuran karbon dioksida , karbon monoksida , karbon (jelaga) dan wap air.
Incomplete combustion of alkanes occurs in limited supply of oxygen. Alkanes burn to produce a mixture of
carbon dioxide, , carbon monoxide , carbon (soot) and water vapour.
Contoh/Example:
2CH4 + 3O2 → 2CO + 4H2O
CH4+ O2 → C + 2H2O
68
(c) Apabila saiz molekul alkana semakin besar, alkana semakin susah dibakar. Molekul alkana yang besar
terbakar dengan nyalaan lebih berjelaga . Hal ini disebabkan, peratus karbon mengikut jisim dalam
molekul alkana semakin bertambah apabila bilangan atom karbon per molekul bertambah.
When the molecular size of an alkane increases, it becomes more difficult to burn. Large molecules of alkanes
burn with sootier flames. This is because the percentage of carbon by mass in the alkane molecule
increases as the number of carbon atoms per molecule increases.
3. Tindak balas penukargantian (penghalogenan) alkana:/ Substitution reaction (halogenation) of alkanes:
Setiap atom hidrogen dalam molekul akana digantikan dengan atom halogen dengan kehadiran
cahaya matahari atau sinaran ultraungu sebagai mangkin.
IA
Each hydrogen atom in an alkane is substituted by a halogen atom in the presence of sunlight or
ultraviolet light as the catalyst.
Contoh/ Example:
(a) Atom hidrogen dalam metana ditukarganti satu demi satu oleh atom klorin.
Hydrogen atoms in methane are replaced one by one by chlorine atoms.
CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl
CH3Cl + Cl2  CH2Cl2 + HCl
AS CH2Cl2 + Cl2  CHCl3 + HCl
CHCl3 + Cl2  CCl4 + HCl
(b) Atom hidrogen dalam heksana digantikan satu demi satu oleh atom bromin.
Hydrogen atoms in hexane are replaced one by one by bromine atoms.
C6H14 + Br2  C6H13Br + HBr
C6H13Br Br2  C6H12Br2 + HBr
C6H12Br2 + Br2  C6H11Br3 + HBr
C6H11Br3 + Br2  C6H10Br4 + HBr
N
Ek stra
Ekstra Tip
• Apabila saiz molekul alkana bertambah, takat didih dan kelikatan juga turut bertambah. Alkana molekul kecil
terbakar dengan nyalaan biru tanpa jelaga manakala alkana molekul besar terbakar dengan nyalaan kuning
dengan jelaga.
When molecule size of alkanes increases, boiling point and viscosity increase accordingly. Alkanes become more difficult to
PA
burn. Alkanes with small molecules burn with a blue flame without soot while the big molecules burn with a yellow flame with
soot
• Semasa proses peretakan, alkana molekul besar dalam petroleum dipanaskan untuk menghasilkan campuran
alkana dan alkena yang mempunyai molekul lebih kecil. Alkana dan alkena molekul kecil lebih banyak
kegunaannya.
During cracking process, alkanes with big molecules in petroleum is heated to produce a mixture of alkanes and alkenes with
smaller molecules. Alkanes and alkenes with smaller molecules have more uses.
II Alkena/ Alkenes
1. Alkena merupakan hidrokarbon tidak tepu kerana terdapat ikatan ganda dua antara atom
karbon.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because of the existence of carbon-carbon double bonds.
2. Pembakaran alkena:/ Combustion of alkenes:
(a) Alkena terbakar lengkap dalam oksigen berlebihan untuk menghasilkan karbon dioksida dan
air .
Alkenes burn completely in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water .
Contoh/ Example:
C2H4 + 3O2  2CO2 + 2H2O
2C3H6 + 9O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
C4H8 + 6O2  4CO2 + 4H2O
2C5H10 + 15O2  10CO2 + 10H2O
69
(b) Dalam bekalan oksigen yang terhad, alkena terbakar tidak lengkap untuk menghasilkan satu
campuran karbon dioksida, karbon monoksida , karbon (jelaga) dan wap air.
In limited supply of oxygen, alkenes burn incompletely to produce a mixture of carbon monoxide ,
carbon (soot) and water vapour.
Contoh/ Example:
C2H4 + 2O2 → 2CO + 2H2O
C2H4 + O2 → 2C + 2H2O
(c) Molekul alkena yang besar terbakar dalam udara dengan nyalaan lebih berjelaga berbanding dengan molekul
alkena yang kecil disebabkan peratus karbon mengikut jisim dalam molekul besar lebih tinggi .
Large molecules of alkenes burn in air with sootier flames as compared to smaller alkenes due to higher
percentage of carbon by mass in the larger molecules.
IA
3. Tindak balas penambahan alkena:/ Addition reaction of alkenes:
(a) Dalam tindak balas penambahan, ikatan ganda dua antara atom karbon, C = C dalam alkena akan pecah
untuk membenarkan atom-atom lain ditambah kepada atom-atom karbon.
In addition reaction, the carbon-carbon double bonds, C = C in alkenes are broken to allow other atoms to
add onto the carbon atoms.
(b) Penambahan hidrogen (penghidrogenan):/ Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation):
Contoh/ Example:
untuk menghasilkan
AS
Pada suhu 180 °C dan dengan kehadiran nikel sebagai mangkin, etena bertindak balas dengan gas hidrogen
etana .
At 180 °C and in the presence of nickel as catalyst, ethene react with hydrogen gas to produce
C2H4 + H2  C2H6
ethane .
(c) Penambahan halogen (penghalogenan):/ Addition of halogens (halogenation):

Contoh/ Example:
Apabila gas etena dialirkan melalui larutan akueus bromin, warna perang bromin dinyahwarnakan
dan cecair tak berwarna, 1,2 - dibromoetana terbentuk.
When ethene gas is passed through an aqueous solution of bromine, the brown bromine is decolourised
N
and a colourless liquid, 1,2 - dibromoethane is formed.
C2H4 + Br2  C2H4Br2
(d) Penambahan hidrogen halida:/ Addition of hydrogen halides:
Contoh/ Example:
PA
Hidrogen klorida bertindak balas dengan etena pada suhu bilik untuk menghasilkan sebatian
tepu kloroetana.
Hydrogen chloride react with ethene at room temperature to produce a saturated compound chloroethane.
C2H4 + HCl  C2H5Cl
(e) Penambahan air:/ Addition of water:
Contoh/ Example:
Etanol terhasil apabila campuran etena dan stim, H2O dialirkan melalui asid fosforik pada
suhu 300 °C dan tekanan 60 atmosfera.
Ethanol is produced when a mixture of ethene and steam, H2O is passed over phosphoric acid at 300 °C and
a pressure of 60 atmospheres.
C2H4 + H2O  C2H5OH
(f) Penambahan kumpulan hidroksil:/ Addition of hydroxyl groups:
Contoh/ Example:
Etena bertindak balas dengan larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid menghasilkan larutan etana-1,2-
diol.
Ethene reacts with dilute acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution to produce ethane-1,2-diol.
C2H4 + [O] + H2O  C2H4(OH)2
70
4. Tindak balas pempolimeran ialah tindak balas kimia di mana monomer (molekul kecil) bergabung bersama
untuk membentuk polimer (molekul besar).
Polymerisation reaction is the chemical reaction in which monomers (small molecules) join together to form a polymer (large
molecule).
Contoh/ Example:
Pada tekanan 1 000 atmosfera dan suhu 200 °C, molekul etena menjalankan pempolimeran penambahan untuk
membentuk molekul berantai panjang yang dipanggil politena atau polietena .
At a pressure of 1 000 atmospheres and a temperature of 200 °C, ethena molecules undergo addition polymerisation to form
a long-chain giant molecule called polythene or poly(ethene) .
H H H H
IA
nC=C C – C
H H H H n
Tujuan/ Aim:
AS
Membandingkan sifat kimia alkana dan alkena
AKTIVITI 2.1
Eksperimen Wajib
To compare the chemical properties of alkanes and alkenes
Bahan/ Materials:
Heksana, C6H14 heksena, C6H12 air bromin dalam 1,1,1- trikloroetana, larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4
berasid, 0.1 mol dm-3, asid sulfurik cair, H2SO4, kayu uji, kertas turas
Hexane, C6H14, hexene, C6H12, bromine water in 1,1,1- trichloroethane, 0.1 mol dm-3 acidified potassium manganate(VII) ,
KMnO4 solution, dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4, wooden splinter, filter paper
N
Radas/ Apparatus:
Mangkuk penyejat, penitis, tabung uji, penunu Bunsen
Evaporating dish, droppers, test tubes, Bunsen burner
A Pembakaran (kejelagaan)/ Combustion (sootiness)

PA
Kertas turas
Filter papers
Heksana Heksena
Hexane Hexene
Mangkuk penyejat
Evaporating dish
Rajah/ Diagram 2.2

1. Kira-kira 2 cm3 heksana, C6H14 dan heksena, C6H12 a dituang ke dalam dua mangkuk penyejat yang
berasingan.
About 2 cm3 of hexane, C6H14 and hexene, C6H12 are poured separately into two evaporating dish.
2. Kedua-dua cecair dinyalakan dengan kayu uji menyala.
Both liquids are ignited with a lighted wooden splinter.
3. Sekeping kertas turas diletakkan di atas setiap nyalaan seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2.2.
A piece of filter paper is placed above each flame as shown in Diagram 2.2.
4. Kuantiti jelaga yang terkumpul pada kedua-dua kertas turas diperhatikan dan dibandingkan.
The quantity of soot collected on both filter papers is observed and compared.
71
Hidrokarbon Pemerhatian Inferens

Hydrocarbon Observation Inference
Heksana Nyalaan kuning berjelaga. Peratus kandungan karbon

Hexane, C6H14 yellow kurang
A sooty flame. dalam molekul .
Kurang jelaga terkumpul pada kertas Percentage content of carbon
turas. less
in molecule is .
Less
soot collected on the filter paper.
Heksena Nyalaan kuning dan lebih berjelaga. Peratus kandungan karbon

Hexene, C6H12 yellow and more sooty lebih
dalam molekul .
IA
A flame.
Lebih jelaga terkumpul pada kertas Percentage content of carbon
turas. more
in molecule is .
More
soot is collected on the filter paper.
1. Heksena terbakar dengan nyalaan lebih berjelaga berbanding heksana .

Hexene hexane
burns with a sootier flame compared to .
2. Heksena
Hexene
AS
mempunyai peratus karbon mengikut jisim yang lebih tinggi daripada
contains a higher percentage by mass of carbon than
3. Peratus karbon dalam heksena/ Percentage of carbon in hexene, C6H12
hexane
.
heksana .
6 × 12 72
× 100 % = × 100 % = 85.71 %
6(12) + 12(1) 84
Peratus karbon dalam heksana/ Percentage of carbon in hexane, C6H14

N
6 × 12 72
× 100 % = × 100 % = 83.72%
6(12) + 14(1) 86
B Tindak balas dengan bromin/ Reaction with bromine

PA
1. Kira-kira 2 cm3 heksana, C6H14 dan heksena, C6H12 dituang ke dalam dua tabung uji berasingan.
About 2 cm3 of hexane, C6H14 and hexene, C6H12 is poured into two separate test tubes.
2. Air bromin dalam 1,1,1- trikoloroetana ditambahkan setitik demi setitik sambil tabung uji digoncang
sehingga tiada perubahan diperhatikan.
Bromine water in 1,1,1- trichloroethane is added drop by drop while shaking the test tubes until no more changes
are observed.

Heksana Warna perang bromin tidak berubah . Tidak mengalami tindak balas
Hexane, C6H14 remains penambahan dengan bromin.
The brown colour of bromine
Do not undergoes
unchanged addition reaction with
. bromine.
Heksena Warna perang bromin dinyahwarna . Mengalami tindak balas

Hexene, C6H12 decolourised penambahan dengan bromin.
The brown colour of bromine .
Undergoes
addition reaction with
bromine.
72
1. Heksana, C6H14 dan heksena, C6H12 menunjukkan sifat kimia yang berbeza apabila bertindak
balas dengan bromin.
different
Hexane, C6H14 and hexene, C6H12 shows chemical properties when react with bromine.
2. Heksena, C6H12 yang merupakan hidrokarbon tidak tepu mengalami tindak balas penambahan
dengan bromin.
unsaturated addition
Hexene, C6H12 is an hydrocarbon. It undergoes reaction with bromine.
3. Heksana, C6H14 yang merupakan hidrokarbon tepu tidak bertindak balas dengan bromin.
saturated
Hexane, C6H14 is a hydrocarbon. It does not react with bromine.
IA
C Tindak balas dengan larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid
Reaction with acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution
1. Kira-kira 1 cm3 larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4 berasid dituang ke dalam tabung uji.
About 1 cm3 of aciditied potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution is poured into a test tube.
2. Kira-kira 1 cm3 asid sulfurik cair, H2SO4 ditambah kepada larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4 berasid di
dalam tabung uji.
AS
About 1 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is added to the acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution in
the test tube.
3. Kira-kira 2 cm3 heksana, C6H14 dituang ke dalam dua tabung uji. Campuran digoncang dan perubahan
warna larutan direkodkan
About 2 cm3 of hexane, C6H14 is added into the test tube. The mixture is shaken and the colour change of the solution
is recorded.
4. Langkah 1 hingga 3 diulang dengan heksena, C6H12.
Steps 1 to 3 are repeated with hexene, C6H12.

N
Heksana Warna ungu larutan kalium manganat(VII) Tidak mengalami tindak balas
Hexane, C6H14 kekal tidak berubah penambahan dengan larutan kalium
berasid .
manganat(VII) berasid.
The purple colour of acidified potassium
PA
Do not undergoes
addition reaction with
remains unchanged
manganate(VII) solution . acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution.
Heksena Warna ungu larutan kalium manganat(VII) Mengalami tindak balas

Hexene, C6H12 dinyahwarna penambahan dengan larutan kalium
berasid .
manganat(VII) berasid.
The purple colour of acidified potassium
Undergoes
decolourised addition reaction with
manganate(VII) solution is . acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution.
1. Heksana, C6H14 dan heksena, C6H12 menunjukkan sifat kimia yang berbeza apabila bertindak
balas dengan larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4 berasid.
different
Hexane, C6H14 and hexene, C6H12 show chemical properties when react with acidified potassium
manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution.
2. Heksena, C6H12 yang merupakan hidrokarbon tidak tepu mengalami tindak balas penambahan
dengan larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4 berasid.
unsaturated
Hexene, C6H12 is an hydrocarbon. It undergoes addition reaction with acidified potassium
manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution.
3. Heksana, C6H14 yang merupakan hidrokarbon tepu tidak bertindak balas dengan larutan
kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4 berasid.
saturated
Hexane, C6H14 is a hydrocarbon. It does not react with acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4
solution.
73
III Alkohol/ Alcohols
1. Alkohol adalah bukan hidrokarbon. Alkohol mengandungi unsur karbon , hidrogen
dan oksigen .
Alcohols are non-hydrocarbons. Alcohols contains carbon , hydrogen and oxygen
elements.
2. Formula am bagi alkohol ialah CnH2n+1 OH, di mana n = 1, 2, 3,.... Semua alkohol mengandungi kumpulan
hidroksil, – OH sebagai kumpulan berfungsi.
The general formula of alcohols is CnH2n+1OH, where n = 1, 2, 3, … .All alcohols contain the hydroxyl group, –OH as their
functional group.
3. Sifat kimia etanol boleh dihuraikan melalui tindak balas pembakaran
pembakaran, pendehidratan dan pengoksidaan
The chemical properties of ethanol can be described through the combustion
combustion, dehydration and oxidation reactions.
4. Tindak balas kimia etanol ditentukan oleh kehadiran kumpulan hidroksil .
IA
The chemical reactions of ethanol are determined by the presence of the hydroxyl group .
5. Pembakaran etanol:/Combustion of ethanol:

(a) Etanol ialah bahan yang mudah terbakar. Dalam oksigen berlebihan, etanol terbakar lengkap
dengan nyalaan biru menghasilkan karbon dioksida dan air .
Ethanol is a highly flammable substance. In excess supply of oxygen, ethanol burns completely with a clean
blue flame to produce carbon dioxide and water .
AS
(b) Pembakaran etanol membebaskan banyak tenaga
The combustion of ethanol releases a lot of heat .
haba .
(c) Etanol juga dikenali sebagai bahan api bersih kerana terbakar dengan lengkap dan tidak
membebaskan bahan pencemar ke persekitaran.
Ethanol is also known as a clean fuel because of its complete combustion, which does not release
pollutants to the surroundings.
6. Pendehidratan etanol:/ Dehydration of ethanol:

N
(a) Pendehidratan etanol ialah proses penyingkiran molekul air daripada etanol. Tindak balas ini
menukar etanol kepada etena .
Dehydration of an ethanol is the removal of water molecules from ethanol. This reaction changes ethanol to
ethene
PA
(b) Penyingkiran satu molekul air menyebabkan pembentukan satu ikatan ganda dua antara
atom karbon.
The elimination of a molecule of water results in the formation of a carbon-carbon double bond.
(c) Wap etanol dialirkan melalui mangkin yang panas seperti serpihan porselin, pasu berliang atau
aluminium oksida.
Ethanol vapour is passed over a heated catalyst such as unglazed porcelain chips, porous pot or aluminium
oxide.
(d) Pendehidratan etanol juga boleh berlaku apabila etanol dipanaskan dengan asid sulfurik pekat
berlebihan pada suhu 180 °C .

Dehydration of ethanol can also occur when ethanol is heated with excess concentrated sulphuric acid at
temperature of 180 °C .
7. Pengoksidaan etanol:/ Oxidation of ethanol:

(a) Etanol dioksidakan dengan menggunakan agen pengoksidaan seperti larutan kalium dikromat(VI),
K2Cr2O7 berasid dan larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4 berasid.
Ethanol can be oxidised by using oxidising agents such as acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7
solution and acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution.
74
(b) Apabila campuran larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid berlebihan dengan etanol dipanaskan,
asid etanoik terbentuk. Larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid bertukar daripada jingga
kepada hijau .
When mixture of excess acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 solution and ethanol is heated, ethanoic acid
is formed. Acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K Cr O solution turns from orange to green .

2 2 7
(c) Jika larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO4 berasid digunakan, warna ungu larutan itu akan bertukar kepada
tak berwarna .
If acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution is used, the purple colour of the solution turns to
colourless .
IA
8. Penyediaan etanol melalui kaedah penapaian:/ Manufacture of ethanol by fermentation:
(a) Penapaian ialah proses kimia di mana mikroorganisma seperti yis menguraikan gula dan kanji untuk
menghasilkan etanol dan karbon dioksida .
Fermentation is the chemical process in which microorganisms such as yeast break down sugar and starch to produce
ethanol and carbon dioxide .
zimase
karbon dioksida .AS

(b) Yis mengandungi enzim yang dipanggil
Yeast releases enzyme called zymase

. Enzim ini memecahkan gula dan kanji kepada
glukosa. Molekul glukosa terurai kepada molekul ringkas untuk membentuk etanol dan
. This enzyme breaks down the sugar and starch into glucose. The
glucose molecules are decomposed to simpler molecules to form ethanol and carbon dioxide .
9. Penyediaan etanol melalui penghidratan etena:/ Manufacture of ethanol by hydration of ethene:

(a) Penghidratan ialah proses di mana stim ditambahkan kepada etena untuk menghasilkan
etanol .
N
Hydration is the process by which steam is added to ethene to produce ethanol .
(b) Campuran etena dan stim dialir melalui mangkin panas asid fosforik pada suhu 300 °C
dan tekanan 60 atmosfera.
The mixture of ethene and steam is passed over a hot catalyst of phosphoric acid at 300 °C and at a
PA
pressure of 60 atmospheres.
(c) Etanol diasingkan daripada air melalui penyulingan berperingkat .

The ethanol is separated from the water by fractional distillation .
AKTIVITI 2.2
Tujuan/ Aim:
Menyediakan etanol melalui proses penapaian glukosa
Eksperimen Wajib
To prepare ethanol by the fermentation of glucose
Bahan/ Materials:
Glukosa, yis, air kapur, air suling, kertas turas
Glucose, yeast, limewater, distilled water, filter paper
Radas/ Apparatus:
Kelalang kon, bikar, silinder penyukat, kelalang penyulingan, salur penghantar dengan penyumbat getah,
termometer, kondenser Liebig, turus berperingkat, kaki retort dan pengapit, tungku kaki tiga, kasa dawai,
penunu Bunsen, tabung didih, corong turas
Conical flask, beaker, measuring cylinder, distillation flask, stopper and delivery tube, thermometer, Liebig condenser,
fractional distillation column, retort stand and clamp, tripod stand, wire gauze, glass rod, Bunsen burner, boiling tube,
filter funnel
75
Termometer
Thermometer
Air keluar
Water out Kondenser Liebig
Penyumbat Turus Liebig condenser
Salur penghantar
Stopper berperingkat
Delivery tube
Fractionating
Kelalang kon column
Conical flask Air masuk
Tabung didih Kelalang Water in
Glukosa + yis Boiling tube dasar bulat
Hasil turasan
+ air suling Round
Filtrate
Glucose + yeast bottomed flask
Air kapur Kukus air
+ distilled water Limewater Water bath Etanol
Panaskan Ethanol
Heat
IA
Rajah/Diagram 2.3 Rajah/Diagram 2.4
1. 20 g glukosa ditimbang dan dituang ke dalam 200 cm3 air suling di dalam sebuah kelalang kon.
20 g of glucose is weighed and poured into 200 cm3 of distilled water in a conical flask.
2. 10 g yis dimasukkan kepada campuran. Campuran dikacau dengan rod kaca.
10 g of yeast is added to the mixture. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod.
3. Kelalang kon ditutup dengan penyumbat getah yang disambung dengan salur penghantar. Hujung salur
penghantar yang satu lagi dimasukkan ke dalam sebuah tabung didih yang mengandungi air kapur
seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2.3.
AS
The conical flask is closed with a stopper connected with a delivery tube. The other end of the delivery tube is
dipped into limewater in a boiling tube as shown in Diagram 2.3.
4. Radas penapaian dibiarkan di tempat yang hangat (kira-kira 35 °C) selama tiga hari.
The fermentation apparatus is left in a warm place (about 35 °C) for three days.
5. Perubahan dalam kelalang kon dan air kapur dalam tabung didih diperhatikan dari semasa ke semasa dan
direkodkan.
The changes in the conical flask and limewater in the boiling tube are observed from time to time and recorded.
6. Selepas tiga hari, kandungan dalam kelalang kon dituras dan dituang ke dalam sebuah kelalang dasar
bulat. Susunan radas seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2.4 disediakan.
After three days, the content of the conical flask is filtered and poured into a distillation flask. The apparatus set-up
as shown in Diagram 2.4 is prepared.
N
7. Hasil turasan dipanaskan dengan kukus air dan hasil sulingan dikumpul pada suhu 78 °C. Pengumpulan
hasil sulingan dihentikan apabila suhu melebihi 80 °C
°C.
The filtrate is heated with a water bath and the distillate is collected at 78 °C. Accumulation of distillate is stopped
when the temperature exceeds 80° C.
8. Warna dan bau hasil sulingan direkodkan.
PA
The colour and smell of the distillate are recorded.

1. Semasa proses penapaian, gas tak berwarna terbebas. Gas itu menukar air kapur menjadi
keruh .
colourless chalky
During the fermentation process, a gas is released. It turns limewater .
2. Semasa penyulingan berperingkat, cecair tak berwarna dikumpulkan pada suhu 78 °C .

Cecair itu mempunyai bau alkohol .
78 °C
During the fractional distillation, a colourless liquid is collected at the temperature of . It has a
alcohol
smell of .
3. Gas karbon dioksida terbebas semasa penapaian.

Carbon dioxide
gas is released during fermentation.
4. Cecair tak berwarna yang dikumpulkan pada suhu 78 °C ialah etanol .

ethanol
The colourless liquid collected at 78 °C is .
5. Etanol boleh di sediakan melalui proses penapaian glukosa.

fermentation
Ethanol can be prepared by the of glucose.
76
AKTIVITI 2.3
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengkaji sifat kimia etanol
Eksperimen Wajib
To investigate the chemical properties of ethanol
Radas/ Apparatus:
Tabung didih, penyumbat tabung didih dengan salur penghantar, pemegang tabung uji, bikar 500 cm3, kaki
retort dan pengapit, penunu Bunsen, silinder penyukat 50 cm3, penitis, penyepit tabung uji
Boiling tube, test tube, stopper with delivery tube, test tube holder, 500 cm3 beaker, retort stand and clamp, Bunsen
burner, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, dropper, forceps
Bahan/ Materials:
Etanol, C2H5OH, larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid, asid sulfurik pekat, H2SO4, air bromin, kertas
IA
litmus biru, kayu uji, ais, serpihan porselin, wul kaca, air
Ethanol, C2H5OH, acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 solution, concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4, bromine
water, blue litmus paper, wooden splinter, ice, porcelain chips, glass wool, water
A Pengoksidaan etanol/ Oxidation of ethanol

AS Tabung didih
Boiling tube
Etanol + larutan
kalium dikromat(VI)
Hasil sulingan
Distillate
berasid
Ethanol + acidified
potassium
dichromate(VI) Panaskan
solution Air berais
Heat
Iced water
N
Rajah/Diagram 2.5
1. Kira-kira 5 cm larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid dituang ke dalam sebuah tabung didih.
3
About 5 cm3 of acidified potassium dichromate(VI)

dichromate(VI),, K2Cr2O7 solution is poured into a boiling tube.
2. 10 titik asid sulfurik pekat, H2SO4 ditambah ke dalam tabung didih.
PA
10 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid

acid, H2SO4 are added into the boiling tube.
3. Kira-kira 2 cm3 etanol
etanol,, C2H5OH ditambah ke dalam campuran.
About 2 cm3 of ethanol
ethanol,, C2H5OH is added to the mixture.
4. Susunan radas seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2.5 disediakan.
5. Tabung didih dipanaskan dengan berhati-hati sehingga campuran mendidih.
The boiling tube is heated gently until the mixture boils.
6. Perubahan warna bagi larutan dalam tabung didih direkodkan.
The colour change of the solution in the boiling tube is recorded.
7. Hasil sulingan dikumpulkan dalam sebuah tabung uji.
The distillate is collected in a test tube.
8. Warna dan bau hasil sulingan direkodkan.
The colour and the smell of the distillate are recorded.
9. 2 cm3 air suling ditambah kepada hasil sulingan dalam tabung uji dan larutan diuji dengan kertas litmus
biru.
2 cm3 of distilled water is added to the distillate in the test tube and the solution is tested with a blue litmus paper.
10. Perubahan warna kertas litmus biru direkodkan
The colour change of the blue litmus paper is recorded.
1. Warna larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid bertukar daripada jingga kepada hijau .
green
The colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 solution turns from orange to .
77
2. Ujian pada hasil sulingan/ Test on the distillate Pemerhatian/ Observation
Warna/ Colour Tidak berwarna/ Colourless
Bau/ Smell Berbau seperti cuka/ Smell of a vinegar
Kertas litmus biru/ Blue litmus paper Bertukar merah/ Turns red
3. Pengoksidaan etanol menghasilkan asid etanoik .

ethanoic acid
Oxidation of ethanol produces .
B Pendehidratan etanol/ Dehydration of ethanol
IA
Tabung didih Serpihan porselin

Boiling tube Porcelain chips
Gas
Gas
Wul kaca
dibasahkan
dalam etanol
Panaskan
Glass wool
Heat
soaked in
AS
ethanol
Air
Water
Rajah/ Diagram 2.6

1. Segumpal wul kaca dimasukkan ke dalam sebuah tabung didih.
A small amount of glass wool is placed in a boiling tube.
2. Menggunakan penitis, etanol
etanol, C2H5OH ditambah ke dalam tabung didih sehingga wul kaca menjadi
basah.
Using a dropper, ethanol, C2H5OH is added into the boiling tube until the glass wool is wet.
3. Tabung didih diapitkan secara mendatar dan bahagian tengah tabung didih dipenuhkan dengan serpihan
N
porselin seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2.6.
2.6.
The boiling tube is clamped horizontally and the middle part of the boiling tube is filled with porcelain chips as shown
in Diagram 2.6.
4. Serpihan porselin dipanaskan dengan kuat. Kemudian, wul kaca dihangatkan dari semasa ke semasa
untuk menghasilkan wap etanol.
PA
The unglazed porcelain chips are heated strongly. Then, the glass wool is warmed gently to vapourise the ethanol.
5. Pemanasan diteruskan dan gas yang terbebas dikumpul dalam dua buah tabung uji.
The heating continued and the gas released is collected in two test tubes.
6. Kira-kira 2 cm3 air bromin dititiskan ke dalam tabung uji pertama dan digoncang. Pemerhatian direkodkan.
About 2 cm3 of bromine water is added into the first test tube and the mixture is shaken well. The observation is
recorded.
7. Kayu uji bernyala didekatkan pada mulut tabung uji kedua. Pemerhatian direkodkan
direkodkan.
Lighted wooden splinter is placed close to the mouth of the second test tube. The observation is recorded.
1. Ujian/ Test Pemerhatian/ Observations
Air bromin Warna perang dilunturkan

Bromine water Brown colour decolourised
Kayu uji bernyala Terbakar dengan nyalaan kuning berjelaga

Lighted wooden splinter Burned with soot yellow flames
2. Pendehidratan etanol menghasilkan etena .

ethene
Dehydration of ethanol produces .
78
IV Asid Karboksilik/ Carboxylic Acid
1. Formula am bagi asid karboksilik ialah CnH2n+1COOH, di mana n = 0, 1, 2,...
The general formula of carboxylic acids is CnH2n+1COOH, where n = 0, 1, 2,..
2. Kumpulan karboksil, – COOH merupakan kumpulan berfungsi bagi asid karboksilik.
The functional group of the carboxylic acids is the carboxyl group, -COOH.
3. Sifat kimia asid etanoik:/ Chemical properties of ethanoic acid:
(a) Asid etanoik ialah asid lemah. Asid etanoik mengalami pengionan separa dalam air untuk menghasilkan ion
hidrogen .
Ethanoic acid is a weak acid. Ethanoic acid undergoes partial ionisation in water to produce hydrogen ions.
O H O
IA
‒
R – C – OH + H 2O R – C – O + H3O +
(b) Kehadiran ion hidrogen , walaupun dalam kepekatan yang rendah, masih mampu memberikan
sifat keasidan kepada asid etanoik.
The presence of hydrogen ions, even in a low concentration, still contributes to its acidic properties to ethanoic
acid.
Ethanoic acid shows

and reactive metals.
AS
(c) Asid etanoik menunjukkan sifat kimia yang
dengan bes, karbonat logam dan logam reaktif.
similar
reaktif.
serupa
(d) Tindak balas antara asid etanoik dengan bes atau alkali ialah tindak balas
The reaction between ethanoic acid and a base or an alkali is a
dengan asid lain apabila bertindak balas
chemical properties as other acids when it reacts with bases, metal carbonates
neutralisation
peneutralan
reaction.
.
(e) Hasil tindak balas ialah garam karboksilat dan air. Garam karboksilat yang terbentuk dipanggil
etanoat .
N
The products are salt and water. The salt formed is called ethanoate .
Contoh/ Example:
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
Asid etanoik Natrium hidroksida Natrium etanoat Air
PA
Ethanoic acid Sodium hydroxide Sodium ethanoate Water
(f) Asid etanoik bertindak balas perlahan dengan logam reaktif untuk menghasilkan garam karboksilat
dan gas hidrogen .

Ethanoic acid reacts slowly with reactive metals to produce carboxylate salts and hydrogen gas.
Contoh/ Example:
2CH3COOH + Mg (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
Asid etanoik Magnesium Magnesium etanoat Hidrogen
Ethanoic acid Magnesium Magnesium ethanoate Hydrogen
(g) Asid etanoik bertindak balas perlahan dengan karbonat logam untuk menghasilkan garam karboksilat ,
air dan gas karbon dioksida .
Ethanoic acid reacts slowly with metal carbonates to produce carboxylate salts , water and
carbon dioxide gas.
Contoh/ Example:
2CH3COOH + CaCO3 (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
Asid etanoik Kalsium karbonat Kalsium etanoat Air Karbon dioksida
Ethanoic acid Calcium carbonate Calcium ethanoate Water Carbon dioxide
79
B Memahami Ester
Understand Ester
I Sifat Fizik Ester/ Physical Properties of Esters
1. Ester ringkas adalah cecair tak berwarna dengan bau wangi yang menyenangkan.
The simple esters are colourless liquids with a sweet pleasant smell.
2. Semua ester adalah sebatian kovalen yang tidak larut dalam air.
All esters are covalent compounds which are insoluble in water.
3. Ester biasanya kurang tumpat daripada air (terapung di atas air).

Esters are usually less dense than water (float on water).
4. Ester adalah neutral dan tidak boleh mengkonduksikan elektrik.
IA
Esters are neutral and cannot conduct electricity.
II Formula Molekul, Formula Struktur dan Penamaan Ester Berdasarkan Sistem IUPAC
Molecular Formulae, Structural Formulae and Naming Esters Based on IUPAC System
1. Formula am bagi ester ialah CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1

+1
, di mana n = 0, 1, 2,… dan m = 1, 2, 3, …
The general formula of esters is CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1, where n = 0, 1, 2,… and m = 1, 2, 3, …
kumpulan karboksilat
2. Semua ester mengandungi
All esters contain
AS
carboxylate group
sebagai kumpulan berfungsi.
as their functional group.
3. Struktur suatu ester terdiri daripada dua bahagian, iaitu satu daripada
asid karboksilik .
alkohol dan satu lagi daripada
The structure of an ester consists of two parts, ie one from alcohol and the other one from carboxylic acid .
Contoh/ Example:
Rajah 2.7 menunjukkan formula struktur bagi metil etanoat yang terdiri daripada satu bahagian daripada asid
etanoik dan satu lagi daripada metanol.
Diagram 2.7 shows the structural formula of methyl ethanoate that consists of one part from ethanoic acid and the other part
N
from methanol.
H O H
H– C – C –O– C –H
H H
PA
Diperoleh daripada asid etanoik Diperoleh daripada metanol

Derived from ethanoic acid
acid, CH3CO Derived from methanol, CH3CO
Rajah/ Diagram 2.7

4. Nama ester juga terdiri daripada dua bahagian
bahagian.
The name of an ester also consists of two parts.
(a) Bahagian pertama: Diambil daripada alkohol (kumpulan alkil).
First part: Taken from alcohol (the alkyl group).
Contoh/ Example:
• Metanol/ Methanol → metil/ methyl
• Etanol/ Ethanol → etil / ethyl
• Propanol/ Propanol → propil/ propyl
• Butanol/ Butanol → butil/ butyl
(b) Bahagian kedua: Diambil daripada asid karboksilik (tukar -oik kepada -oat)
Second part: Taken from carboxylic acid (change -oic to -oate)
Contoh/ Example:
• Metanoik/ Methanoic → metanoat/ methanoate
• Etanoik/ Ethanoic → etanoat/ ethanoate
• Propanoik/ Propanoic → propanoat/ propanoate
• Butanoik/ Butanoic → butanoat/ butanoate
80
Contoh/ Example:
Tindak balas asid propanoik dengan etanol menghasilkan ester yang dinamakan etil propanoat.
Reaction of propanoic acid reacts with ethanol produced an ester named as ethyl propanoate.
C2H5COOH + C2H5OH C2H5COOH + H2O

Asid propanoik Etanol Etil propanoat Air
Propanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl propanoate Water
C2H5CO OC2H5
Etanol/ Ethanol  etil/ ethy Propanoik/ Propanoic  propanoat/ propanoate
Etil propanoat
IA
Ethyl propanoate
Contoh/Example 7
Nama Formula molekul Formula struktur

Name
Etil metanoat
Ethyl methanoate
AS
Molecular formula
HCOOC2H5
Structural formula
O
H–C–O–C–C–H
H H
H H
H O H
Metil etanoat H–C–C–O–C–H
CH3COOCH3
Methyl ethanoate
H H
N
H O H H H
Propil etanoat H–C–C–O–C–C–C–H
CH3COOC3H7
Propyl ethanoate
PA
H H H H
H H O H H
Etil propanoat H–C–C–C–O–C–C–H
C2H5COOC2H5
Ethyl propanoate
H H H H
5. Ester dihasilkan melalui tindak balas pengesteran . Ester terbentuk apabila asid karboksilik bertindak
balas dengan alkohol menggunakan asid sulfurik pekat sebagai mangkin.
Esters are produced by an esterification reaction. An ester is formed when a carboxylic acid reacts with an
alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid as the catalyst.
CnH2n+1COOH + CmH2m+1OH  CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1 + H2O

Asid karboksilik Alkohol Ester Air
Carboxylic acid Alcohol Ester Water
81
AKTIVITI 2.4
Tujuan/ Aim:
Menyediakan pelbagai ester melalui pengesteran
Eksperimen Wajib
To prepare various esters through esterification

Bahan/ Materials:
Metanol, etanol, propanol, asid metanoik, asid etanoik, asid propanoik, asid sulfurik pekat, H2SO4, air
Methanol, ethanol, propanol, methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid, concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4, water
Radas/ Apparatus:
Kelalang dasar bulat, kondenser Liebig, silinder penyukat, kaki retort dan pengapit, tungku kaki tiga, kasa
dawai, penunu Bunsen, penyumbat dan salur penghantar
Rround-bottomed flask, Liebig condenser, stopper and delivery tube, measuring cylinder, retort stand and clamp, tripod
stand, wire gauze, Bunsen burner
IA
Air keluar Kondenser Liebig

Water out Liebig condenser
Air masuk
Water in
AS Kukus air
Water bath
Alkohol mutlak + asid

karboksilik glasial + asid
sulfurik pekat
Absolute alcohol
+ glacial carboxylic acid
+ concentrated
sulphuric acid
Rajah/ Diagra
Diagramm 2.8
1. Campuran 50 cm3 alkohol mutlak, 50 cm3 asid karboksilik glasial dan 5 cm3 asid sulfurik pekat, H2SO4
dipanaskan di bawah refluks seperti ditunjukkan pada Rajah 2.8.
A mixture of 50 cm3 of absolute alcohol, 50 cm3 of glacial carboxylic acid and 5 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid,
H2SO4 is heated under reflux as shown in Diagram 2.8.
N
2. Ester yang terbentuk diasingkan daripada campuran tindak balas balas secara penyulingan.
Ester formed is isolated from the reacting mixture by distillation.
3. Langkah 1 dan 2 diulang dengan pasangan alkohol dan asid karboksilik yang berlainan
berlainan.
Steps 1 and 2 are repeated by using different pairs of alcohol and carboxylic acid.
PA
1. Asid karboksilik glasial Alkohol mutlak Ester

Glacial carboxylic acid Absolute alcohol Ester
Asid metanoik Metanol Metil metanoat

Methanoic acid Methanol Methyl methanoate
Asid etanoik Etanol Etil ethanoat

Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate
Asid propanoik Propan-1-ol Propil propanoat

Propanoic acid Propan-1-ol Propyl propanoate
2. Hasil sulingan ialah cecair tak berwarna dan mempunyai bau wangi buah-buahan .
colourless fruity
The distillate is a liquid with a smell.
3. Cecair itu terapung di atas air.

floats
The liquid on water.
4. Tindak balas antara asid karboksilik glasial dengan alkohol mutlak boleh menghasilkan pelbagai
ester .
esters
Reaction between glacial carboxylic acid with absolute alcohol can produce various .
82
Uji Kendiri 2.3
1. Apakah hasil yang terbentuk apabila propena terbakar lengkap dalam udara?
What are the products formed when propene completely burnt in air?
Gas karbon dioksida dan air
Carbon dioxide gas and water.
2. Namakan proses untuk mengubah pentena kepada pentana. Jelaskan jawapan anda.
Name the process to converts pentene to pentane. Explain your answer.
Penghidrogenan. Alkena yang merupakan hidrokarbon tidak tepu akan mengalami tindak balas penambahan.
Alkena akan bergabung dengan hidrogen membentuk hidrokarbon tepu, alkana.
IA
Hydrogenation. Alkene is unsaturated hydrocarbon. It undergoes addition reaction. Alkenes combine with hydrogen to form
saturated hydrocarbon, alkanes.
3. Hitungkan peratus karbon mengikut jisim bagi heksena, C6H12 dan heksana C6H14. Berdasarkan nilai peratus yang
diperoleh, jelaskan mengapa heksena, C6H12 menghasilkan lebih jelaga berbanding heksana, C6H14 semasa pembakaran.
Calculate the percentage by mass of carbon for hexene, C6H12 and hexane, C6H14. Based on the percentage obtained, explain why
hexene, C6H12 produce more soot than hexane, C6H14 during combustion.
AS
[Jisim atom relatif/ Relative atomic mass: H = 1, C = 12]
Peratus karbon mengikut jisim dalam heksena:

Percentage of carbon by mass in hexene:
6 × 12
6(12) + 12(1)
× 100%
72
= × 100
84
= 85.71 %
N
Peratus karbon mengikut jisim dalam heksana:
Percentage of carbon by mass in hexane:
6 × 12
× 100%
6(12) + 14(1)
PA
72
= × 100
86
= 83.7 %
Heksena terbakar dengan nyalaan lebih berjelaga berbanding heksana kerana mempunyai peratus karbon
mengikut jisim yang lebih tinggi.
Hexene burns with a sootier flame than hexane because hexene contains a higher percentage of carbon by mass.
2.4 Isomer dan Penamaan Mengikut Tatanama IUPAC

Isomer and Naming According to IUPAC Nomenclature
A Keisomeran Struktur
Structural Isomerism
1. Sebilangan molekul organik mempunyai banyak cara untuk mengikat atom-atomnya bersama. Fenomena ini dikenali
sebagai keisomeran .
Some molecules of organic compounds have many ways to join the atoms together. This phenomenon is known as
isomerism .
83
2. Keisomeran struktur ialah fenomena di mana dua atau lebih molekul mempunyai formula molekul yang
sama tetapi formula struktur yang berbeza
Structural isomerism is the phenomenon whereby two or more molecules are found to have the same molecular formula
but different structural formulae .

3. Molekul-molekul ini dipanggil isomer.
These molecules are called isomers.
4. Atom-atom karbon dalam suatu molekul dapat diikat dengan dua cara iaitu, rantai lurus dan
rantai bercabang .
Carbon atoms in a molecule can be joined together by two ways, straight chain and branched chain .
5. Dalam molekul berantai lurus, atom-atom karbon diikat bersama dalam satu baris untuk menghasilkan molekul yang
terpanjang.
IA
In a straight-chain molecule, carbon atoms are joined together in a row to produce the longest molecule it could be.
6. Rajah 2.9 menunjukkan bagaimana atom-atom karbon diikat dalam suatu molekul berantai lurus
lurus.
Diagram 2.9 shows how carbon atoms join together in a straight-chain molecule.
–C–C–C–C–
Rajah/ Diagra
Diagramm 2.9
7. Dalam molekul yang mempunyai rantai bercabang,

bercabang, satu atau lebih atom karbon akan menjadi rantai sisi bagi
molekul itu.
AS
In a branched-chain molecule, one or more carbon atoms will become the side chain of the molecule.
8. Rajah 2.10 menunjukkan bagaimana atom-atom karbon diikat bersama dalam molekul yang mempunyai rantai
bercabang dengan empat atom karbon.
Diagram 2.10 shows how carbon atoms join together in a branched-chain molecule with four carbon atoms.
–C–C–C–
–C–
Rajah/ Diagra
Diagram 2.10
N
9. Rantai sisi biasanya ialah kumpulan alkil dengan formula am CnH2n+1, di mana n = 1, 2, 3, ......
Side chains are usually alkyl groups with the general formula CnH2n+1, where n = 1, 2, 3....
10. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan nama bagi beberapa kumpulan alkil.
The table below shows the names of some of the alkyl groups.
PA
Formula Nama kumpulan alkil

Formula Name of alkyl group
Metil
– CH3
Methyl
Etil
– C2H5
Ethyl
Propil
– C3H7
Propyl
Butil
– C 4H 9
Butyl
84
B Struktur Isomer
Structure of Isomers
I Isomerism dalam alkana/ Isomerism in alkanes
1. Tiga ahli pertama dalam alkana hanya mempunyai satu cara untuk mengikat atom-atom karbonnya. Jadi, molekul-
molekul ini tidak mempunyai isomer.
The first three members in alkanes have only one way to join the carbon atoms. Therefore, there are no isomers for these
molecules.
2. Butana, C4H10 mempunyai 2 isomer: 1 molekul berantai lurus dan 1 molekul rantai bercabang.
Butane, C4H10 has 2 isomers: 1 straight-chain and 1 branched-chain molecules.
3. Pentana, C5H12 mempunyai 3 isomer: satu molekul berantai lurus dan dua molekul rantai bercabang.
Pentane, C5H12 has 3 isomers: 1 straight-chain and 2 branched-chain molecules.
IA
Contoh/Example 8
Formula
Formula struktur Bilangan isomer
molekul Structural formula Number of isomers
Molecular formula
Butana/
Butane,
C4H10
AS H H H H
H–C–C–C–C–H
H H H H
H
H–C–C–C–H
H
H–C–H
H H H
H
2
n-butana 2-dimetilpropana
n-butane 2-methylpropane
N
H
H–C–H
H H H
PA
H–C–H H–C–C–C–H
Pentana/
Pentane, H H H H H H H H H H 3
C5H12 H–C–C–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–C–H H–C–H
H H H H H H H H H H
n-pentana 2-metilbutana 2,2 – dimetilpropana
n-pentane 2-methylbutane 2,2 – dimethylpropane
II Isomerism dalam alkena/ Isomerism in alkenes

1. Dua ahli pertama dalam alkena hanya mempunyai satu cara untuk mengikat atom-atom karbon. Oleh sebab itu,
molekul-molekul ini tidak mempunyai isomer.
The first two members in alkenes have only one way to join the carbon atoms. Therefore, there are no isomers for these
molecules.
2. But-1-ena, C4H8 mempunyai 3 isomer: 1 molekul berantai lurus, 1 molekul ikatan ganda dua antara atom karbon
dan 1 molekul rantai bercabang.
But-1-ene, C4H8 has 3 isomers: 1 straight-chain, 1 carbon-carbon double bond and 1 branched-chain molecules.
3. Pent-1-ena, C5H10 mempunyai 5 isomer: 1 molekul berantai lurus, 1 molekul ikatan ganda dua antara atom
karbon dan 3 molekul rantai bercabang.
Pent-1-ene has 5 isomers: 1 straight-chain, 1 carbon-carbon double bond and 3 branched-chain molecules.
85
Contoh/Example 9
Formula
Molecular formula
H H H H H H H H CH3 H
H–C=C–C–C–H H–C–C=C–C–H H–C–C=C–H
But-1-ena/
But-1-ene, H H H H H H 3
C3H8 But-1-ena But-2-ena 2-metilpropena
But-1-ene But-2-ene 2-methylpropene
IA
H–C–H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H–C=C–C–C–C–H H–C–C=C–C–C–H H–C=C–C–C–H
H H H H H H H H
Pent-1-ena AS Pent-2-ena 2-metilbut-1-ena
Pent-1-ene Pent-2-ene 2-methylbut-1-ene
Pent-1-ena/
Pent-1-ene, 5
C5H10 H
H H–C–H
H H H–C–H H H H H
H – C = C – C – C – H H–C–C=C–C–H
H H H H
3-metilbut-1-ena 2-metilbut-2-ena
3-methylbut-1-ene 2-methylbut-2-ene
N
III Isomerism dalam alkohol/ Isomerism in alcohols

1. Dua ahli pertama alkohol tidak mempunyai isomer.
There are no isomers for the first two alcohol members.
2. Propanol, C3H7OH mempunyai 2 isomer disebabkan kedudukan berbeza kumpulan hidroksil, -OH dalam rantai
PA
lurus.
Propanol, C3H7OH has 2 isomers due to different positions of hydroxyl group, -OH in the straight chain.
3. Butanol, C4H9OH mempunyai 4 isomer: rantai lurus, kedudukan kumpulan hidroksil, -OH dan dua rantai
bercabang yang berlainan.
Butanol, C4H9OH has 4 isomers: the straight chain, the position of hydroxyl group, -OH and two different branched chains.
Contoh/Example 10
Formula
Molecular formula
H H H H H H
H–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–H
Propanol/ O H H H O H
Propanol, 2
C3H7OH H H
Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol
Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol
86
H H H H H H H H
H–C–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–C–H
O H H H H O H H
H H
Butan-1-ol Butan-2-ol
Butan-1-ol Butan-2-ol
Butanol/
H H
IA
Butanol, 4
C4H9OH H–C–H H–C–H
H H H H
H–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–H
O H H H O H
H H
C
AS
2-metilpropan-1-ol
2-methylpropan-1-ol
Kegunaan Setiap Siri Homolog dalam Kehidupan Harian

Uses of Each Homologous Series in Daily Life
2-metilpropan-2-ol
2-methylpropan-2-ol
1. Alkana/ Alkanes
(a) Gas masak ialah campuran propana dan butana .
Cooking gas is a mixture of propane and butane .
N
(b) Campuran ini disimpan dalam bentuk cecair di bawah tekanan (LPG- liquefied petroleum gas)
supaya lebih banyak boleh disimpan di dalam tangki gas dan mudah diangkut .
This mixture is kept in the form of liquid under pressure (LPG- liquefied petroleum gas) so that more can be
PA
stored in the tank and easy to transport .

2. Alkena/
Alkena/ Alkenes
(a) Gas etena diguna dalam industri untuk mempercepatkan buah-buahan masak.
Ethene gas is used in industry for ripening fruits.
(b) Walau bagaimanapun, buah pisang yang masak tidak patut disimpan bersama buah-buahan yang lain. Gas
etena daripada buah pisang yang masak akan menyebabkan buah-buahan lain cepat
masak dan rosak .

However, ripen bananas should not be stored together with other fruits. Ethene gas from ripen bananas will
causes other fruits to ripen prematurely and causes spoilage .
3. Alkohol/ Alcohol
(a) Alkohol dalam bentuk gliserol terdapat dalam losyen kulit.
Alcohol in the form of glycerol are found in skin lotions.
(b) Mentol ialah contoh alkohol semula jadi yang digunakan dalam ubat gigi .
Menthol is an example of natural alcohol used in toothpaste .
(c) Etanol daripada penapaian
jagung atau tebu boleh digunakan sebagai bahan api bagi
kenderaan kerana terbakar dengan nyalaan biru tanpa berjelaga.
Ethanol from the fermentation of corn or sugar cane can be used as fuel for transportation because it
burns with a blue flame without soot.
87
(d) Kuantiti alkohol yang kecil di dalam badan manusia boleh menjadi sumber tenaga . Namun,
kuantiti alkohol yang besar boleh mengganggu sistem saraf .
Small quantities of alcohol in a human body can be as a source of energy but in large quantities, it may disrupts
the human nervous system.
(e) Individu yang mabuk akibat minuman beralkohol akan hilang kawalan otot serta keseimbangan dan kebolehan
mental.
A drunkard will lose muscle control as well as balance and mental control.
(f) Pengambilan alkohol yang berlebihan dalam jangka masa yang panjang boleh menyebabkan ketagihan
dan merosakkan kesihatan.
Excessive alcohol consumption over a long period of time can lead to
addiction and health damage.
(g) Alat pengesan aras wap alkohol yang digunakan terhadap pemandu yang disyaki mabuk mengandungi larutan
IA
kalium dikromat(VI) berasid . Larutan ini akan berubah warna daripada jingga ke
hijau dengan kehadiran alkohol.
Alcohol vapour level detectors used on suspected drunk drivers contain an acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
solution. This solution will change colour from orange to green iinn the presence of alcohol.
4. Asid karboksilik/ Carboxylic acids
(a) Cuka yang kita guna sebagai bahan
AS perasa dalam masakan dan larutan dalam jeruk merupakan
asid etanoik .
The vinegar that we used as a seasoning in cooking and solutions in pickles is ethanoic acid .
(b) Buah oren mengandungi asid sitrik .
Oranges contain citric acid.
5. Ester/ Esters
(a) Etil butanoat yang berbau seperti nanas digunakan untuk memproses kulit haiwan
dalam industri.
Ethyl butanoate that smells like pineapple is used in tanning of animal skin in industry.
N
(b) Ester semula jadi terdapat dalam daun pandan, kulit buah-buahan, serai dan bunga-bunga yang wangi.
Natural esters are found in the screw pine, fruit skins, lemon grass and flowers of plants.
(c) Lemak dan minyak ialah ester. Vitamin A, D, E dan K yang larut dalam lemak akan dicerna,
diserap dan dipindahkan bersama lemak. Lemak juga merupakan sumber asid lemak yang diperlukan dalam diet.
PA
Fats and oils are esters. Vitamins A, D, E and K are soluble in fats , so they need to be digested, absorbed and
transferred together with fats. Fats are also the source of fatty acids required in diet.
(d) Lemak diperlukan untuk mengekalkan kulit dan rambut yang sihat, melindungi
organ dalaman, mengekalkan suhu badan dan menggalakkan fungsi
sel yang sihat.
Fat is needed to maintain healthy skin and hair , protect inner organs , maintain
body temperature and promote healthy cell function.
(e) Lemak merupakan simpanan tenaga bagi badan. Lemak diurai untuk menghasilkan
gliserol dan asid lemak .
Fat is an energy stored for the body. Fats are broken down to produce glycerol and
fatty acids .
(f) Minyak kelapa sawit yang tidak tepu boleh dipadatkan menjadi marjerin melalui proses penghidrogenan
pada suhu 180 °C dengan menggunakan mangkin nikel .

Unsaturated palm oil can be solidified into margarine through a hydrogenation process at 180 °C
by using nickel catalyst.
88
Uji Kendiri 2.4
1. Berikut adalah formula struktur bagi dua isomer.
The following are structural formula of two isomers.
H H H H H H
H– C – C – C –H H– C – C – C –H
H H Br H Br H
IA
Namakan kedua-dua isomer dan jelaskan secara ringkas cara penamaan dilakukan.
Name both isomers and briefly describe how the naming is done.
Bromopropana. Kedua-dua mempunyai formula molekul C3H7Br iaitu mempunyai 1 atom bromin bromo-,
3 atom karbon pro dan tepu -ana.

Bromopropane. Both have molecular formula C3H7Br ie one bromine atom bromo-, 3 carbon atoms pro and
saturated -ane.
AS
2. Mengapakah alkohol digunakan sebagai pelarut dalam ubat-ubatan?
Why is alcohol used as the solvent in medications?
Alkohol boleh larut campur dengan air dan melarutkan sebatian kovalen.
Alcohols are soluble in water and can dissolve covalent compounds.
3. Nyatakan ciri-ciri yang menyebabkan etanol sesuai digunakan sebagai pelarut dalam minyak wangi berbanding air.
State the properties that make ethanol suitable for use as a solvent in perfumes rather than water.
Takat didih rendah, mudah meruap, cepat kering dan tidak membasahkan pakaian
Low boiling point, volatile, quick to dry and not wet your clothes
N
4. Jelaskan secara ringkas mengapa seorang pelari jarak jauh akan merasa teramat letih selepas menamatkan lariannya?
Explain briefly why a long-distance runner will feel extremely fatigue after finishing his run?
Asid laktik ialah sejenis asid karboksilik yang akan dihasilkan oleh tubuh apabila seorang itu melakukan aktiviti
fizikal. Pelari itu akan merasa letih sehingga tubuhnya mengubah semua asid laktik itu kepada air dan karbon dioksida.
PA
Lactic acid is a type of carboxylic acid that will be produced by the human body when a person performs physical activity.
The runner feels tired until his body converts all the lactic acid into water and carbon dioxide.
5. Berdasarkan formula struktur di bawah, namakan jenis asid. Jelaskan jawapan anda.
Based on the structural formula below, name the type of acid. Explain your answer.
CH3 – (CH2)7 – CH = CH – (CH2)7 – COOH
Asid lemak mono tidak tepu. Asid karboksilik berantai panjang asid lemak. Satu ikatan dubel mono-.
Ikatan ganda dua C = C asid tidak tepu
Mono-unsaturated fatty acid. Long chain carboxylic acid fatty acid. One double bond mono-. Double bond C = C
unsaturated
6. Mengapakah ubat aspirin dianggap sebagai ester?

Why is aspirin considered an ester?
Aspirin mempunyai kumpulan berfungsi –COO–
Aspirin has the functional group –COO–
89
Bab
3 Termokimia
Thermochemistry
3.1 Perubahan Haba dalam Tindak Balas

Heat Change in Reaction
1. Menurut Hukum keabadian tenaga, tenaga tidak boleh dicipta atau dimusnahkan . Tenaga hanya
boleh ditukar daripada satu bentuk kepada bentuk yang lain.
According to the Law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor destroyed . It can only be
IA
converted from one form to the other form.
2. Bahan kimia menyimpan tenaganya sebagai tenaga kimia .
Chemical substances store their energy as chemical energy .
3. Bahan kimia membebaskan tenaga kimia dalam bentuk haba atau cahaya semasa tindak balas
dan membentuk hasil yang lebih stabil.
Chemical substances release its chemical energy in the form of
AS heat or light when they undergo reactions
and form more stable products .
4. Perubahan tenaga dalam suatu tindak balas kimia merupakan pengaliran tenaga dari sistem ke persekitaran
atau pengaliran tenaga dari persekitaran ke sistem.
The energy change in a chemical reaction is the energy flows from the system to the surroundings or the energy
flows from the surroundings to the system.
Tenaga mengalir keluar dari sistem
Persekitaran ke persekitaran
Surroundings Energy flows out the system
to surroundings
Bahan tindak
N
Tenaga mengalir masuk ke
balas dan hasil dalam sistem dari persekitaran
tindak balas Energy flows in to the system
Sistem Reactants from surroundings
System and products
Rajah/ Diagra
Diagram 3.1
PA
5. Termokimia ialah satu kajian tentang perubahan tenaga haba yang berlaku dalam suatu tindak balas kimia.
Thermochemistry is the study of changes in heat energy during chemical reactions.
6. Dua jenis tindak balas kimia berdasarkan perubahan tenaga:
Two types of chemical reactions based on the energy changes:
(a) Tindak balas eksotermik/ Exothermic reactions
(b) Tindak balas endotermik/ Endothermic reactions
A Tindak Balas Eksotermik dan Endotermik

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
I Tindak Balas Eksotermik/ Exothermic Reaction
1. Eksotermik ialah tindak balas kimia yang membebaskan haba ke persekitaran.

Exothermic is a chemical reaction that gives out heat to the surroundings.
2. Dalam tindak balas eksotermik, tenaga kimia ditukarkan kepada tenaga haba .
In exothermic reaction, chemical energy is converted to heat energy .
3. Persekitaran memperoleh tenaga haba dan akibatnya suhu persekitaran meningkat .
The surroundings gain heat energy and as a result the temperature of the surroundings increases .
90
Contoh/Example 1
Serbuk natrium hidroksida
Sodium hydroxide powder
Air
Water
Tenaga haba dibebaskan
Heat energy releases
IA
Rajah/ Diagram 3.2
Semasa tindak balas eksotermik:/ During exothermic reactions:
(a) Tenaga haba yang dibebaskan dipindahkan ke persekitaran.
Heat energy that given out is transferred to the surroundings.
(b) Bacaan termometer meningkat ./ Thermometer reading increases .
(c) Bekas menjadi panas ./ Container becomes hot .
AS
4. Contoh lain bagi tindak balas eksotermik:/ Other examples of exothermic reactions:
(a) Tindak balas antara kalsium klorida kontang dan air/ Reaction of anhydrous calcium chloride and water
(b) Peneutralan antara asid dan alkali/ Neutralisation between acid and alkaline
(c) Respirasi/ Respiration
(d) Pembakaran/ Combustion
(e) Pengaratan/ Rusting
(f) Tindak balas penyesaran logam/ Displacement reaction of metals
II Tindak Balas Endotermik/ Endothermic reaction

1. Endotermik ialah tindak balas kimia yang menyerap haba dari persekitaran.
N
Endothermic is a chemical reaction that absorbs heat from the surroundings.
Contoh/Example 2
PA
Serbuk ammonium nitrat

Ammonium nitrate powder
Air
Water
Tenaga haba diserap

Heat energy absorbed
Rajah/ Diagram 3.3

Semasa tindak balas endotermik:/ During endothermic reactions:
(a) Tenaga haba diserap dari persekitaran/ Heat energy is absorbed from the surroundings.
(b) Bacaan termometer menurun ./ Thermometer reading decreases .
(c) Bekas menjadi sejuk ./ Container becomes cold .
2. Contoh lain bagi tindak balas endotermik/ Other examples of endothermic reactions:
(a) Tindak balas antara natrium hidrogen karbonat dengan asid cair
Reaction between sodium hydrogen carbonate and dilute acid
(b) Penguraian garam karbonat/ Decomposition of carbonate salts
(c) Fotosintesis/ Photosynthesis
(d) Penguraian garam nitrat/ Decomposition of nitrate salts
(e) Penguraian garam terhidrat/ Decomposition of hydrated salt
91
AKTIVITI 3.1
Tujuan/ Aim:
Menentukan jenis tindak balas kimia berdasarkan perubahan haba dan bacaan termometer.
Eksperimen Wajib
To identify the types of reaction based on heat change and thermometer readings
Bahan/ Materials:
Serbuk natrium hidroksida, NaOH serbuk kalsium klorida kontang, CaCl2 serbuk ammonium nitrat, NH4NO3,
serbuk natrium tiosulfat, Na2S2O3, air
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH powder, anhydrous calcium chloride, CaCl2 power, ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 powder,
sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3 powder, water
Radas/ Apparatus:
Silinder penyukat, cawan polistirena, termometer, spatula/ Measuring cylinder, polystyrene cup, thermometer,
spatula
IA
Termometer Serbuk natrium hidroksida
Thermometer Sodium hydroxide, NaOH powder
Air
Water
AS Rajah/ Diagra
1. 10 cm3 air disukat dan dituang ke dalam cawan polistirena.
Diagram
10 cm3 of water is measured and poured into a polystyrene cup.

m 3.4
2. Suhu awal air direkodkan./ Initial temperature of water is recorded.

3. Setengah spatula serbuk natrium hidroksida, NaOH dimasukkan ke dalam air.
Half spatula of sodium hydroxide, NaOH powder is added into the water.
4. Campuran dikacau dan suhu tertinggi atau terendah direkodkan.
The mixture is stirred and the highest or lowest temperature is recorded.
5. Langkah 1 hingga 4 diulang dengan menggantikan serbuk natrium hidroksida, NaOH dengan serbuk
kalsium klorida kontang, CaCl2, serbuk ammonium nitrat, NH4NO3 dan serbuk natrium tiosulfat, Na2S2O3.
Steps 1 to 4 are repeated by replacing sodium hydroxide, NaO4 powder with anhydrous calcium chloride, CaCl2,
N
ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 powder and sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3 powder.
Suhu awal Suhu tertinggi/ terendah
Tindak balas dengan air Jenis tindak balas
Initial Highest/Lowest
Reaction with water Types of reaction
temperature (oC) temperature (oC)
PA
Natrium hidroksida, 29.0 31.0

Eksotermik
Sodium hydroxide Exothermic
Kalsium klorida kontang, 29.0 30.5

Eksotermik
Anhydrous calcium chloride Exothermic
Ammonium nitrat, 29.0 27.0

Endotermik
Ammonium nitrate Endothermic
Natrium tiosulfat, 29.0 23.0

Endotermik
Sodium thiosulphate Endothermic
Nyatakan definisi secara operasi bagi yang berikut: / State definition operation of the following:
1. Tindak balas eksotermik/ Exothermic reaction
Tindak balas eksotermik membebaskan tenaga haba ke persekitaran dan suhu larutan campuran meningkat.
Exothermic reaction gives out heat to the surroundings and the temperature of the mixed solution increases.
2. Tindak balas endotermik/ Endothermic reaction

Tindak balas endotermik menyerap tenaga haba dari persekitaran dan suhu larutan campuran menurun.
Endothermic reactions absorbs heat from the surroundings and the temperature of the mixed solution decreases.
92
B Mentafsir Gambar Rajah Aras Tenaga
Interpret Energy Level Diagram
1. Haba tindak balas, ΔH ditakrifkan sebagai perubahan haba yang berlaku apabila bilangan mol bahan tindak
balas yang ditunjukkan dalam persamaan kimia bertindak balas bersama .
The heat of reaction, ΔH is defined as the heat change which occurs when the numbers of moles of reactants indicated by the
equation react together .
∆H = (Kandungan tenaga hasil tindak balas) – (Kandungan tenaga bahan tindak balas)
Energy content of products Energy content of reactants
= Hhasil/products – Hbahan/reactants
IA
2. Unit bagi ΔH ialah kilojoule, kJ./ The unit of ΔH is kilojoules, kJ
3. Persamaan kimia bersama-sama dengan ΔH dipanggil persamaan termokimia .
A chemical equation together with ∆H is called the thermochemical equation.
4. Perubahan tenaga haba dalam tindak balas eksotermik dan endotermik dapat ditunjukkan dengan gambar rajah aras
tenaga./ The heat energy changes in an exothermic and endothermic reactions can be shown with an energy level diagram
diagram.
hasil tindak balas adalah lebih

AS
5. Tindak balas eksotermik:/ Exothermic reaction:
(a) Apabila tindak balas eksotermik berlaku, tenaga haba dibebaskan ke persekitaran. Jadi, jumlah kandungan tenaga
rendah daripada bahan tindak balas.
When an exothermic reactions occurs, heat energy is given out to the surroundings. Thus, the total energy content of the
products is lower than the reactants.
(b) ΔH bagi tindak balas eksotermik diberikan tanda negatif .
∆H of an exothermic reaction is given a negative sign.
Tenaga/ Energy
Bahan tindak balas/

N
Reactants
H = negatif/ negative
Hasil tindak balas/ Products

PA
Rajah/ Diagram 3.5
Tip SPM
Dalam suatu tindak balas kimia, jika tenaga haba yang diserap semasa pemecahan ikatan adalah kurang daripada
tenaga haba yang dibebas semasa pembentukan ikatan baharu, tindak balas itu ialah tindak balas eksotermik.
Tip SPM
In a chemical reaction, if the heat energy absorbed in bond breaking is lless than the heat energy given out in bonds formation, the
reaction is an exothermic reaction.
6. Tindak balas endotermik:/ Endothermic reaction:

(a) Apabila tindak balas endotermik berlaku, tenaga haba diserap dari persekitaran. Jadi, jumlah kandungan tenaga
hasil tindak balas adalah lebih tinggi daripada bahan tindak balas.
When an endothermic reaction occurs, heat energy is absorbed from the surroundings. Thus, the total energy content of the
products is higher than the reactants.
(a) ΔH bagi tindak balas endotermik diberikan tanda positif .
∆H of an endothermic reaction given a positive sign.
Tenaga/ Energy
Hasil tindak balas/ Products
Bahan H = positif/ positive

tindak balas/
Reactants
Rajah/ Diagram 3.6
93
Tip SPM
Dalam suatu tindak balas kimia, jika tenaga haba yang diserap semasa pemecahan ikatan adalah lebih daripada
tenaga haba yang dibebas semasa pembentukan ikatan baharu, tindak balas itu ialah tindak balas endotermik.
Tip SPM
In a chemical reaction, if the heat energy absorbed in bond breaking is more than the heat energy given out in bonds formation, the
reaction is an endothermic reaction.
7. Nyatakan maklumat yang boleh diperoleh daripada gambar rajah aras tenaga.
State the information that can be obtained from the energy level diagram.
(a) Jenis tindak balas sama ada eksotermik atau endotermik (berdasarkan tanda + atau tanda – bagi Δ
ΔH).
Type of reactions either exothermic or endothermic (from the + or – sign of ΔH)
(b) Perubahan haba dalam tindak balas (berdasarkan nilai ΔH)./ Heat change in the reaction (based on the value of ΔH)
(c) Peningkatan atau penurunan suhu persekitaran./ The rise or fall of the temperature of the surroundings.
IA
balas.
(d) Perbezaaan antara kandungan tenaga bagi bahan tindak balas dan hasil tindak balas.
The difference between the energy contents of the reactants and the products.
Contoh/Example 3
Rajah 3.7 menunjukkan gambar rajah aras tenaga bagi tindak balas antara kalium klorida, KCl dan argentum nitrat, AgNO3.
AS
Diagram 3.7 shows the energy level diagram for the reaction between potassium chloride, KCl and silver nitrate, AgNO3.
Tenaga/ Energy
KCl + AgNO3
H = – 50.4 kJ mol–1
AgCl + KNO3
Rajah/ Diagra
Diagramm 3.7
(a) Tindak balas antara kalium klorida, KCl dan argentum nitrat, AgNO3 ialah tindak balas eksotermik .
N
The reaction between potassium chloride, KCl and silver nitrate, AgNO3 is an exothermic reaction.
(b) Suhu persekitaran meningkat./ The temperature of the surroundings .
increases
(c) Jumlah kandungan tenaga bagi 1 mol kalium klorida, KCl bertindak balas dengan 1 mol argentum nitrat, AgNO3 adalah
lebih tinggi berbanding jumlah kandungan tenaga bagi 1 mol argentum klorida, AgCl dan 1 mol kalium
PA
nitrat, KNO3.
The total energy contents of 1 mole of potassium chloride, KCl react with 1 mole of silver nitrate, AgNO3 is higher than
the total energy contents of 1 mole of silver chloride, AgCl and 1 mole of potassium nitrate, KNO3.
(d) Haba yang dibebaskan semasa tindak balas ialah 50.4 kJ mol-1.
The heat given out during the reaction is 50.4 kJ mol-1.
Contoh/Example 4
Rajah 3.8 menunjukkan gambar rajah aras tenaga bagi tindak balas antara gas nitrogen, N2 dan oksigen, O2.
Diagram 3.8 shows the energy level diagram for the reaction between nitrogen, N2 and oxygen, O2 gases.
Tenaga/ Energy
2NO2
H = + 66 kJ mol–1
N2 + 2O2
Rajah/ Diagram 3.8
94
(a) Tindak balas antara gas nitrogen, N2 dan oksigen, O2 ialah tindak balas endotermik .
The reaction between nitrogen, N2 and oxygen, O2 gases is an endothermic reaction.
(b) Suhu persekitaran menurun ./ The temperature of the surroundings decreases .
(c) Jumlah kandungan tenaga bagi 1 mol nitrogen, N2 bertindak balas dengan 2 mol oksigen, O2 adalah lebih
rendah berbanding jumlah kandungan tenaga bagi 2 mol nitrogen dioksida, NO2.
The total energy content of 1 mole of nitrogen, N2 react with 2 moles of oxygen, O2 is lower than the total energy content
of 2 moles of nitrogen dioxide, NO2.
(d) Haba yang diserap semasa tindak balas ialah 66.0 kJ mol-1.
The heat absorbed during the reaction is 66.0 kJ mol-1.
IA
Uji Kendiri 3.1
1. Nyatakan jenis tindak balas bagi persamaan termokimia di bawah. Jelaskan jawapan anda.
State the types of reaction for the thermochemistry equation below. Explain your answer. TP 2
AS CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 ∆H = + 560 kJ mol–1

∆H
Tindak balas endotermik. Endotermik ialah tindak balas kimia yang menyerap haba dari persekitaran.
Endothermic reaction. Endothermic is a chemical reaction that absorbs heat from the surroundings.
2. Kelaskan tindak balas yang berikut./ Classify the following reactions. TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Tindak balas antara ammonium klorida dan air Melarutkan bedak talkum dalam air
Reaction between ammonium chloride and water Dissolving talcum powder in water
Melarutkan serbuk detergen dalam air Pembakaran etanol
Dissolving detergent powder in water Combustion of ethanol
N
Eksotermik/ Exothermic Endotermik/ Endothermic
Melarutkan serbuk detergen dalam air Melarutkan bedak talkum di dalam air
Dissolving detergent powder in water Dissolving talcum powder in water
PA
Pembakaran etanol Tindak balas antara ammonium klorida dan air

Combustion of ethanol Reaction between ammonium chloride and water
3. Tafsirkan gambar rajah aras tenaga yang berikut./ Interpret the following energy level diagrams.
TP 4 KBAT Menganalisis
(a) Tenaga/ Energy
Zn + CuSO4
H = – 210 kJ mol–1
ZnSO4 + Cu
Rajah/ Diagram 3.9

(i) Tindak balas antara Zn dan CuSO4 menghasilkan ZnSO4 dan Cu ialah tindak balas eksotermik .
The reaction between Zn and CuSO4 producing ZnSO4 and Cu is an exothermic reaction.
(ii) Suhu persekitaran meningkat ./ Temperature of the surrounding increases .
(iii) Jumlah kandungan tenaga bagi 1 mol Zn bertindak balas dengan 1 mol CuSO4 adalah lebih
tinggi berbanding jumlah kandungan tenaga bagi 1 mol Cu dan 1 mol ZnSO4.
The total energy content of 1 mole of Zn react with 1 mole of CuSO4 is higher than the total energy content of
1 mole of Cu and 1 mole of ZnSO4.
95
(iv) Haba yang dibebaskan semasa tindak balas ialah 210 kJ mol-1.
The heat given out during the reaction is 210 kJ mol-1.
(b) Tenaga/ Energy
CaCO3 + 2KNO3
H = +12.6 kJ mol–1
Ca(NO3)2 + K2CO3
Rajah/ Diagram 3.10

(i) Tindak balas antara Ca(NO3)2 dan K2CO3 menghasilkan CaCO3 dan KNO3 ialah tindak balas
IA
endotermik .
The reaction between Ca(NO3)2 and K2CO3 producing CaCO3 and KNO3 is an endothermic reaction.
(ii) Suhu persekitaran menurun ./ Temperature of the surrounding decreases .

(iii) Jumlah kandungan tenaga bagi 1 mol Ca(NO3)2 bertindak balas dengan 1 mol K2CO3 adalah lebih
rendah berbanding jumlah kandungan tenaga bagi 1 mol CaCO3 dan 2 mol KNO3.
The total energy content of 1 mole of Ca(NO3)2 react with 1 mole of K2CO3 is lower than the total energy
(iv) Haba yang

The heat
diserap
absorbed
AS
content of 1 mole of CaCO3 dan 2 moles of KNO3.
semasa tindak balas ialah 12.6 kJ mol-1.

during the reaction is 12.6 kJ mol-1.
3.2 Haba Tindak Balas

Heat of Reaction
1. Haba tindak balas ditakrifkan sebagai perubahan haba apabila satu mol bahan tindak balas bertindak balas atau
N
satu mol hasil tindak balas terbentuk .
The heat of combustion is defined as the heat change when one mole of reactant reacts or one mole of product is formed .
2. Unit bagi haba tindak balas ialah kJ mol−1.
The unit for the heat of combustion is kJ mol–1.
3. Bagi tindak balas yang melibatkan larutan akueus atau air, jika tenaga haba diserap oleh larutan akueus atau air ialah
PA
Q kJ dan bilangan mol, n bahan tindak balas atau hasil tindak balas dapat ditentukan, maka nilai ΔH
Δ dapat dihitung.
For reactions involved aqueous solution or water, if the heat energy absorbs by the aqueous solution or water is Q kJ and the
number of moles, n of reactant or product can be determined, then the value of ΔH
Δ can be calculated.
Q
ΔH = +/– n kJ mol–1
4. Haba yang diserap oleh larutan akueus dapat dihitung dengan menggunakan formula mcθ, di mana:
The heat absorbed by an aqueous solution can be calculated by using formula mcθ, where:
m = jisim larutan/ mass of the solution (g)

c = muatan haba tentu larutan/ specific heat capacity of the solution (J g–1 oC–1)
θ = perubahan suhu larutan/ temperature change of the solution (oC)
5. Anggapan yang dibuat semasa menghitung haba tindak balas yang melibatkan larutan akueus:
Assumptions made during the calculation of the heat absorbed by an aqueous solution:
(a) Ketumpatan larutan Ketumpatan air
The density of solution = The density of water = 1.0 g cm
–3
(b) Muatan haba tentu larutan Muatan haba tentu air

Specific heat capacity of the solution (c) = Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g C
–1 o –1
(c) Tidak ada haba yang hilang ke persekitaran atau diserap oleh radas eksperimen
No heat is lost to or absorbed from the surroundings or the apparatus of the experiment
96
Contoh/Example 5
Rajah 3.11 menunjukkan perubahan suhu apabila serbuk zink, Zn ditambah kepada larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4.
Diagram 3.11 shows the temperature change when zinc powder, Zn is added to copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution.
Termometer Serbuk zink

Thermometer Zinc powder
Larutan
kuprum(II)
sulfat
Copper(II) Suhu tertinggi = 50°C
IA
sulphate Isi padu larutan = 100 cm3
solution The highest temperature = 50°C
Suhu awal = 30°C Volume of solution = 100 cm3
Initial temperature = 30°C
Rajah/ Diagra
Diagram 3.11
Hitungkan perubahan haba dalam larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4.

Calculate the heat change in the copper(II) sulphate, CuSo4 solution.
m = 100 cm3 × 1 g cm–3 = 100 g
c = 4.2 J g–1 oC-1
θ = (50 – 30) oC
AS
Perubahan haba/ Heat change, Q = mcθθ
= 100 g × 4.2 J g−1 oC–1 × (50 – 30) oC
= 8 400 J
= 8.4 kJ
N
Contoh/Example 6
10 g serbuk magnesium, Mg ditambahkan kepada 50 cm3 larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4. Suhu awal larutan kuprum(II)
sulfat, CuSO4 ialah 29 °C. Suhu tertinggi larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 ialah 34 °C. Diberikan muatan haba tentu larutan
kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 ialah 4.2 J g–1 °C–1. Hitungkan perubahan haba dalam larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4.
10 g of magnesium powder, Mg is added to 50 cm3 of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution. Initial temperature of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4
PA
solution, CuSO4 is 29 oC. The highest temperature of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution is 34oC. Given that specific heat capacity of
copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 is 4.2 J g–1 oC–1. Calculate the heat change in copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution.
m = 50 cm3 × 1 g cm–3 = 50 g
c = 4.2 J g–1 oC-1
θ = (34 – 29) oC
Perubahan haba/ Heat change, Q = mcθ

= 50 g × 4.2 J g−1 oC–1 × (34 – 29) oC
= 1 050 J
= 1.05 kJ
A Haba Pemendakan
Heat of Precipitation
1. Tindak balas pemendakan berlaku apabila dua larutan dicampurkan bersama untuk membentuk suatu mendakan.
Precipitation reaction occurs when two solutions is added together to form a precipitate.
2. Haba pemendakan ialah perubahan haba apabila satu mol mendakan terbentuk daripada ion-ionnya
dalam larutan akueusnya .
The heat of precipitation is the heat change when one mole of a precipitate is formed from their ions in aqueous solution .
97
Contoh/Example 7 TP 2
Larutan plumbum(II) nitrat Larutan natrium sulfat

Lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 solution Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 solution
Larutan natrium nitrat

Sodium nitrate, NaNO3 solution
NO3– Na+ NO3– Mendakan putih

Pb2+
plumbum(II) sulfat
Na+ SO42– PbSO4 Lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4
white precipitate
IA
Rajah/ Diagram 3.12
(a) Persamaan termokimia:/ Thermochemical equation:
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 → PbSO4 + 2NaNO3 ∆H = – 50.4 kJ mol-1
∆H
Daripada persamaan termokimia, 50.4 kJ haba telah dibebaskan apabila 1 mol mendakan PbSO4 terbentuk.
From the thermochemical equation, 50.4 kJ of heat is given out when 1 mole of PbSO4 precipitate formed.
(b) Gambar rajah aras tenaga:/ Energy level diagram:

AS
Tenaga/ Energy
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4
H = – 50.4 kJ mol–1
PbSO4 + 2NaNO3
N
AKTIVITI 3.2
Tujuan/Aim:
Menentukan haba pemendakan argentum klorida dan magnesium karbonat
Eksperimen Wajib
To determine the heat of precipitation of silver chloride and magnesium carbonate

PA
Bahan/ Materials:
Larutan argentum nitrat, AgNO3 0.5 mol dm−3, larutan natrium klorida, NaCl 0.5 mol dm−3, larutan magnesium
nitrat, Mg(NO3)2 2.0 mol dm−3, larutan natrium karbonat, Na2CO3 0.5 mol dm−3
0.5 mol dm-3 silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution, 0.5 mol dm-3 sodium chloride, NaCl solution, 2.0 mol dm-3 magnesium nitrate,
Mg(NO3)2 solution, 2.0 mol dm-3 sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 solution
Radas/ Apparatus:
Cawan polistirena, silinder penyukat 50 cm3, jam randik, termometer
Polystyrene cups, 50 cm3 measuring cylinders, stopwatch, thermometer
Prosedur/Procedure:
Termometer
Thermometer
Larutan Larutan natrium

argentum klorida
nitrat Sodium chloride,
Silver nitrate, NaCl solution
AgNO3 solution
Rajah/ Diagram 3.13
98
1. 25.0 cm3 larutan argentum nitrat, AgNO3 0.5 mol dm−3 dituang ke dalam sebuah cawan polistirena.
25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm− 3 silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution is poured into a polystyrene cup.
2. Termometer dimasukkan ke dalam cawan polistirena dan dibiarkan selama 2 minit. Suhu awal larutan
argentum nitrat, AgNO3 direkodkan.
A thermometer is placed into the polystyrene cup and left for 2 minutes. Initial temperature of silver nitrate solution,
AgNO3 is recorded.
3. 25.0 cm3 larutan natrium klorida, NaCl 0.5 mol dm−3 dituang ke dalam cawan polistirena yang satu lain.
25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm− 3 sodium chloride, NaCl solution is poured into another polystyrene cup.
4. Termometer dimasukkan ke dalam cawan polistirena yang mengandungi larutan natrium klorida, NaCl
dan dibiarkan selama 2 minit. Suhu awal larutan direkodkan.
A thermometer is placed into the polystyrene cup containing sodium chloride, NaCl solution and left for 2 minutes.
IA
The initial temperature of the solution is recorded.
5. Larutan natrium klorida, NaCl dituang dengan berhati-hati dan cepat ke dalam cawan polistirena yang
mengandungi larutan argentum nitrat, AgNO3.
Sodium chloride NaCl, solution is poured carefully and quickly into the polystyrene cup containing silver nitrate,
AgNO3 solution.
6. Campuran dikacau dengan menggunakan termometer dan suhu tertinggi atau terendah campuran
direkodkan.
The mixture is stirred using a thermometer and the highest or lowest temperature of the mixture is recorded.
7. Langkah 1 hingga 6 diulang dengan menggantikan larutan argentum nitrat, AgNO3 0.5 mol dm−3 dan
AS
natrium klorida, NaCl 0.5 mol dm−3 masing-masing dengan larutan magnesium nitrat, Mg(NO3)2 2.0 mol
dm−3 dan larutan natrium karbonat, Na2CO3 2.0 mol dm−3.
Steps 1 to 6 are repeated by replacing 0.5 mol dm−3 silver nitrate , AgNO3 solution and 0.5 mol dm−3 sodium chloride,
NaCl solution with 2.0 mol dm−3 magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2 solution and 2.0 mol dm−3 sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
solution.
Keputusan/ Results:
1. AgNO3 0.5 mol dm−3 + NaCl 0.5 mol dm−3 Suhu/ Temperature (0C)
Suhu awal larutan argentum nitrat, 28.0
Initial temperature of silver nitrate solution
N
Suhu awal larutan natrium klorida, 28.0
Initial temperature of sodium chloride solution
Purata suhu awal campuran, 28.0 + 28.0

= 28.0
Average initial temperature of mixture 2
Suhu tertinggi/terendah campuran
PA
31.0
Highest/lowest temperature of mixture
Perbezaan suhu, θ 31.0 – 28.0 = 3.0

Temperature difference, θ
2. Mg(NO3)2 2.0 mol dm−3 + Na2CO3 2.0 mol dm−3 Suhu/ Temperature (0C)
Suhu awal larutan magnesium nitrat, 28.0
Initial temperature of magnesium sulphate solution
Suhu awal larutan natrium karbonat, 28.0

Initial temperature of sodium carbonate solution

= 28.0
Suhu tertinggi/terendah campuran 22.0
Highest/lowest temperature of mixture


1. Tuliskan persamaan kimia bagi tindak balas pertama.
Write the chemical equation for the first reaction.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
99
(a) Hitung bilangan mol argentum klorida, AgCl yang terbentuk. TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Calculate the number of moles of AgCl formed.
Bilangan mol AgNO3 yang digunakan
Number of moles of AgNO3 used
= MV
1 000
(0.5) (25)
=
1 000
= 0.0125 mol
(b) Bilangan mol NaCl yang digunakan

Number of moles of NaCl used
IA
= MV
1 000
(0.5) (25)
=
1 000
= 0.0125 mol
(c) Daripada persamaan kimia:/ From the chemical equation:
AgNO3
AS
AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO3
+
1 mol
Daripada tindak balas:/ From the reaction:
1 mol
NaCl
1 mol

1 mol
AgCl + NaNO3
0.0125 mol 0.0125 mol 0.0125 mol 0.0125 mol
Bilangan mol AgCl/ Number of moles of AgCl, n = 0.0125 mol
(d) Hitung haba dibebaskan.

N
Calculate the heat released
released.
Haba tindak balas/ Heat of reaction, Q = mcθ

mcθ
= (25 + 25)(4.2)(3.0)
= 630 J
PA
(e) Hitung haba pemendakan.

Calculate the heat of precipitation.
Q
Haba pemendakan/ Heat of precipitation, ∆H = –
n
630 J
=–
0.0125 mol
50 400 J mol–1
=–
1 000
= –50.4 kJ mol–1
(f) Tuliskan persamaan termokimia bagi tindak balas.

Write the thermochemistry equation for the reaction.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3 ∆H = –50.4 kJ mol–1
2. Tuliskan persamaan kimia bagi tindak balas kedua.

Write the chemical equation for the second reaction.
Mg(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 → MgCO3 + 2NaNO3
100
(a) Hitung bilangan mol MgCO3 yang terbentuk. TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Calculate the number of moles of MgCO3 formed.
Bilangan mol Mg(NO3)2 yang digunakan
Number of moles of Mg(NO3)2 used
= MV
1 000
(2.0) (25)
=
1 000
= 0.05 mol
IA
(b) Bilangan mol Na2CO3 yang digunakan
Number of moles of Na2CO3 used
= MV
1 000
(2.0) (25)
=
1 000
= 0.05 mol
AS
(c) Daripada persamaan:/ From the equation:
Mg(NO3)2 + Na2CO3  MgCO3 + 2NaNO3
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 2 mol
Daripada tindak balas:/ From the reaction:
Mg(NO3)2 + Na2CO3  MgCO3 + 2NaNO3

0.005 mol 0.005 mol 0.005 mol 0.010 mol
N
Bilangan mol MgCO3/ Number of moles of MgCO3, n = 0.005 mol
(d) Hitung haba dibebaskan.

Calculate the heat released.
PA
Haba tindak balas/ Heat of reaction, Q = mc

mcθ
= (25 + 25)(4.2)(6.0)
= 1260 J
(e) Hitung haba pemendakan. TP 4 KBAT Mengaplikasi

Calculate the heat of precipitation
Q
Haba pemendakan/ Heat of precipitation, ∆H = +
n
1 260 J
=+
0.05 mol
25 200 J mol–1
=+
1 000
= + 25.2 kJ mol-1
(f) Tuliskan persamaan termokimia bagi tindak balas.

Mg(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 → MgCO3 + 2NaNO3 ∆H = + 25.2 kJ mol–1
101
3. Lukiskan gambar rajah aras tenaga bagi kedua-dua tindak balas.
Draw the energy level diagram for both reactions.
(a) AgNO3 0.5 mol dm−3 + NaCl 0.5 mol dm−3 (b) Mg(NO3)2 2.0 mol dm−3 + Na2CO3 2.0 mol dm−3
Tenaga/ Energy Tenaga/ Energy
AgNO3 + NaCl MgCO3 + 2NaNO3
H = – 50.4 kJ mol–1 H = + 25.2 kJ mol–1
AgCl + NaNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + Na2CO3
4. Mengapakah cawan polistirena digunakan dalam aktiviti ini?
IA
Why a polystyrene cup is used in this activity?
Mengurangkan haba hilang ke persekitaran/ To reduce heat lost to the surroundings
5. Mengapakah haba pemendakan yang diperoleh dalam aktiviti lebih rendah daripada teori?
Why the heat of precipitation obtained in the activity lower than theory? TP 2
Sebahagian haba hilang ke persekitaran / Haba diserap oleh cawan polistirena
Some heat lost to the surroundings / Heat absorbed by the polystyrene cup
Pautan Interaktif
AS
Prosedur menentukan haba pemendakan argentum klorida, AgCl.
Procedure to determine the heat of precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl.
B Haba Penyesaran
N
Heat of Displacement
1. Tindak balas penyesaran berlaku apabila logam yang lebih elektropositif menyesarkan logam yang kurang
elektropositif daripada larutan garamnya.
Displacement reaction occurs when a more electropositive metal displace a less electropositive metal from its salt solution.
2. Haba penyesaran ialah perubahan haba apabila satu mol logam disesarkan daripada larutan garamnya oleh
PA
logam yang lebih elektropositif .

The heat of displacement is the heat change when one mole of a metal is displaced from its salt solution by a more
electropositive metal .
Contoh/Example 8
Termometer Serbuk magnesium

Thermometer Magnesium powder, Mg
Larutan
ferum(II)
sulfat
Iron(II) sulphate,
FeSO4 solution
Rajah/ Diagram 3.14
102
Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe ∆H = – 200 kJ mol-1
Daripada persamaan termokimia, 200 kJ haba telah dibebaskan apabila 1 mol ferum, Fe disesarkan
daripada larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO4 oleh magnesium, Mg.
From the thermochemical equation, 200 kJ of heat is given out when 1 mole of iron, Fe is displaced from iron(II)
sulphate, FeSO4 solution by magnesium, Mg.
Tenaga/ Energy
IA
Mg + FeSO4
H = – 200 kJ mol–1
MgSO4 + Fe
Tujuan/Aim:
AS AKTIVITI 3.3
Eksperimen Wajib
Membandingkan haba penyesaran suatu logam daripada larutan garamnya oleh logam yang berlainan
keelektropositifan
Comparing the heat of displacement of a metal from its salt solution by metals of different electropositivity
Bahan/ Materials:
Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 0.5 mol dm-3, serbuk zink, Zn serbuk magnesium, Mg
N
0.5 mol dm-3 copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution , zinc powder, Zn magnesium powder, Mg
Radas/ Apparatus:
Cawan polistirena, silinder penyukat, termometer, spatula
Polystyrene cup, measuring cylinder, thermometer, spatula
Prosedur/Procedure:
PA
Termometer Serbuk zink

Thermometer Zinc powder, Zn
Larutan
kuprum(II)
sulfat
Copper(II)
sulphate, CuSO4
solution
Rajah/ Diagram 3.15

1. 25 cm larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 0.5 mol dm-3 disukat dengan silinder penyukat dan dituang ke
3
dalam cawan polistirena.

25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution, is measured using a measuring cylinder and pour into a
polystyrene cup.
2. Larutan dikacau dengan termometer dan suhu awal larutan direkodkan.
The solution is stirred using a thermometer and initial temperature of the solution is recorded.
3. Satu spatula serbuk zink, Zn (berlebihan) dimasukkan dengan cepat ke dalam larutan kuprum(II) sulfat,
CuSO4 yang berada di dalam cawan polistirena.
One spatula of zinc powder, Zn (in excess) is added quickly into copper(II) suphate, CuSO4 solution in the polystyrene
cup.
103
4. Campuran dikacau dengan termometer dan suhu tertinggi campuran direkodkan.
The mixture is stirred with a thermometer and the highest temperature of the mixture is recorded.
5. Langkah 1 hingga 4 dengan menggantikan serbuk zink, Zn dengan serbuk magnesium, Mg.
Steps 1 to 4 are repeated by replacing zinc powder, Zn with magnesium powder, Mg.
Keputusan/ Results:
1. Zn + CuSO4 0.5 mol dm–3 Suhu/ Temperature (0C)
Suhu awal larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, 28.0

Initial temperature of copper(II) sulphate solution
Suhu tertinggi campuran, 33.0

Highest temperature of mixture
IA
2. Mg + CuSO4 0.5 mol dm–3 Suhu/ Temperature (0C)
Suhu awal larutan kuprum(II) sulfat,

AS 28.0
Initial temperature of copper(II) sulphate solution
Suhu tertinggi campuran, 39.0

Perbezaan suhu θ 39.0 – 28.0 = 11.0


1. Tuliskan persamaan kimia dan persamaan ion bagi tindak balas pertama
Write the chemical equation and ionic equation for the first reaction
reaction.
N
Persamaan kimia/ Chemical equation:
CuSO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + Cu
Persamaan ion/ Ionic equation:

PA
Cu2+ + Zn → Zn2+ + Cu
(a) Hitung bilangan mol CuSO4 yang terbentuk.

Calculate the number of moles of CuSO4 formed
formed.
Bilangan mol CuSO4/ Number of moles of CuSO4 = MV

1 000
(0.5) (25)
=
1 000
= 0.0125 mol
(b) Hitung haba dibebaskan

Calculate the heat released
released.

= (25)(4.2)(5)
= 525 J
104
(c) Hitung haba penyesaran.
Calculate the heat of displacement.
Q
Haba penyesaran/ Heat of displacement, ∆H = –
n
525 J
=–
0.0125 mol
42 000 J mol–1
=–
1 000
= – 42.0 kJ mol–1
IA
(d) Tuliskan persamaan termokimia bagi tindak balas.
CuSO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + Cu ∆H = – 42.0 kJ mol–1
(e) Lukiskan gambar rajah aras tenaga bagi tindak balas.

Draw energy level diagram for the reaction.
AS Tenaga/ Energy
Zn + CuSO4
H = – 42.0 kJ mol–1
ZnSO4 + Cu
N
2. Tuliskan persamaan kimia dan persamaan ion bagi tindak balas kedua.
Write the chemical equation and the ionic equation for the second reaction.
CuSO4 + Mg → MgSO4 + Cu
PA

Cu2+ + Mg → Mg2+ + Cu
(a) Hitung bilangan mol CuSO4 yang digunakan.

Calculate the number of moles of CuSO4 used.
Bilangan mol CuSO4/ Number of moles of CuSO4 = MV

1 000
(0.5) (25)
=
1 000
= 0.0125 mol
(b) Hitung haba dibebaskan.

Calculate the heat released.

= (25)(4.2)(11)
= 1 155 J
105
(c) Hitung haba penyesaran.
Calculate the heat of displacement.
Q
Haba penyesaran/ Heat of displacement, ∆H = –
n
1 155 J
=–
0.0125 mol
92 400 J mol–1
=–
1 000
= – 92.4 kJ mol–1
(d) Tuliskan persamaan termokimia bagi tindak balas.
IA
CuSO4 + Mg → MgSO4 + Cu ∆H = – 92.4 kJ mol–1

Draw energy level diagram for the reaction.
Tenaga/ Energy
AS Mg + CuSO4
H = – 92.4 kJ mol–1
MgSO4 + Cu
3. Mengapakah cawan polistirena digunakan dalam aktiviti ini?

N
Why a polystyrene cup is used in this activity?
Untuk mengurangkan haba hilang ke persekitaran.
To reduce heat lost to the surroundings.
PA
4. Mengapakah nilai haba penyesaran yang diperoleh lebih rendah daripada teori?
Why the value of the heat of displacement obtained lower than theoretical?
Sebahagian haba hilang ke persekitaran/ Haba diserap oleh cawan polistirena
Some heat lost to the surroundings / Heat absorbed by polystyrene cup.
5. Mengapakah serbuk zink digunakan secara berlebihan?

Why the zinc powder is used in excess
excess?
Untuk memastikan semua ion Cu2+ disesarkan daripada larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4.
To ensure all Cu2+ ion is displaced from copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution.
Nilai haba penyesaran kuprum bergantung kepada keelektropositifan logam yang digunakan.
Jika logam yang lebih elektropositif seperti magnesium digunakan untuk menggantikan zink, maka nilai haba
penyesaran kuprum menjadi lebih besar .
electropositivity
The value of the heat of displacement of copper is depended on the of the metal used. If a more
electropositive metal such as magnesium is used to replace zinc, then the value of the heat of displacement of copper
greater
becomes .
106
C Haba Peneutralan
Heat of Neutralisation
1. Haba peneutralan ialah perubahan haba apabila satu mol air terbentuk daripada tindak balas antara asid dengan
alkali .
The heat of neutralisation is the heat change when one mole of water is formed from the reaction between an acid and
an alkali .
Contoh/Example 9
IA
Termometer
Thermometer
Larutan Asid nitrik

natrium Nitric acid, HNO3
AS hidroksida
Sodium
hydroxide, NaOH
solution

NaOH + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2O
Rajah/ Diagra
Diagramm 3.16
∆H = –57.0 kJ mol-1
∆
Daripada persamaan termokimia, sebanyak 57.0 kJ haba telah dibebaskan apabila 1 mol air
terbentuk daripada tindak balas antara asid nitrik, HNO3 dan larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH.
N
From the thermochemical equation, 57.0 kJ of heat is given out when 1 mole of water formed from reaction
between nitric acid, HNO3 and sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.
Tenaga/ Energy
PA
HNO3 + NaOH
H = – 57.0 kJ mol–1
NaNO3 + H2O
I Haba Peneutralan bagi Tindak Balas antara Asid Kuat dengan Alkali Kuat
The Heat of Neutralisation for Reaction between a Strong Acid and a Strong Alkali
1. Asid hidroklorik, HCl dan asid nitrik, HNO3 ialah asid monoprotik . Satu mol asid hidroklorik, HCl
atau asid nitrik, HNO menghasilkan satu mol ion hidrogen, H+ apabila mengion dalam air.
3
Haba peneutralan bagi tindak balas antara asid kuat dan alkali kuat ialah
–57.3 kJ mol–1.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl and nitric acid, HNO3 are monoprotic acids. One mole of hydrochloric acid, HCl or nitric
acid, HNO3 produces one mole of hydrogen ions, H when ionised in water. The heat of neutralisation for
+
reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali is equal to –57.3 kJ mol–1.
107
2. Asid sulfurik, H2SO4 ialah asid diprotik . Satu mol asid sulfurik menghasilkan dua mol ion
hidrogen, H apabila mengion dalam air. Kepekatan ion hidrogen, H dalam asid sulfurik adalah
+ + dua kali ganda
lebih
tinggi daripada kepekatan ion hidrogen, H+ dalam asid hidroklorik, HCl dan asid nitrik, HNO3 pada kepekatan yang sama.
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is a diprotic acid. One mole of sulphuric acid, produces two moles of hydrogen ions,
H when ionised in water. The concentration of hydrogen ions, H of sulphuric acid is double the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ of
+ +
the hydrochloric acid, HCl and nitric acid, HNO3 of the same concentration.
3. Apabila satu mol asid sulfurik, H2SO4 dineutralkan oleh larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH, 114.6 kJ tenaga haba dibebaskan
kerana dua mol air terbentuk. Walau bagaimanapun, haba yang dibebaskan oleh satu mol air yang terbentuk
masih 57.3 kJ .
When one mole of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is neutralised by sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution, 114.6 kJ of heat energy is given out because
there are two moles of water formed. However, the heat given out by one mole of water formed is still 57.3 kJ .
IA
Eksperimen 3.1
Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen
Menentukan haba peneutralan asid yang berlainan kekuatan dengan alkali kuat
Eksperimen Wajib
To determine the heat of neutralisation of acids of different strengths with strong alkalis

Adakah tindak balas antara asid kuat dan alkali kuat menghasilkan haba peneutralan yang lebih tinggi daripada tindak
balas antara asid lemah dan alkali kuat?
AS
Does reaction between strong acid and strong alkali produce higher heat of neuralisation than reaction between weak acid and strong
alkali?
Tindak balas antara asid kuat dan alkali kuat menghasilkan haba peneutralan yang lebih tinggi berbanding tindak
balas antara asid lemah dan asid kuat.
Reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali produce a higher heat of neutralisation as compared to the reaction between a weak
acid and a strong alkali.
N
(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Jenis asid/ Types of acid
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Haba peneutralan/ Heat of neutralisation
PA
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Isi padu dan kepekatan alkali/ Volume and concentration of alkali
Bahan/ Materials:
Asid hidroklorik, HCl 1.0 mol dm-3, asid etanoik, CH3COOH 1.0 mol dm-3, larutan natrium hidroksida,
NaOH 1.0 mol dm-3
1.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, 1.0 mol dm-3 ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, 1.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution
Radas/ Apparatus:
Cawan polistirena, silinder penyukat, termometer
Polystyrene cup, measuring cylinder, thermometer
Termometer
Thermometer
Larutan Asid hidroklorik

natrium Hydrochloric acid, HCl
hidroksida
Sodium
hydroxide, NaOH
solution
Rajah/ Diagram 3.17
108
1. 50 cm3 asid hidroklorik, HCl 1.0 mol dm-3 disukat dengan silinder penyukat dan dituang ke dalam cawan
polistirena.
50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into a polystyrene cup.
2. Suhu awal asid diukur dengan termometer selepas beberapa minit dan direkodkan.
The initial temperature of the acid is measured after a few minutes and is recorded.
3. 50 cm3 larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH 1.0 mol dm-3 disukat dengan silinder penyukat dan dituangkan ke
dalam cawan polistirena lain.
50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into another polystyrene
cup.
4. Suhu awal alkali diukur dengan termometer selepas beberapa minit dan direkodkan.
The initial temperature of the alkali is measured after a few minutes and is recorded.
IA
5. Asid hidroklorik, HCl kemudian dituang dengan cepat dan cermat ke dalam larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH.
The hydrochloric acid, HCl is then poured quickly and carefully into the sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.
6. Campuran dikacau dengan termometer dan suhu tertinggi direkodkan.
The mixture is stirred using a thermometer and the highest temperature is recorded.
7. Langkah 1 hingga 6 diulang dengan menggunakan asid etanoik, CH3COOH bagi menggantikan asid hidroklorik,
HCl.
Steps 1 to 6 are repeated using ethanoic acid, CH3COOH to replace hydrochloric acid, HCl .
Keputusan/ Result:
1. NaOH + HCl
Suhu awal asid hidroklorik,
Initial temperature of hydrochloric acid
Suhu awal larutan natrium hidroksida,
AS
Initial temperature of sodium hydroxide solution
Suhu/ Temperature (0C)
29.0
29.0

Average initial temperature of mixture = 29.0
2
Suhu tertinggi campuran,
N
Highest temperature of mixture 35.5
Perbezaan suhu, θ
35.5 – 29.0 = 6.5
PA
2. NaOH + CH3COOH Suhu/ Temperature (0C)

Suhu awal asid etanoik,
Initial temperature of ethanoic acid 29.0
Suhu awal larutan natrium hidroksida,

Initial temperature of sodium hydroxide solution 29.0

Average initial temperature of mixture = 29.0
2
Highest temperature of mixture 34.0
Perbezaan suhu, θ
34.0 – 29.0 = 5.0

1. Tuliskan persamaan kimia dan persamaan ion bagi tindak balas.
Write the chemical equation and the ionic equation for the reactions.
(a) Persamaan kimia tindak balas pertama./ Chemical equation for the first reaction.
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
(b) Persamaan kimia tindak balas kedua./ Chemical equation for the second reaction.
CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + H2O
109
2. Hitung haba peneutralan bagi tindak balas. TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Calculate the heat of neutralisation for the reactions.
(a) Tindak balas pertama:/ First reaction:
(i) Hitung bilangan mol air yang terbentuk./ Calculate the number of moles of water formed.
Daripada/ From HCl Daripada/ From NaOH
H+ + OH– H2O
MV MV
n= n=
1 000 1 000
(1.0)(50) (1.0)(50)
n= n=
1 000 1 000
n = 0.05 mol n = 0.05 mol
Berdasarkan persamaan ion,/ Based on the ionic equation,
IA
1 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 1 mol ion OH– untuk membentuk 1 mol H2O.
1 mole of H+ ion react with 1 mole of OH- ion to form 1 mole of H2O.
Jadi, 0.05 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 0.05 mol ion OH– untuk membentuk
0.05 mol H O.
2
Thus, 0.05 mole of H+ ion reacts with 0.05 mole of OH- ion to form 0.05 mole of H2O.
(ii) Haba tindak balas/ Heat of reaction, Q = mcθ
AS = (100)(4.2)(6.5) = 2 730 J
(iii) Haba peneutralan/ Heat of neutralisation, ∆H

∆H = –
Q
n
2 730 J
=–
0.05 mol
54 600 J mol–1
=–
1 000
= – 54.6 kJ mol-1
(c) Tindak balas kedua:/ Second reaction:
N
(i) Hitung bilangan mol air yang terbentuk./ Calculate the number of moles of water formed.
Daripada/ From CH3COOH Daripada/ From NaOH
H +
+ OH– H2O
MV MV
n= n=
1 000 1 000
PA
(1.0)(50) (1.0)(50)
n= n=
1 000 1 000
n = 0.05 mol n = 0.05 mol
1 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 1 mol ion OH– menghasilkan 1 mol H2O.
1 mol of H+ ion react with 1 mol of OH- ion to produce 1 mol of H2O.
Jadi, 0.05 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 0.05 mol ion OH- menghasilkan 0.05 mol
H2O.
Thus, 0.05 mol of H+ ion react with 0.05 mol of OH- ion to produce 0.05 mol of H2O.
= (100)(4.2)(6.5) = 2 730 J
Q
(iii) Haba peneutralan/ Heat of neutralisation, ∆H = –
n
2 100 J
=–
0.05
42 000 J mol–1
=–
1 000
= – 42.0 kJ mol-1
110
3. Persamaan termokimia bagi kedua-dua tindak balas. TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Thermochemistry equation for both reactions.
(a) HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O ∆H = – 54.6 kJ mol-1
(b) CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + H2O ∆H = – 42.0 kJ mol–1
4. Lukiskan gambar rajah aras tenaga bagi tindak balas.

Draw the energy level diagram for reactions.
(a) HCl + NaOH (b) CH3COOH + NaOH
IA
HCl + NaOH CH3COOH + NaOH
H = – 46.2 kJ mol–1 H = – 29.4 kJ mol–1
NaCl + H2O CH3COONa + H20
AS
5. Mengapakah cawan polistirena digunakan dalam eksperimen ini? TP 2
Why a polystyrene cup is used in this experiment?
Untuk mengurangkan haba hilang ke persekitaran./ To reduce heat lost to the surroundings.
6. Mengapakah nilai haba peneutralan yang diperoleh lebih rendah daripada teori? TP 4 KBAT Menganalisis
Why the value of the heat of neutralisation obtained lower than theoretical?
N
Some heat lost to the surroundings / Heat is absorbed by the polystyrene cup
7. Bandingkan haba peneutralan antara kedua-dua tindak balas. Jelaskan jawapan anda.
Compare the heat of neutralisation of both reaction. Explain your answer.
Tindak balas antara asid hidroklorik dengan natrium hidroksida mempunyai haba peneutralan yang lebih tinggi
PA
berbanding tindak balas antara asid etanoik dengan natrium hidroksida. Asid hidroklorik ialah asid kuat yang
mengion sepenuhnya di dalam air manakala asid etanoik ialah asid lemah mengion separa di dalam air. Molekul
asid etanoik menyerap sebahagian haba yang dibebaskan dalam tindak balas untuk mengion sepenuhnya.
Reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide has a higher heat of neutralisation compared to the reaction between
ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid that ionises completely in water while ethanoic acid is a weak
acid that ionises partially in water. Molecules of ethanoic acid absorb some of the heat given out in the reaction to ionises completely.
Tindak balas antara asid kuat dengan alkali kuat mempunyai haba peneutralan yang lebih tinggi berbanding tindak
balas antara asid lemah dengan alkali kuat. .
Reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali has a higher heat of neutralisation compared to the reaction between a weak
acid and a strong alkali .
Pautan Interaktif
Prosedur menentukan haba peneutralan bagi tindak balas antara asid hidroklorik, HCl dan larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH.
Procedure to determine the heat of neutralisation for a reaction between hydrochloric acid, HCl and sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.
111
II Haba Peneutralan bagi Tindak Balas antara Asid Lemah dengan Alkali Lemah
The Heat of Neutralisation for Reaction between a Weak Acid and a Weak Alkali
1. Haba peneutralan antara asid lemah dengan alkali kuat adalah kurang daripada –57.3 kJ mol–1.
The heat of neutralisation between a weak acid and a strong alkali is less than –57.3 kJ mol–1.
2. Ini disebabkan kebanyakan asid lemah masih wujud sebagai molekul apabila larut dalam air.
Asid lemah mengion separa dalam air untuk menghasilkan kepekatan ion hidrogen, H+ yang
rendah .
This is because most of the weak acids exist as molecules when dissolve in water. They ionise partially
in water to produce low concentration of hydrogen ions, H+.
3. Sebahagian haba yang dibebaskan semasa tindak balas peneutralan diserap oleh molekul
memutuskan
IA
asid lemah untuk ikatan supaya dapat mengion dengan lengkap untuk menghasilkan
ion hidrogen, H . Maka, nilai ΔH akan
+
kurang daripada –57.3 kJ mol–1.
Some of the heat given out during neutralisation reaction is absorbed by the weak acid molecules to
break the bond so that it can completely ionises to produce hydrogen ions, H+ . Thus, the value of ΔH is
less than –57.3 kJ mol–1.
4. Haba peneutralan bagi tindak balas antara asid lemah dengan alkali lemah adalah lebih rendah
memecahkan
AS
kerana lebih banyak tenaga diperlukan untuk
lemah supaya dapat mengion dengan lengkap.
ikatan dalam molekul asid lemah dan alkali
The heat of neutralisation for reaction between a weak acid and a weak alkali is much
energy is required to
completely.
break
lower because more
the bonds in both weak acid and weak alkali molecules in order to ionises
Eksperimen 3.2
Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen
Eksperimen Wajib
Menentukan haba peneutralan asid yang berlainan kekuatan dengan alkali lemah
N
To determine the heat of neutralisation of acids of different strengths with weak alkalis
Adakah tindak balas antara asid kuat dan alkali lemah menghasilkan haba peneutralan yang lebih tinggi daripada
tindak balas antara asid lemah dan alkali lemah?
Does reaction between strong acid and weak alkali produce higher heat of neuralisation than reaction between weak acid and weak
PA
alkali?
Tindak balas antara asid kuat dengan alkali lemah menghasilkan haba peneutralan yang lebih tinggi berbanding tindak
balas antara asid lemah dengan alkali lemah. .
Reaction between a strong acid and a weak alkalis produce a higher heat of neutralisation compared to the reaction between a weak
acid and a weak alkali. .

(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Jenis asid/ Types of acid
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Haba peneutralan/ Heat of neutralisation
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Isi padu dan kepekatan alkali/ Volume and concentration of alkali
Bahan/ Materials:
Asid hidroklorik, HCl 2.0 mol dm-3, larutan ammonia, NH3 2.0 mol dm-3, asid etanoik, CH3COOH 2.0 mol dm-3
2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, 2.0 mol dm-3 ammonia, NH3, 2.0 solution mol dm-3 ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
Radas/ Apparatus:
Cawan polistirena, silinder penyukat, termometer
Polystyrene cup, measuring cylinder, thermometer
112
Termometer
Thermometer
Larutan Asid hidroklorik

ammonia Hydrochloric acid, HCl
Ammonia,
NH3 solution
Rajah/ Diagram 3.18
IA
1. 50 cm asid hidroklorik, HCl 2.0 mol dm disukat dengan silinder penyukat dan dituang ke dalam cawan
3 -3
polistirena.
50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into a polystyrene cup.
2. Suhu awal asid diukur dengan termometer selepas beberapa minit dan direkodkan.
The initial temperature of the acid is measured after a few minutes and is recorded.
3. 50 cm3 larutan ammonia, NH3 2.0 mol dm-3 disukat dengan silinder penyukat dan dituang ke dalam cawan
polistirena lain.
50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 ammonia, NH3 solution is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into another polystyrene cup.
AS
4. Suhu awal alkali diukur dengan termometer selepas beberapa minit dan direkodkan.
The initial temperature of the alkali is measured after a few minutes and is recorded.
5. Asid hidroklorik, HCl kemudian dituang dengan cepat dan cermat ke dalam larutan ammonia, NH3.
The hydrochloric acid, HCl is then poured quickly and carefully into the ammonia
6. Campuran dikacau dengan termometer dan suhu tertinggi direkodkan.
ammonia, NH3 solution.
The mixture is stirred using a thermometer and measured the highest temperature is recorded.
7. Langkah 1 hingga 6 diulang dengan menggunakan asid etanoik, CH3COOH bagi menggantikan asid hidroklorik,
HCl.
Steps 1 to 6 are repeated using ethanoic acid
acid,, CH3COOH to replace hydrochloric acid
acid, HCl.
N
Keputusan/ Result:
1. HCl + NH3 Suhu/ Temperature (0C)
Suhu awal asid hidroklorik,
28.0
Initial temperature of hydrochloric acid
PA
Suhu awal larutan ammonia,

28.0
Initial temperature of ammonia solution
Purata suhu awal campuran, 28.0 + 28.0 = 28.0
34.0
Perbezaan suhu, θ
34.0 – 28.0 = 6.0
2. CH3COOH + NH3 Suhu/ Temperature (0C)

Suhu awal asid etanoik,
28.0
Initial temperature of ethanoic acid
Suhu awal larutan ammonia,
28.0
Initial temperature of ammonia solution
Purata suhu awal campuran, 28.0 + 28.0 = 28.0
30.0
Perbezaan suhu, θ
30.0 – 28.0 = 2.0
113
1. Hitung haba peneutralan tindak balas./ Calculate the heat of neutralisation of the reactions.
(a) Tindak balas pertama:/ First reaction:
(i) Hitung bilangan mol air yang terbentuk. TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Calculate the number of moles of water formed.
Daripada/ From HCl Daripada/ From NH3
H+ + OH– H2O
MV MV
n= n=
1 000 1 000
(2.0)(50) (2.0)(50)
n= n=
1 000 1 000
n = 0.1 mol n = 0.1 mol
IA
1 mole of H+ ion react with 1 mole of OH– ion to produce 1 mole of H2O.
Jadi, 0.1 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 0.1 mol ion OH– menghasilkan 0.1 mol H2O.
Thus, 0.1 mole of H+ ion react with 0.1 mole of OH–ion to produce 0.1 mole of H2O.
AS
mc
= (100)(4.2)(6)
= 2 520 J
Q
(iii) Haba peneutralan/ Heat of neutralisation, ∆H
∆H = –
n
2 520 J
=–
0.1 mol
25 200 J mol–1
=–
1 000
N
= – 25.2 kJ mol–1
(b) Tindak balas kedua/ Second reaction:

(i) Hitung bilangan mol air yang terbentuk. TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Calculate the number of moles of water formed.
PA
Daripada/ From CH3COOH Daripada/ From NH3

H+ + OH– H2O
MV MV
n= n=
1 000 1 000
(2.0)(50) (2.0)(50)
n= n=
1 000 1 000
n = 0.1 mol n = 0.1 mol

1 moel of H+ ion react with 1 mole of OH- ion to produce 1 mole of H2O.
Jadi, 0.1 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 0.1 mol ion OH– menghasilkan 0.1 mol H2O.
Thus, 0.1 mole of H+ ion react with 0.1 mole of OH– ion to produce 0.1 mole of H2O.

= (100)(4.2)(2)
= 840 J
114
Q
(iii) Haba peneutralan/ Heat of neutralisation, ∆H = –
n
840 J
=–
0.1 mol
8 400 J mol–1
=–
1 000
= – 8.4 kJ mol–1
2. Mengapakah cawan polistirena digunakan dalam eksperimen ini?
Why a polystyrene cup is used in this experiment?
Untuk mengurangkan haba hilang ke persekitaran/ To reduce heat lost to the surroundings.
IA
3. Mengapakah nilai haba peneutralan yang diperoleh lebih rendah daripada teori?
Why the value of heat of neutralisation obtained lower than theoretical?
Some heat lost to the surroundings / Heat is absorbed by the polystyrene cup
4. Bandingkan haba peneutralan bagi kedua-dua tindak balas. Terangkan jawapan anda.
AS
Compare the heat of neutralisation for both reactions. Explain your answer.
Tindak balas antara asid hidroklorik dengan ammonia mempunyai haba peneutralan yang lebih tinggi berbanding
tindak balas antara asid etanoik dengan ammonia. Asid hidroklorik ialah asid kuat yang mengion sepenuhnya di
dalam air manakala asid etanoik ialah asid lemah yang mengion separa di dalam air. Ammonia ialah alkali lemah
yang mengion separa di dalam air. Molekul asid etanoik dan ammonia menyerap sebahagian haba yang dibebaskan
dalam tindak balas untuk mengion sepenuhnya.
Reaction between hydrochloric acid with ammonia has a higher heat of neutralisation compared to the reaction between ethanoic
acid with ammonia. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid that ionises completely in water while ethanoic acid is a weak acid that ionises
N
partially in water. Ammonia is weak acid that ionises partially in water. Some heat released in the reaction is absorbed by molecules
of ethanoic and ammonia to ionises completely.
PA
Tindak balas antara asid kuat dengan alkali lemah mempunyai haba peneutralan yang lebih tinggi berbanding tindak
balas antara asid lemah dengan alkali lemah .
Reaction between a strong acid and a weak alkali has a higher heat of neutralisation compared to the reaction between a weak
acid with a weak alkali .
D Haba Pembakaran
Heat of Combustion
1. Haba pembakaran ialah perubahan haba apabila satu mol bahan dibakar dengan lengkap dalam
oksigen pada keadaan piawai untuk menghasilkan air, H2O dan karbon dioksida, CO2 .
The heat of combustion is the heat change when one mole of a substance is completely burnt in oxygen under standard
condition to produce water, H2O and carbon dioxide, CO2 .
2. Alkohol ialah bahan api yang baik. Pembakaran alkohol yang lengkap menghasilkan karbon dioksida ,
air dan membebaskan banyak tenaga haba .
Alcohol is a good fuel. The complete combustion of alcohol produces carbon dioxide , water and releases a lot
of heat energy.
115
Contoh/Example 10
Termometer
Thermometer
Penghadang
angin Bekas kuprum
Windshield Copper can
Tungku Air
kaki tiga Water
Tripod stand
Pelita Metanol
Spirit lamp Methanol, CH3OH
Bongkah kayu
Wooden block
Rajah/ Diagram 3.19
IA
(a) Persamaan termokimia:/ Thermochemical equation: TP 2
3
CH3OH + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2H2O ∆H = –504 kJ mol–1
∆
Daripada persamaan termokimia, sebanyak 504 kJ haba telah dibebaskan apabila 1 mol metanol, CH3OH
terbakar lengkap dalam oksigen berlebihan untuk membentuk air dan
gas karbon dioksida .
From the equation, 504 kJ mol-1 heat is
excess oxygen to produce
AS
water
Tenaga/ Energy
given out
and
TP2
when 1 mole of methanol, CH3OH burnt completely in
carbon dioxide .
3
CH3OH + O
2 2
H = – 504.0 kJ mol–1
N
CO2 + H2O
3. Hubungan antara haba pembakaran alkohol dengan bilangan atom karbon per molekul alkohol atau jisim molekul
relatif alkohol:
Relationship between the heat of combustion of alcohol and the number of carbon atoms per alcohol molecule or relative molecular
PA
mass of alcohol:
(a) Apabila bilangan atom karbon dan atom hidrogen per molekul alkohol bertambah, haba pembakaran akan
bertambah .
When the number of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms per molecule of alcohol increases, the heat of combustion will
increases .
(b) Ini disebabkan, apabila lebih banyak atom karbon dan atom hidrogen terbakar , lebih banyak gas
karbon dioksida dan air terbentuk.
This is because when more carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms are burnt , more carbon dioxide gas and
water are formed.
(c) Pembentukan ikatan kimia dalam karbon dioksida dan air membebaskan tenaga haba . Lebih
banyak karbon dioksida dan air terbentuk, lebih banyak tenaga haba dibebaskan .
The formation of chemical bonds in carbon dioxide and water gives out heat energy. The more carbon dioxide
and water formed, the more heat to be given out .
(d) Ini menjelaskan mengapa haba pembakaran alkohol bertambah apabila bilangan atom karbon dan atom
hidrogen per molekul alkohol bertambah .
This explains why the heat of combustion of alcohol increases when the number of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms
per molecule of alcohol increases .
116
Eksperimen 3.3
Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen Wajib
Eksperimen
Membandingkan haba pembakaran pelbagai alkohol
To compare the heat of combustion of various alcohols
Adakah bilangan atom karbon per molekul alkohol mempengaruhi haba pembakaran?
Does the number of carbon atoms per molecule of alcohol affect the heat of combustion?
Semakin banyak bilangan atom karbon per molekul alhohol, semakin tinggi haba pembakaran
IA
The higher the number of carbon atoms per alcohol molecule, the higher is the heat of combustion

(a) dimanipulasikan/ manipulated: Jenis alkolhol/ Types of alcohol
(b) bergerak balas/ responding: Haba pembakaran/ Heat of combustion
(c) dimalarkan/ fixed: Isi padu air, bekas kuprum/ Volume of water, copper can
Bahan/ Materials:
Metanol, etanol, propan-1-ol, butan-1-ol, air / Methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, butan-1-ol, water
Radas/ Apparatus: AS
Bekas kuprum, tungku kaki tiga, termometer, silinder penyukat, pelita, penimbang, penghadang angin, bongkah kayu
Copper can, tripod stand, thermometer, measuring cylinder, spirit lamp, balance, wind shield, wooden block
Termometer
Thermometer
Penghadang
angin Bekas kuprum
Windshield Copper can
N
Tungku Air
kaki tiga Water
Tripod stand
Pelita Metanol
Spirit lamp Methanol, CH3OH
Bongkah kayu
Wooden block
PA
Rajah/ Diagram 3.20

1. 100 cm air disukat dan dituang ke dalam bekas kuprum.
3
100 cm3 of water is measured and poured into a copper can.

2. Air dikacau dengan termometer dan suhu awal direkodkan.
The water is stirred using a thermometer and the initial temperature is recorded.
3. Bekas kuprum diletakkan di atas tungku kaki tiga.
The copper can is placed on a tripod stand.
4. Pelita diisi tiga per empat penuh dengan metanol. Pelita dan kandungannya ditimbang dan jisimnya direkodkan.
A lamp is three quarter filled with methanol. The lamp and its contents are weighed and the mass is recorded.
5. Kedudukan pelita dilaraskan dengan bongkah kayu dan sumbu pelita dinyalakan.
The position of the lamp is adjusted with a wooden block and the wick of the lamp is lighted.
6. Penghadang angin seperti ditunjukkan Rajah 3.20 diletakkan untuk mengurangkan kehilangan haba ke sekitaran.
A windshield is placed as shown in Diagram 3.20 to minimise the heat lost to the moving air in the surroundings.
7. Air dikacau dengan termometer sepanjang eksperimen.
The water is stirred using thermometer throughout the experiment.
8. Nyala pelita dipadamkan apabila suhu air meningkat sebanyak 30 °C. Suhu tertinggi direkodkan.
The flame is put off when the temperature of the water increases by 30°. The highest temperature is recorded.
9. Pelita bersama kandungannya ditimbang semula dengan serta merta dan jisimnya direkodkan.
The lamp and its contents are weighted immediately and the mass is recorded.
10. Langkah 1 hingga 9 diulang dengan menggunakan etanol, propan-1-ol dan butan-1-ol bagi menggantikan metanol.
Steps 1 to 9 are repeated using ethanol, propan-1-ol and butan-1-ol to replace methanol.
117
Keputusan/ Result:
Jenis alkohol Metanol Etanol Propan-1-ol Butan-1-ol
Types of alcohol Methanol Ethanol Propan-1-ol Butan-1-ol
Suhu awal, Jawapan murid Jawapan murid
28.0 28.0
Initial temperature (°C) Students answer Students answer
Suhu tertinggi, Jawapan murid Jawapan murid
58.0 58.0
Highest temperature (°C) Students answer Students answer
Perubahan suhu, Jawapan murid Jawapan murid
30.0 30.0
Temperature changes (°C) Students answer Students answer
Jisim awal pelita, Jawapan murid Jawapan murid
374.95 332.00
Initial mass of lamp (g) Students answer Students answer
IA
Jisim akhir pelita, Jawapan murid Jawapan murid
373.35 330.80
Final mass of lamp (g) Students answer Students answer
Jisim alkohol terbakar, Jawapan murid JJawapan
awapan murid
1.6 1.2
Mass of alcohol burnt (g) Students answer SStudents
tudents answer

1. Tuliskan persamaan kimia bagi pembakaran alkohol.
(a) Metanol/ Methanol:

AS
Write the chemical equation for the combustion of alcohol.
3
CH3OH + 2 O2  CO2 + 2H2O
(b) Etanol/ Ethanol: C2H5OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 3H2O

9
(c) Propan-1-ol/ Propan-1-ol: C3H7OH + 2 O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
(d) Butan-1-ol/ Butan-1-ol: C4H9OH + 6O2  4CO2 + 5H2O
2. Hitungkan haba pembakaran bagi metanol and etanol.

N
Calculate the heat of combustion for methanol and ethanol.
Jenis alkohol Metanol Etanol
Types of alcohol Methanol Ethanol
(a) Bilangan mol Bilangan mol/ Number of moles Bilangan mol/ Number of moles
PA
alkohol yang Jisim/ Mass Jisim/ Mass

terbakar, = =
Jisim molar/ Molar mass Jisim molar/ Molar mass
Number of moles of 1.6 1.2
alcohol burnt = =
32 46
= 0.05 = 0.03
(b) Haba dibebaskan, Haba tindak balas/ Heat of reaction, Haba tindak balas/ Heat of reaction,
Heat given out Q = mcθ Q = mcθ
= (100)(4.2)(30) = (100)(4.2)(30)
= 12 600 J = 12 600 J
(c) Haba pembakaran, Haba pembakaran/ Heat of combustion, Haba pembakaran/ Heat of combustion,
Heat of combustion Q Q
∆H = – ∆H = –
n n
12 600 J 12 600 J
=– =–
0.05 mol 0.03 mol
252 000 J mol–1 420 000 J mol–1
=– =–
1 000 1 000
= –252 kJ mol–1 = – 420 kJ mol–1
118
3. Lukiskan gambar rajah aras tenaga bagi tindak balas.
Draw the energy level diagram for the reactions.
(a) Metanol/ Methanol (b) Etanol/ Ethanol
3 C2H3OH + 3O2
CH3OH + O
2 2
H = – 252.0 kJ mol–1 H = – 420.0 kJ mol–1
IA
CO2 + H2O 2CO2 + 3H2O
4. Mengapakah bekas kuprum digunakan dalam eksperimen ini?

Why copper can is used in this experiment?
Logam kuprum ialah penyerap haba yang baik.
Copper metal is good heat absorber.
AS
5. Mengapakah kasa dawai tidak digunakan dalam eksperimen ini?
Why wire gauze is not used in this experiment?
Kasa dawai akan menyerap sebahagian haba yang dibebaskan dalam pembakaran alkohol
Wire gauze will absorb heat released in the combustion of alcohol.
6. Mengapakah penghadang angin digunakan dalam eksperimen ini?

Why the wind shield is used in this experiment?
Untuk mengurangkan haba hilang ke persekitaran akibat dibawa oleh angin.
To minimise the heat lost to the moving air in the surroundings.
N
7. Bandingkan haba pembakaran antara metanol dan etanol. Jelaskan jawapan anda.
Compare the heat of combustion between methanol and ethanol. Explain your answer.
Haba pembakaran etanol lebih tinggi daripada metanol. Semakin bertambah bilangan atom karbon dan hidrogen
per molekul alkohol, semakin tinggi haba pembakaran.
PA
Heat of combustion of ethanol is higher than methanol. The higher number of carbon and hydrogen atoms per methanol
molecule of alcohol, the higher is the heat of combustion.
Semakin bertambah bilangan atom karbon per molekul alkohol, semakin tinggi haba pembakaran.
The higher the number of carbon atoms per alcohol molecule, the higher is the heat of combustion.
Uji Kendiri 3.2

1. Rajah 3.21 menunjukkan suatu aktiviti untuk menentukan haba pemendakan argentum klorida, AgCl.
Diagram 3.21 shows an activity to determine the heat of precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl.
Termometer
Thermometer
25 cm3, larutan kalium

25 cm3 larutan argentum klorida, KCl 0.5 mol dm–3
nitrat, AgNO3 0.5 mol dm–3 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3
25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 potassium chloride,
silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution KCl solution
Rajah/ Diagram 3.21
119
Jadual di bawah menunjukkan keputusan aktiviti.
The table below shows the results of the activity.
Suhu awal larutan argentum nitrat/ Initial temperature of silver nitrate solution = 29.0 °C
Suhu awal larutan kalium klorida/ Initial temperature of potassium chloride solution = 29.0 °C
Suhu tertinggi campuran/ Highest temperature of the mixture = 32.0 °C
(a) Takrifan haba pemendakan berdasarkan aktiviti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 3.21. TP 2
Define the heat of precipitation based on the activity shown in Diagram 3.21
Haba pemendakan ialah perubahan haba apabila 1 mol mendakan argentum klorida, AgCl terbentuk daripada
ion-ion Ag+ dan Cl– dalam larutan akueus argentum nitrat, AgNO3 dan kalium klorida, KCl.
Heat of precipitation is the heat change when 1 mole of silver chloride, AgCl precipitate is formed from Ag+ and Cl- ions
IA
in aqueous solution of silver nitrate, AgNO3 and potassium chloride, KCl.
(b) Nyatakan satu pemerhatian dalam aktiviti./ State one observation in the activity.
Mendakan putih terhasil/ Bacaan termometer meningkat/ Bekas menjadi panas
White precipitate formed/ Thermometer reading increases/ Container becomes hot
(c) Tuliskan persamaan kimia bagi tindak balas.
AgNO3 + KCl → AgCl + KNO3

AS
Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
(d) Hitungkan yang berikut:/ Calculate the following:

(i) Haba tindak balas,/ Heat of reaction,
Q = mcθ
= (50)(4.2)(3)
= 630 J
(ii) Haba pemendakan/ Heat of precipitation

N
Bilangan mol Ag+/ Number of moles of Ag+ = Bilangan mol AgNO3 digunakan/ Number of moles of AgNO3 used
MV
=
1 000
(0.5)(25)
= = 0.0125 mol
PA
1 000
Bilangan mol Cl–/ Number of moles of Cl– = Bilangan mol NaCl digunakan/ Number of moles of NaCl used
MV
=
1 000
(0.5)(25)
= = 0.0125 mol
1 000
Berdasarkan persamaan kimia,/ Based on the chemical equation,

1 mol AgNO3 bertindak balas dengan 1 mol KCl untuk menghasilkan 1 mol AgCl.
1 mole of AgNO3 react with 1 mole of KCl to produce 1 mole of AgCl.
Maka, 0.0125 mol AgNO3 bertindak balas dengan 0.0125 mol KCl untuk menghasilkan 0.0125 mol AgCl.
Therefore, 0.0125 mole of AgNO3 react with 0.0125 mole of KCl to produce 0.0125 mole of AgCl.
Q
Haba pemendakan/Heat of precipitation, ∆H = –
n
630 J
=–
0.0125 mol
50 400 J mol–1
=–
1 000
= – 50.4 kJ mol–1
120
Draw the energy level diagram for the reaction.
Tenaga/ Energy
AgNO3 + KCl
H = – 50.4 kJ mol–1
AgCl + KNO3
IA
(f) Sekiranya larutan kalium klorida, KCl digantikan dengan larutan argentum klorida, AgCl, ramalkan nilai haba
pemendakan. Terangkan jawapan anda./ If the potassium chloride, KCl solution is replaced by silver chloride, AgCl,
solution, predict the value of the heat of precipitation. Explain your answer. TP 4 KBAT Menganalisis
Nilai haba pemendakan masih –50.4 kJ mol-1. Ini kerana ion yang terlibat dalam pemendakan agentum klorida,
AgCl masih sama, iaitu ion Ag+ dan Cl-./ Value of the heat of precipitation is still –50.4 kJ mol-1.This is because the ions
involved in precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl is still the same, ie Ag+ and Cl- ions.
CuSO4 ialah 300C?

AS
2. Apabila serbuk zink, Zn berlebihan ditambah kepada 25 cm3 larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO4 0.2 mol dm-3, haba
penyesarannya ialah –210 kJ mol–1. Berapakah suhu tertinggi campuran, jika suhu awal larutan kuprum(II) sulfat,
When excess zinc, Zn powder is added to 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution, the heat of displacement is
-210 kJ mol-1. What is the highest temperature of the mixture if the initial temperature of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution is
30 0C?
MV
Bilangan mol CuSO4/ Number of moles of CuSO4 =
1 000
(0.2)(25)
= = 0.005 mol
1 000
1 mol Cu disesarkan  210 kJ haba dibebaskan/ 1 mole of Cu displaced  210 kJ of heat is given out
N
0.005 mol Cu disesarkan  1.05 kJ haba dibebaskan/ 0.005 mole of Cu displaced  1.05 kJ of heat is given out
Haba tindak balas/ Heat of reaction, Q = mc

mcθθ
1 050 J = (25)(4.2)(θ)
1 050
θ =
PA
105
= 10 °C
Suhu tertinggi/ Highest temperature = Perubahan suhu/ Temperature changes + Suhu awal/ Initial temperature
= (10 + 30) °C = 40 °C
3. Dalam satu eksperimen untuk menentukan haba peneutralan bagi tindak balas antara asid nitrik, HNO3 dan kalium
hidroksida, KOH, 50 cm3 asid nitrik, HNO3 1.0 mol dm-3 ditambah kepada 50 cm3 larutan kalium hidroksida, KOH 1.0
mol dm-3 di dalam sebuah cawan polistirena. Suhu campuran meningkat dari 30.0 °C kepada 36.0 °C. Hitungkan haba
peneutralan.
In an experiment to determine the heat of neutralisation for the reaction between nitric acid, HNO3 and potassium hydroxide, KOH
solution, 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 nitric acid, HNO3 is added to 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 potassium hydroxide, KOH solution in a
polystyrene cup. The temperature of mixture increases from 30.0 °C to 36.0 °C. Calculate the heat of neutralisation.
[Muatan haba tentu larutan air/ Specific heat capacity of the solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1] TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
HNO3 + KOH → KNO3 + H2O
Daripada/ From HNO3 Daripada/ From KOH
H+ + OH– H2O
MV MV
n = 1 000 n=
1 000
(1.0)(50) (1.0)(50)
n= n=
1 000 1 000
n = 0.05 mol n = 0.05 mol
121
1 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 1 mol ion OH- menghasilkan 1 mol H2O
1 mole of H+ ion react with 1 mole of OH- ion to produce 1 mole of H2O.
Maka, 0.05 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 0.05 mol ion OH- untuk menghasilkan 0.05 mol H2O.
Therefore, 0.05 mole of H+ ion react with 0.05 mole of OH- ion to produce 0.05 mole of H2O.

= (100)(4.2)(6)
= 2 520 J
Q
Haba peneutralan/ Heat of neutralisation, ∆H = –
n
2 520
IA
=–
0.05
= –50 400 J mol–1
= –50.4 kJ mol–1
8. 25.0 cm3 asid nitrik, HNO3 dan 25.0 cm3 larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH telah dicampurkan di dalam satu cawan
polistirena. Suhu campuran meningkat dari 29 °C ke 39 °C. Hitungkan haba tidak balas. TP 3
25.0 cm3 of nitric acid, HNO3 and 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution were mixed together in a polystyrene cup. The
temperature of the mixture increased from 29 °C to 39 °C. Calculate the heat of reaction. KBAT Mengaplikasi
AS
[Muatan haba tentu larutan/ Specific heat capacity of the solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1]
Perubahan suhu/ Temperature changes, θ = (39 – 29) °C

= 10 °C

= (50)(4.2)(10)
= 2 100 J
9. 100 cm3 larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH 2.0 mol dm-3 yang ditambah ke dalam 100 cm3 asid hidroklorik,
HCl 2.0 mol dm-3 menghasilkan haba peneutralan sebanyak 50.7 kJ mol-1 . Hitungkan haba tindak balas. TP 3
N
100 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution that added to 100 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl produce
50.7 kJ mol-1 heat of neutralisation. Calculate the heat of reaction. KBAT Mengaplikasi

HCl + NaOH  NaOH + H2O
PA
Daripada/ From HCl Daripada/ From NaOH

H+ + OH– H 2O
MV MV
n= n=
1 000 1 000
(2.0)(100) (2.0)(100)
n= n=
1 000 1 000
n = 0.2 mol n = 0.2 mol
1 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 1 mol ion OH- menghasilkan 1 mol H2O.
1 mole of H+ ion react with 1 mole of OH- ion to produce 1 mole of H2O.
Maka, 0.2 mol ion H+ bertindak balas dengan 0.2 mol ion OH- menghasilkan 0.2 mol H2O
Therefore, 0.2 mole of H+ ion react with 0.2 mole of OH- ion to produce 0.2 mole of H2O.
1 mol air terbentuk, 50.7 kJ haba dibebaskan/ 1 mole of water formed, 50.7 kJ of heat given out
0.2 mol air terbentuk, 10.14 kJ haba dibebaskan/ 0.2 mole of water formed, 10.14 kJ of heat given out
Haba tindak balas/ Heat of reaction = Haba dibebaskan/ Heat given out, Q = 10 140 J
122
10. Pembakaran sejenis alkohol di udara diwakili oleh persamaan kimia yang berikut: TP 3
The combustion of a type of alcohol in the air is represented by the following chemical equation:
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O ∆H = –1 260 kJ mol–1
(a) Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan ‘∆H = –1 260 kJ mol-1’?/ What is meant by ‘∆H = –1 260 kJ mol–1’?
Sebanyak 1 260 kJ haba dibebaskan apabila 1 mol etanol terbakar lengkap dalam oksigen berlebihan untuk
menghasilkan air dan karbon dioksida .
1 260 kJ mol-1 of heat given out when 1 mole of ethanol burnt completely in excess oxygen to produce water and carbon
dioxide .
(b) 200 g air dipanaskan oleh pembakaran 0.23 g alkohol tersebut.
IA
200 g of water is heated by the combustion of 0.23 g of the alcohol.
(i) Hitung haba yang dibebaskan oleh pembakaran alkohol itu. TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Calculate the heat given out by the combustion of the alcohol.
[Jisim atom relatif/ Relative atomic mass: H=1 ; C=12 ; O=16 ]
Jisim/ Mass
Bilangan mol etanol/ Number of moles of ethanol, n =
Jisim molar/ Molar mass
0.23
AS =
46
= 0.005 mol
Berdasarkan persamaan kimia,/ Based on the chemical equation,

1 mol etanol terbakar membebaskan 1 260 kJ haba/ 1 mole of ethanol burned to give out 1 260 kJ of heat
0.005 mol etanol terbakar membebaskan 6.3 kJ haba/ 0.005 mole of ethanol burned to give out 6.3 kJ of heat
Maka, haba dibebaskan/ Therefore, the heat given out, Q = 6 300 J haba
(ii) Hitung perubahan suhu air./ Calculate the temperature change of the water.
[Muatan haba tentu larutan/ Specific heat capacity of the solution: 4.2 J g–1 °C–1 ]
N
Q = mc
mcθθ
6300 J = (200)(4.2)θ
6 300 J
θ =
(200)(4.2)
PA
= 7.5 0C
3.3 Tindak Balas Endotermik dan Eksotermik dalam Kehidupan Harian

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions in Daily Life
A Contoh Aplikasi Tindak Balas Eksotermik dan Endotermik dalam Kehidupan Harian
Examples of Application of Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions in Daily Life
I Pek panas/ Hot pack
Rajah/ Diagram 3.22

1. Pek panas digunakan untuk menggalakkan pengaliran darah dan membantu melegakan otot. Biasanya pek panas
digunakan oleh pendaki di kawasan beriklim sejuk.
Hot pack is used to encourage the flow of blood and to relieve muscle pain. Normally, hot pack is used by climber at cold
climatic area.
123
2. Pek panas melibatkan tindak balas eksotermik . Bahan yang boleh digunakan dalam pek panas ialah
kalsium klorida dan magnesium sulfat .
Hot pack involved exothermic reaction . Substances that can be used in hot pack are calcium chloride and
magnesium sulphate .
II Pek sejuk/ Cold pack
IA
Rajah/ Diagram 3.23
1. Pek sejuk digunakan untuk meredakan kesakitan supaya alirah darah kurang dialirkan ke kawasan yang sakit.
The cold pack is used to relieve pain so that blood flow is less directed to the sicked area.
2. Pek sejuk melibatkan tindak balas endotermik . Bahan yang boleh digunakan dalam pek sejuk ialah
ammonium nitrat dan kalium nitrat .
Cold pack involved endothermic reaction. Substances that can be used in cold pack are ammonium nitrate and
Contoh/Example 11
potassium nitrate . AS
Rajah 3.24 menunjukkan beberapa bahan yang telah disediakan. Menggunakan bahan-bahan tersebut, tuliskan prosedur untuk
mencipta satu pek panas dan satu pek sejuk. Nyatakan konsep bagi tindak balas dalam kedua-dua pek.
Diagram 3.24 shows some materials that have been prepared. Using these materials, write the procedure for creating a hot pack and a cold
pack. State the concept for the reaction in both packs.
N
PA
Dua beg plastik Dua beg plastik

nipis (saiz kecil) tebal (saiz besar) Air Kalsium klorida Ammonium nitrat Pencungkil gigi
Two thin plastic Two thick plastic Water Calcium chloride Ammonium nitrate Tooth pick
bags (small size) bags (large size)
Rajah/ Diagram 3.24

Prosedur menyediakan pek panas/ Procedure to prepare a hot pack:
1. Air dimasukkan ke dalam beg plastik nipis (saiz kecil). Beg plastik nipis ditutup.
The water is put in a thin plastic bag (small size). The thin plastic bag is closed.
2. Serbuk kalsium klorida dimasukkan ke dalam beg plastik tebal (saiz besar).
Calcium chloride powder is put in a thick plastic bag (large size).
3. Beg plastik nipis (saiz kecil) dimasukkan ke dalam beg plastik tebal. Beg plastik besar ditutup.
Thin plastic bag (small size) is put in the thick plastic bag. The large plastic bag is closed.
Konsep/ Concept:
Apabila beg plastik dipicit, campuran kalsium klorida dan air akan bertindak balas
membebaskan haba . Ini adalah tindak balas eksotermik .
When the plastic bag is squeezed, mixture of calcium chloride and water will react to give out heat . This is an
exothermic reaction.
124
Prosedur menyediakan pek sejuk/ Procedure to prepare a cold pack:
1. Air dimasukkan ke dalam beg plastik nipis (saiz kecil). Beg plastik nipis ditutup.
The water is put in a thin plastic bag (small size). The thin plastic bag is closed.
2. Serbuk ammonium nitrat dimasukkan ke dalam beg plastik tebal (saiz besar).
Ammonium nitrate powder is put in a thick plastic bag (large size).
3. Beg plastik nipis (saiz kecil) dimasukkan ke dalam beg plastik tebal. Beg plastik besar ditutup.
Thin plastic bag (small size) is put in the thick plastic bag. The large plastic bag is closed
Konsep/ Concept:
IA
Apabila beg plastik dipicit, campuran ammonium nitrat dan air akan bertindak balas menyerap haba .
Ini adalah tindak balas endotermik .
When the plastic bag is squeezed, ammonium nitrate and water will react to absorbs heat . This is an
endothermic reaction.
B Nilai Bahan Api

Fuel Value AS
1. Nilai bahan api bagi suatu bahan api ialah kuantiti tenaga haba yang dibebaskan apabila satu gram bahan api itu
dibakar dengan lengkap dalam oksigen berlebihan
The fuel value of a fuel is

.
the amount of heat energy given out when one gram of the fuel is completely burnt in excess
oxygen .
2. Nilai bahan api adalah positif dan unit nilai bahan api ialah kJ g . −1
The fuel value is positive and the unit of fuel value is kJ g−1.
3. Bahan api boleh dibahagikan kepada 3 kumpulan seperti ditunjukkan dalam jadual di bawah.
N
Fuels can be divided into 3 groups as shown in the table below.
Jenis bahan api Contoh

Types of fuel Examples
Bahan api pepejal Gambut, arang batu, arang kayu, kok

PA
Solid fuel Peat, coal, charcoal, coke
Bahan api cecair Diesel, petrol, minyak bahan api, gasolin

Liquid fuel Diesel, petrol, fuel oil, gasoline
Bahan api gas Gas asli, gas arang batu, hidrogen

Gaseous fuel Natural gas, coal gas, hydrogen
4. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan nilai bahan api bagi beberapa jenis bahan.
The table below shows the fuel values of several types of substances.
Bahan Nilai bahan api

Substance Fuel value (kJ g-1)
Kayu/ Wood 18
Arang kayu/ Charcoal 35
Arang batu/ Coal 30
Kerosine/ Kerosene 37
Gasolin/ Gasoline 34
Gas asli/ Natural gas 50
Hidrogen/ Hydrogen 142
125
5. Kebanyakan bahan api yang lazim mengandungi peratus karbon yang agak tinggi. Maka, adalah sangat penting untuk
membakar bahan api dengan cekap.
Most common fuel contains high percentages of carbon, so it is very important to burn the fuel efficiently.
6. Pembakaran bahan api yang tidak cekap akan mengakibatkan pembentukan karbon monoksida yang sangat
beracun dan karbon yang tidak terbakar akan membentuk jelaga yang boleh mencemarkan atmosfera.
Inefficient combustion of fuel will lead to the formation of extremely poisonous carbon monoxide and unburnt carbon will
form soot that can pollute the atmosphere.
7. Semakin tinggi nilai bahan api, semakin berkesan bahan api itu.
The higher the fuel value, the more effective the fuel.
Tip SPM
IA
× jisim molar/ × molar mass
Tip SPM
Nilai bahan api Haba pembakaran
Fuel value Heat of combustion
÷ jisim molar/ ÷ molar mass

AS
Uji Kendiri 3.2
1. Diberi nilai bahan api bagi metanol ialah 22.75 kJ g-1. Hitungkan haba pembakarannya.
Given that the fuel value of methanol is 22.75 kJ g-1.Calculate it’s heat of combustion.
[Jisim atom relatif/ Relative atomic mass: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16]
N
Haba pembakaran/ Heat of combustion
– 22.75
=
32
= – 0.711 kJ mol-1
PA
2. Rajah 3.25 menunjukkan dua kaedah untuk mendidihkan air. Pilih kaedah yang terbaik. Wajarkan pilihan anda.
Diagram 3.25 shows two method for boiling a water. Choose the best method. Justify your choice.
Bekas aluminium
Aluminium container
Air
Water
Kayu Gasolin
Wood Gasoline
Rajah/ Diagram 3.25

Pendidihan melalui pembakaran gasolin. Ini disebabkan nilai bahan api gasolin adalah lebih tinggi daripada kayu.
Semakin tinggi nilai bahan api, semakin banyak haba yang dibebaskan. Air di dalam bekas akan mendidih dengan
lebih cepat berbanding menggunakan kayu.
Boiling by combustion of gasoline. The fuel value of gasoline is higher than wood. The higher the fuel value, the more the heat
given out. Water in the container will boil faster by using gasoline compared to wood.
126
Bab
4 Kimia Polimer
Polymer Chemistry
4.1 Polimer
Polymer
A Menerangkan Polimer
Explain Polymer
IA
1. Polimer ialah molekul berantai panjang yang terbentuk daripada gabungan banyak unit ulangan
kecil yang sama yang dikenali sebagai monomer .
Polymer is a long chain molecule made up of many small identical repeating units known as
monomer . TP 2
AS
Monomer/ Monomer
N
Polimer/ Polymer
Rajah/ Diagram 4.1
2. Monomer bersambung melalui ikatan kovalen menjadi satu rantai yang panjang melalui proses
pempolimeran .
PA
Monomer joint together by covalent bond into a chain through polymerisation process. TP 2
3. Pengelasan polimer:/ Polymers classification:

Polimer
Polymers
Pengelasan berdasarkan
Classification based on
(a) Sumber (b) Ciri-ciri (c) Proses pempolimeran

Source Characteristics Polimerisation process
Rajah/ Diagram 4.2
4. Polimer yang dikelas berdasarkan sumber terbahagi kepada polimer semula jadi dan polimer sintetik .
Polymers classified based on sources are divided into natural polymers and synthetic polymers . TP 2
5. Polimer semula jadi merupakan polimer yang terhasil secara semula jadi . Jadual di halaman 128
menunjukkan beberapa contoh polimer semula jadi.
Natural polymers are polymers that are occurs naturally . The table on page 128 shows some examples of natural
polymers. TP 2
127
Contoh/Example 1
Polimer
Monomer Struktur monomer Struktur polimer
semula jadi
Monomer Monomer structure Polymer structure
Natural polymer
Isoprena Getah
Isoprene
H 3C CH2 Rubber CH2 CH2 n
C C C C
H2C H H 3C H
Glukosa CH2OH Selulosa

HO HO
Glucose Cellulose
H O H
IA
H O H O O
H H H
OH H OH H O OH H
HO OH O H H
H OH H OH
H OH n
Glukosa CH2OH Kanji

Glucose Starch CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O H
HO
H
OH
H
H
OH
ASOH
OH
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
n
OH
O
OH
OH
Asid amino Protein

Amino acid R Protein X O Y O
H O
N C C N C C N C C
H OH
H H H H H
N
Asid lemak Lemak H O
H Fat
dan gliserol
Fatty acid H C O C R1
H C OH
and glycerol O O
PA
H C OH + 3 H C O C R2
HO C R
O
H C OH
H C O C R3
H
H
Nukleotida Asid nukleik NH2

Nucleotides H 2N Nucleic acid
e N
N O C
N e
O P O N O
O O O
N O
HO P O N NH
N G
O NH2
O –
e
O
N
O P O N
O
O
OH
6. Polimer sintetik merupakan polimer yang dihasilkan secara buatan manusia . Jadual di halaman 129
menunjukkan beberapa contoh polimer sintetik yang terhasil melalui kaedah pempolimeran .
Synthetic polymers are man-made polymers. The table on page 129 shows some examples of synthetic polymers
produced through polymerisation method.
128
Contoh/Example 2
Monomer Struktur monomer Polimer sintetik Struktur polimer Kegunaan

Monomer Monomer structure Synthetic polymer Polymer structure Uses
Etena H H Politena H H Beg plastik, bekas plastik,

Ethene Polythene penebat wayar elektrik
C=C C–C Plastic bags, plastic
H H container, insulator for
H H n
electrical wires
IA
Propena H H H Polipropena H H Paip, botol, permaidani,
Propene Polypropene bateri kereta, tali
C=C–C–H C– C Piping, bottle, carpets, car
H H C CH3 n batteries, rope
Kloroetena H H Polivinil klorida H H Kulit sintetik, paip air,

Chloroethene Polyvinyl chloride, baju hujan
C=C C–C
PVC Artificial leather, water pipe,
Stirena
Styrene
AS
H CI
H H
C=C
Polistirena
Polystyrene
H CI n
H H
C–C
raincoat
Cawan pakai buang,

pinggan, garpu plastik,
sudu plastik
Disposable cup, plastic
H H n
cutlery
Tetrafluoroetena Teflon/ Teflon Selaput pada bilah

Tetrafluoroethene F F (Politetrafluoroetena/ F F pengelap cermin kereta,
Polytetrafluoroethene) pelindung permaidani,
N
C=C C–C pelincir automotif
F F Wiper blades coating, carpet
F F n
protectors, automotive
lubricant
PA
Metil-2 Perspeks, polimetil- Cermin keselamatan,

metilpropenoat H CH3 2-metilpropenoat, H CH3 cermin pesawat, tingkap
Methyl-2- C=C Polimetil metakrilat kenderaan, kanta plastik
C–C
methylpropenoate Perspex, polymethyl-2- Safety glass, aircraft glass,
(Metil metakrilat H COOCH3 methylpropenoate, H COOCH3 n vehicles glass, lens
Methyl methacrylate) polymethyl methacrylate
7. Polimer yang dikelas berdasarkan ciri terbahagi kepada tiga kumpuan iaitu termoplastik, termoset dan elastomer.
Polymers classified based on characteristics are divided into three groups namely thermoplastics, thermosets and elastomers.
8. Termoplastik ialah polimer yang menjadi lembut apabila dipanaskan dan menjadi keras
apabila disejukkan. Termoplastik boleh dipanaskan berulang kali.

Thermoplastic is a polymer that softens when heated and hardens when cold. Themoplastic can be
heated repeatedly.
(a) Molekul termoplastik mempunyai daya tarikan antara molekul yang agak lemah . Ini menyebabkan
termoplastik lembut apabila terkena haba dan kembali ke keadaan asal apabila disejukkan.
Molecules of thermoplastics have a weak intermolecular forces of attraction. This causes the thermoplastics to
soften when exposed to heat and return to their original state when cooled.
(b) Termoplastik mempunyai pelbagai aplikasi kerana dapat dibentuk dan boleh dibentuk semula kepada pelbagai
rupa. Contoh penggunaan termoplastik seperti pembungkusan makanan, penebat, bampar kenderaan dan kad
kredit.
Thermoplastics have a wide range of applications because they can be formed and reformed in so many shapes. Some
examples are food packaging, insulation, automobile bumpers and credit cards.
129
9. Termoset ialah polimer yang menjadi lembut apabila dipanaskan dan menjadi keras
apabila disejukkan. Termoset tidak boleh dipanaskan berulang kali.

Thermoset is a polymer that softens when heated and hardens when cold. Thermoset cannot be heated repeatedly.
(a) Apabila dipanaskan, rantai polimer termoset tidak dapat bergerak daripada kedudukannya kerana
dihalang oleh rangkai silang yang terdapat di antara polimer.
When heated, the polymer chain of thermoset cannot move from its position because it is obstructed by the cross-
linking between the polymers.
(b) Termoset kuat dan tahan lama. Termoset digunakan terutamanya dalam kenderaan, pembinaan, alat permainan,
varnis dan gam.
Thermosets are strong and durable. They are used primarily in automobiles, construction, toys, varnishes and glues.
10. Elastomer ialah polimer elastik yang dapat diregangkan dan kembali ke bentuk asalnya dengan mudah.
stretched
IA
Elastomers are an elastic polymers that can be easily and returned to its original shape.
(a) Elastomer boleh wujud secara semula jadi atau sintetik .
Elastomers can exist naturally or synthetically .
(b) Getah ialah contoh elastomer semula jadi manakala neoprena, getah silikon dan getah stirena-butadiena
(SBR) ialah contoh elastomer sintetik .
Rubber is an example of natural elastomer while neoprene, silicone rubber and styrene-butadiene (SBR) are
synthetic
B
example of
Pempolimeran
Polymerisation
ASelastomers.
penggabungan
1. Pempolimeran ialah proses monomer-monomer yang banyak untuk membentuk polimer.
Polymerisations is the process of joining together the large number of monomers to form a polymer.
2. Proses pempolimeran dibahagikan kepada pempolimeran penambahan dan pempolimeran kondensasi. .

Polymerisations process is divided into additional polymerisation and condensation polymerisation .
tak tepu
N
3. Pempolimeran penambahan melibatkan proses percantuman monomer-monomer seperti
etena, kloroetena dan sebagainya tanpa kehilangan molekul atau atom.
Additional polymerisation involves the combination process of unsaturated monomers such as ethene, chloroethene and
others without the loss of molecule or atom.
Contoh/ Example:
PA
Rajah 4.3 menunjukkan ikatan ganda dua monomer etena dibuka dan dicantumkan dalam pempolimeran penambahan
bagi membentuk polimer politena.
Diagram 4.3 shows the double bond of ethene monomers are opened and merge in additional polymerisation to form polythene
polymer.
H H H H H H H H
C=C C=C C=C C=C
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
•C = C• •C = C• •C = C• •C = C•
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
–C–C –C–C –C–C –C–C
H H H H H H H H
Rajah/ Diagram 4.3
130
Contoh/Example 3
Lukiskan formula struktur bagi polimer dalam pempolimeran penambahahan yang berikut.
Draw the structural formula for the polymer in the following additional polymerisation.
(a)
H H H H
n C=C C–C
n
H H H H n
Etena / Ethene Politena / Polythene
IA
(b)
H H H H
n C=C C–C
H CI H CI n
Polivinil klorida /
Kloroetena/ Chloroethene
4. Pempolimeran
AS
kondensasi
Polyvinyl chloride
berlaku apabila monomer-monomer berlainan jenis bergabung untuk

membentuk polimer. Proses ini melibatkan penghasilan molekul-molekul kecil seperti air ,
ammonia , hidrogen klorida dan sebagainya.
Condensation polymerisation take place when monomer from different type combined to form polymer. This process involved the
water ammonia , hydrogen chloride and others.
N
production of small molecules such as ,
5. Secara amnya, monomer-monomer dalam pempolimeran kondensasi mempunyai lebih daripada satu
kumpulan berfungsi .
In general, monomers in condensation polymerisation contain more than one functional group .
PA
Contoh/ Example:
Rajah 4.4 menunjukkan pempolimeran kondensasi bagi menghasilkan nilon.
Diagram 4.4 shows the condensation polymerisation to produce nylon.
H 2O
H H O O H H O O
nH N (CH2)6 N H + n HO C (CH2)4 C OH N (CH2)6 N C (CH2)4 C + n H2O

Heksanadiamina Asid adipik Nilon
Hexanediamine Adipic acid Nylon
n
Ikatan kovalen tunggal terbentuk antara

atom nitrogen, N dan atom karbon, C
A single covalent bond formed between the
nitrogen atom, N and the carbon atom, C
Rajah/ Diagram 4.4
6. Nilon dapat dihasikan di dalam makmal melalui tindak balas kondensasi antara
1,6-heksanadiamina dan dekanadiol diklorida .
Nylon can be produced in a laboratory through condensation reaction between 1,6-hexanediamine
and decanedioyl dichloride .
131
7. Rajah 4.5 menunjukkan proses pempolimeran kondensasi bagi menghasilkan nilon di dalam makmal.
Diagram 4.5 shows the process of condensation polymerisation to produce nylon in the laboratory.
H
H H O O
O
H N
Cl N H [N (CH2)6 N C (CH2)8 C ]
Cl H
O
Dekanadiol diklorida dalam C2H2Cl4 1, 6 - heksanadiamina dalam

Decanedioyl dichloride in C2H2Cl4 natrium karbonat akueus Nilon 6,10
1, 6 - hexanediamine in Nylon 6,10
aqueous sodium carbonate
IA
H
H H O O
O
+ H
N
N
H [N (CH2)6 N C (CH2)8 C ]
Cl
Cl H
O Nilon 6,10
Nilon
Nylon
N ylon 6,10
6 menunjukkan nombor atom karbon dalam sebatian amin/ indicates the carbon atom number in amine compound
10 menunjukkan nombor atom karbon dalam klorida karbonil/ indicates the carbon atom number in carbonyl chloride
AS Rajah/ Diagram 4.5
AKTIVITI 4.1
Tujuan/ Aim:
Menghasilkan dan mengkaji sifat nilon melalui tindak balas antara 1,6 - heksanadiamina dan dekanadiol
Eksperimen Wajib
diklorida
To produce and study the properties of nylon through the reaction between 1,6 - hexanediamine and decanedioyl
dichloride
Bahan/ Materials:
1,6 - heksanadiamina, C6H16N2, dekanadiol diklorida, C10H16Cl2O2, natrium hidroksida, NaOH, heksana, C6H14,
N
air suling
1,6 - hexanediamine, C6H16N2, decanedioyl dichloride, C10H16Cl2O2, sodium hydroxide, NaOH, hexane, C6H14, distilled
water
Radas/ Apparatus:
Bikar 250 cm3, rod kaca, silinder penyukat 10 cm3, silinder penyukat 50 cm3, penimbang elektronik, forsep
PA
250 cm3 beaker, glass rod, 10 cm3 measuring cylinder, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, electronic balance, forceps
Forsep
Forseps
Rod kaca
Glass rod
Putar
Rotate
Nilon
Nylon
Lapisan nilon terhasil
Nylon layer formed
Dekanadiol diklorida
dalam larutan heksana
Decanedioyl dichloride
in hexane solution
1,6-heksanadiamina
dalam air suling
1,6-hexanediamine
in distilled water
B B
Rajah/ Diagram 4.6
132
1. 2.0 cm3 dekanadiol diklorida, C10H16Cl2O2 dan 50 cm3 larutan heksana, C6H14 dimasukkan ke dalam bikar
berlabel A.
2.0 cm3 of decanedioyl dichloride, C10H16Cl2O2, solution dan 50 cm3 of hexane, C6H14 solution are put into a beaker
labelled A.
2. 3.0 cm3 larutan 1,6-heksanadiamina, C6H16N2, 1.0 g natrium hidroksida, NaOH and 50.0 cm3 air suling
dimasukkan ke dalam bikar berlabel B.
3.0 cm3 of 1,6-hexanediamine, C6H16N2, solution, 1.0 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH and 50.0 cm3 of distilled water
are put into a beaker labelled B.
3. Larutan dalam bikar A dituangkan ke dalam bikar B.
The solution in beaker A is pour into beaker B.
4. Lapisan nilon yang terhasil di antara dua lapisan larutan ditarik perlahan-lahan bermula daripada bahagian
tengah bikar dengan menggunakan forsep.
IA
The nylon layer formed in between two layers of the solutions is pulled slowly begin from the middle of the beaker
by using a forceps.
5. Nilon yang terhasil dililitkan dengan rod kaca.
The nylon formed is rolled using a glass rod.
6. Nilon yang terhasil dibersihkan dengan menggunakan air suling.
The nylon formed is cleaned using distilled water.
7. Nilon yang telah dibersihkan diperhatikan.
The nylon that been cleaned is observed.
AS
1. Nyatakan dua sifat nilon yang terhasil.
State two properties for the nylon produces.
(a) Kuat/ Strong
(b) Kenyal/ Elastic
2. Namakan monomer yang digunakan untuk membentuk polimer nilon.

Name the monomers used in the formation of nylon polymer.
1,6-heksanadiamina, C6H16N2, dan dekanadiol diklorida, C10H16Cl2O2
N
1,6-hexanediamine, C6H16N2 and decanedioyl dichloride, C10H16Cl2O2
3. Lukiskan struktur polimer nilon yang terhasil

Draw the structure for the nylon polymer formed.
PA
H H O O
– [N – (CH2)6 – N – C – (CH2)8 – C] –
4. Semasa tindak balas berlaku, larutan dalam bikar A dan bikar B didapati tidak bercampur. Nyatakan
justifikasi terhadap situasi ini.
When the reaction take place, the solution in beaker A and beaker B is not mixing together. State the justification
at the situation.
Kedua-dua larutan mempunyai ketumpatan yang berbeza .
different density
Both solutions have .
5. Polimer nilon dihasilkan melalui melalui proses pempolimeran kondensasi dan hidrogen klorida
disingkirkan.
condensation polymerisation hydrogen chloride
Nylon polymer formed through process and
is eliminated.
133
C Kegunaan Polimer dalam Kehidupan Harian
The Use of Polymers in Daily Life
1. Polimer sintetik digunakan secara meluas dalam kehidupan harian. Jadual di bawah merumuskan kegunaan pelbagai
jenis polimer sintetik.
Synthetic polymers are widely used in daily life. The table below summaries the usage of various types of synthetic polymers.
Jenis polimer Kegunaan

Types of polymer Usage
Politena Beg plastic, bekas plastik, penebat untuk dawai elektrik

Polythene Plastic bags, plastic container, insulator for electrical wiring
Polipropena Paip, botol, permaidani, bateri kereta, tali

Polypropene Piping, bottle, carpets, car batteries, rope
IA
Polivinil klorida Kulit tiruan, paip air, baju hujan
Polyvinyl chloride, PVC Artificial leather, water pipe, raincoat
Polistirena Kotak bungkusan, kancing, papan kenyataan

Polystyrene Packaging box, buttons, noticeboards
Perspeks Cermin keselamatan, cermin pesawat, tingkap kenderaan, kanta plastik

Perspex Safety glass, air craft glass, vehicles glass, plastic lens
Nilon
Nylon
Terilin
AS
Tali, gentian sintetik, tali pancing
Ropes, synthetics fibres, fishing rope
Kain baju, jala, payung

Terylene Clothing, net, umbrella
2. Kelebihan polimer sintetik:/ Advantages of synthetic polymers:

(a) Sangat stabil dan tidak terkakis
Very stable and do not corrode

N
(b) Lengai terhadap tindak balas kimia
Inert to chemical reaction

(c) Ringan dan kuat
Light and strong

PA
(d) Murah/ Cheap

(e) Mudah dibentuk dan diwarnakan
Easily shaped and coloured
3. Pencemaran alam sekitar yang disebabkan pelupusan polimer sintetik.

Environmental pollution due to disposal of synthetic polymers. TP 4
(a) Pembuangan polimer sintetik seperti bekas dan botol plastik boleh menyebabkan sistem saliran dan sungai
tersekat dan mungkin mengakibatkan banjir kilat .
Disposal of synthetic polymers such as containers and plastic bottles can cause blockage of drainage systems and
river and may result in flash floods .
(b) Pembakaran polimer sintetik membebaskan bahan pencemar
yang membahayakan kesihatan seperti
asap, gas beracun dan mengakis seperti sulfur dioksida yang menyebabkan hujan asid dan
kesan rumah hijau .
Combustion of synthetic polymers releases harmful pollutants such as smoke, poisonous and corrosive gases such
as sulphur dioxide that cause acid rain and greenhouse effect .
134
4. Cara untuk mengurangkan pencemaran alam sekitar daripada polimer sintetik.
Ways to reduce environmental pollution due to synthetic polymers. TP 4
(a) Mengurangkan, mengitar semula dan mengguna semula polimer sintetik.

Reduce, recycle and reuse the synthetics polymers.
(b) Menggunakan polimer yang boleh terbiodegradasi .

Use biodegradable polymer.
Uji Kendiri 4.1
IA
1. Nyatakan dua jenis polimer semula jadi dan monomernya.
State two types of natural polymer and its monomer. TP 1
(a) Getah/ Rubber: Isoprena/ Isoprene
(b) Selulosa/ Cellulose: Glukosa/ Glucose
2. Namakan dua jenis polimer sintetik dan kegunaannya.

AS
Name two types of synthetic polymer and its usage. TP 4
(a) Politena/ Polythene: Membuat beg plastik/ Making of plastic bags
(b) Polipropena/ Polypropene: Membuat paip/ Making of pipes
3. Rajah 4.7 menunjukkan sejenis polimer. Namakan dan lukiskan struktur molekul monomer bagi polimer yang
ditunjukkan.
Diagram 4.7 shows a type of polymer. Name and draw the molecular structure of the monomer for the polymer shown. TP 2
H H H H H H
–C–C–C–C–C–C
N
H H H H H H
Rajah/ Diagram 4.7
Etena/ Ethene H H
PA
C=C
H H
4. Pada masa kini, kanta cermin mata lazimya diperbuat daripada plastik berbanding kaca. Justifikasikan kekurangan
kanta cermin mata yang diperbuat daripada kaca berbanding plastik.
Nowadays, most of the spectacle lenses are made of plastic. Justify the disadvantage of spectacle lenses that are made of glass as
compared to plastic. TP 4 KBAT Menganalisis
Kanta yang diperbuat daripada kaca adalah mudah pecah, lebih berat dan lebih tebal berbanding kanta yang diperbuat
daripada plastik.
Lenses made of glass can easily break, heavier and thicker compared to lenses made of plastic.
135
4.2 Getah Asli
Natural Rubber
A Penamaan, Formula Struktur dan Sifat Getah Asli

Naming, Structural Formula and Properties of Natural Rubber
1. Getah asli ialah polimer semula jadi yang diperoleh daripada lateks pokok getah. Monomer bagi getah asli
ialah isoprena .
Natural rubber is a natural polymer obtained from latex of rubber trees. The monomer of natural rubber is isoprene .
2. Berdasarkan penamaan IUPAC, isoprena juga dikenali sebagai 2-metilbut-1,3-diena .

Based on IUPAC nomenclature, isoprene also known as 2-methylbut-1,3-diene .
3. Rajah 4.8 menunjukkan formula struktur bagi getah asli.
IA
Diagram 4.8 shows the structural formula of natural rubber.
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
– C – C = C – C – C – C = C – C –
H H H H
Rajah/ Diagram 4.8
ganda dua
4. Molekul isoprena mempunyai dua ikatan
menjalani pempolimeran
AS
penambahan
An isoprene molecule contains two carbon-carbon

addition polymerisation to form
antara atom karbon. Jadi, molekul isoprena boleh
untuk membentuk poliisoprena
double
poly(isoprene)
atau getah asli.
bonds. Therefore, isoprene molecules undergo
or natural rubber.
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
n C = C – C = C C – C = C – C
N
H H H H n
Isoprena/ Isoprene Getah asli/ Natural rubber

(monomer/ monomer)
monomer) (polimer/ polymer)
PA
Rajah/ Diagram 4.9
5. Sifat-sifat getah asli:/ Properties of natural rubber:

(a) Lembut / Soft
(b) Kenyal / Elastic
(c) Tidak mengalirkan elektrik
Does not conduct electricity
(d) Peka terhadap larutan asid dan larutan alkali

Sensitive towards acidic and alkali solutions
(e) Tidak tahan haba

Cannot withstand heat
(f) Mudah dioksidakan oleh oksigen dalam udara kerana mempunyai ikatan ganda dua antara atom
karbon di dalam molekul.
Easily oxidised by oxygen in the air due to the presence of carbon-carbon double bonds in the molecules.
136
6. Kegunaan getah asli:
Uses of natural rubber:
Tilam
Matress
Paip getah
Gelang getah
IA
Rubber hose
Rubber band
Tapak kasut
Tayar
Tyres
AS Getah asli
Natural rubber
Shoe sole
Sarung tangan Belon

Gloves Ballons
N
Rajah/ Diagram 4.10
B Penggumpalan Lateks
Latex Coagulation
PA
1. Suatu zarah getah terdiri daripada molekul getah berantai panjang yang diselaputi oleh lapisan membran protein.
Membran protein ini bercas negatif
A rubber particle is made up of many long-chain rubber molecules enclosed by a layer of protein membrane. The protein
membrane is negatively charged.
charged
Zarah getah/ Rubber particle
– –
–
– –
– – –
– – – Membran protein
– – bercas negatif
– –
– – Negatively-charged
– – –
– protein membrane
–
– Molekul getah
– –
– Rubber molecules
Rajah/ Diagram 4.11

2. Zarah-zarah getah yang bercas negatif menolak antara satu sama lain. Dengan itu, zarah-zarah getah tidak dapat
bergerak rapat untuk bergabung dan menggumpal.
The negatively-charged rubber particles repel each other. Thus, the rubber particles cannot come closer for combining and
coagulating.
3. Apabila lateks ditambah dengan asid, ion hidrogen, H+, yang bercas positif daripada asid dapat
meneutralkan cas negatif yang terdapat pada permukaan membran protein zarah
getah.
When an acid is added into the latex, the hydrogen ion, H+ present in the acid has a positive charge that able to
neutralised the negative charge on the surface of protein membrane of the rubber particle.
137
4. Apabila cas negatif pada permukaan membran protein dineutralkan, zarah getah akan menjadi rapat
dan berlanggar antara satu sama lain.

When the negative charge on the surface of the protein membrane is neutralised, rubber particles become closer and
collided against one another.
5. Rajah 4.12 meringkaskan proses penggumpalan lateks dengan kehadiran asid.
Diagram 4.12 summarised the coagulation process of latex with the present of acid.
–
– – –
– –
– – – +– + + – +
– – – – + +–
– –
– – + – – –
– – – – + + +
– –
–
–
– + – – –
– Membran protein
– –
–
– –
– – + + +
– bercas negatif – – + – +
– – + –
– Negatively-charged – – + –
+–
+
– – – – + – +
–
IA
protein membrane
– – – + –
– – – –
+
Molekul getah – +
– –
Rubber molecules – –
+ +
– – –+
– – –
– +
Molekul-molekul getah diselaputi Zarah-zarah getah menolak antara Apabila asid ditambah, ion
oleh membran protein yang bercas satu sama lain. hidrogen, H+ yang bercas positif
negatif. Rubber particles repel with one another. akan meneutralkan cas negatif pada
Rubber molecules is covered by a membran protein.
protein membrane with negative charge.
AS When an acid is added, positively charge
hydrogen ion, H+ will neutralised the
negative charge at the protein membrane.

Membran
protein
Protein
Molekul getah
membrane
N
bergabung (lateks
menggumpal)
Rubber molecules
Molekul getah combined
Rubber molecules (latex coagulates)
PA
Zarah getah tidak lagi menolak Zarah getah berlanggar dan Molekul getah bergabung antara
antara satu sama lain. menyebabkan membran protein satu sama lain. Lateks menggumpal.
Rubber particles no longer repel with pecah. Molekul getah bebas bergerak. Rubber molecules combine with one
one another. Rubber particles collide and cause the another. Latex coagulates.
protein membrane break off. Rubber
molecules free to move.
Rajah/ Diagram 4.12
6. Dalam keadaan semula jadi, lateks juga dapat menggumpal sendiri tanpa penambahan asid.
In natural setting, latex able to coagulate on its own without the adding of acid.
7. Situasi ini berlaku apabila lateks dibiarkan dalam udara pada jangka masa yang panjang .
Tindakan bakteria dalam udara terhadap protein di dalam membran zarah getah akan menghasilkan
asid yang dapat menggumpalkan lateks.
Such situation take place when latex is left in the air for a longer period. The act of bacteria
from the air on the protein in the membranes will produces acid that can coagulate latex.
138
8. Penggumpalan lateks dapat dicegah dengan menambahkan sebarang larutan beralkali seperti ammonia yang
akan bertindak sebagai bakan antigumpal bagi lateks.
Coagulation of latex can be prevented by adding any alkali solution such as ammonia that will act as anticoagulant
for latex.
9. Dalam larutan ammonia, terdapat ion hidroksida, OH– yang bercas negatif .
In ammonia solution, there is a negatively charged hydroxide ion, OH –
.
10. Ion hidroksida ion, OH–, dapat meneutralkan asid yang dihasilkan oleh bakteria dalam lateks.
Hydroxide ion, OH– able to neutralise the acid produced by bacteria in the latex.
11. Jika cas negatif yang terdapat pada permukaan membran protein zarah getah dapat dikekalkan ,
IA
penggumpalan lateks tidak akan berlaku.
If the negative charge on the surface of the protein membrane of rubber particles is maintained , latex coagulation not be
able to take place.
Eksperimen 4.1
Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengkaji Eksperimen
AS
penggumpalan lateks dan kaedah mencegah penggumpalan lateks
Eksperimen Wajib
To study coagulation of latex and method to prevent coagulation of latex
Apakah bahan yang boleh diguna untuk menggumpalkan dan mencegah penggumpalan lateks?
What substance can be used to coagulate and prevent coagulation of latex?
Larutan asid menyebabkan penggumpalan lateks manakala larutan alkali mencegah penggumpalan lateks
N
Acid solution cause coagulation of latex while alkali solution prevent coagulation of latex
(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Larutan berasid, larutan beralkali/ Acidic solution, alkali solution
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Keadaan lateks, penggumpalan lateks/ Condition of latex, coagulation of latex
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Isi padu lateks/ Volume of latex
PA
Bahan/ Materials:
Lateks, asid etanoik, CH3COOH 1.0 mol dm–3, larutan ammonia, NH3 1.0 mol dm-3
Latex, 1.0 mol dm-3 ethanoic, CH3COOH acid, 1.0 mol dm–3 ammonia, NH3 solution
Radas/ Apparatus:
Rod kaca, bikar, silinder penyukat 10 ml
Glass rod, beaker, 10 ml measuring cylinder
Lateks + asid etanoik Lateks + larutan ammonia
Latex + ethanoic acid Latex + ammonia solution
Lateks sahaja
Latex only Rod kaca Rod kaca
Glass rod Glass rod
P Q R
Rajah/ Diagram 4.13
139
1. 20 cm3 lateks dituang ke dalam tiga buah bikar.
20 cm3 of latex is poured into three beakers.
2. 5 cm3 asid etanoik ditambah ke dalam bikar P sambil dikacau dengan rod kaca.
5 cm3 of ethanoic acid is added into beaker P while stirring with a glass rod.
3. 5 cm3 larutan ammonia ditambah ke dalam bikar Q sambil dikacau dengan rod kaca.
5 cm3 of ammonia solution is added into beaker Q while stirring with a glass rod.
4. Bikar R dijadikan sebagai kawalan.
Beaker R is put as a control.
5. Ketiga-tiga bikar dibiarkan selama satu malam.
The three beakers are left overnight.
6. Semua perubahan direkodkan.
All changes are recorded.
IA
Keputusan/ Result:
Bikar Pemerhatian
Beaker Observation
Lateks menggumpal
P
Latex coagulate
Lateks tidak menggumpal
Q
Latex does not coagulate
R
Latex coagulate
AS
Lateks menggumpal
Asid dapat menggumpalkan lateks manakala alkali dapat mencegah penggumpalan
lateks.
Acid can coagulate latex while alkali prevents latex from coagulating.
1. Senaraikan ion yang hadir dalam asid etanoik.
N
List the ions present in ethanoic acid.
H+ dan/ and CH3COO–
2. Apakah ion yang menyebabkan penggumpalan lateks?
What is the ion that cause the coagulation of latex?
PA
Ion H+
3. Wajarkan proses penggumpalan lateks dengan ion yang hadir dalam asid etanoik.
Justify the process of coagulation of latex with the present of ions in ethanoic acid.
Asid etanoik mengandungi ion-ion hidrogen, H+ yang bercas positif. Ion-ion ini dapat meneutralkan cas negatif
pada membran protein zarah getah. Perlanggaran zarah-zarah getah menyebabkan membran protein pecah.
Molekul getah yang terbebas bergabung antara satu sama lain dan menyebabkan penggumpalan lateks.
Ethanoic acid contain hydrogen ions, H+ with positive charge. These ions can neutralise negative charge on the protein membrane
of rubber particles. Rubber particles that collide cause the protein membrane to erupt. The rubber particles released combine
with one another and cause the coagulation of latex.
4. Apabila larutan ammonia ditambahkan ke dalam lateks, penggumpalan tidak berlaku. Wajarkan penyataan ini.
When ammonia solution is added into latex, coagulation does not take place. Justify this statement.
Larutan ammonia mengandungi ion hidroksida, OH– yang bercas negatif. Ion-ion ini dapat meneutralkan asid
yang dihasilkan oleh bakteria di dalam lateks.
Ammonia solution contain hydroxide ions, OH– with negative charge. These ions can neutralise acid produced by the bacteria in
the latex.
140
C Pemvulkanan Getah
Vulcanisation of Rubber
1. Getah asli mengandungi molekul berantai panjang yang berbelit (polimer). Apabila diregang, molekul getah menjadi
lebih panjang dan lurus kerana rantai panjang molekul getah boleh menggelongsor antara satu sama lain .
Natural rubber consists of entangled long-chain molecules (polymers). When it is stretched, the long-chain molecules are
lengthened and straightened out because the long-chain molecules can slide over each other .
2. Pemvulkanan ialah satu proses penambahan alkali yang menjadikan getah asli lebih
kuat dan keras, kenyal dan tahan terhadap haba serta bahan kimia.
Vulcanisation is a process which makes the natural rubber stronger and harder, more elastic and
IA
resistant to the heat by adding sulphur .
3. Getah tervulkan boleh diperoleh melalui kaedah-kaedah yang berikut:
Vulcanised rubber is obtained by the following methods:
(a) Memanaskan getah dengan sulfur pada suhu 140 °C dengan menggunakan zink oksida sebagai mangkin
Heating natural rubber with sulphur at 140 °C by using zinc oxide as the catalyst
(b) Merendamkan getah dalam larutan disulfur diklorida, S2Cl2 dalam metilbenzena
getah asli untuk membentuk

AS
Dipping natural rubber in a solution of disulphur dichloride, S2Cl2 in methylbenzene
4. Dalam getah tervulkan, atom-atom sulfur ditambah kepada ikatan ganda dua antara atom karbon dalam molekul
rangkai silang sulfur antara molekul-molekul getah.
In vulcanised rubber, the sulphur atoms are added to the carbon-carbon double bonds in the natural rubber molecules to form
sulphur cross-links between the rubber molecules.
H CH3 H H
– C – C – C – C –
H CH3 H H
H S S H
N
C – C = C – C
H S S H
H H n
Atom sulfur ditambahkan pada ikatan – C – C – C – C –
ganda dua dalam molekul getah
Sulphur atoms are added to the double H H CH3 H
bonds of the rubber molecule Atom sulfur ditambah ke dalam ikatan ganda dua
PA
Sulphur atoms are added into the double bond
Rajah/ Diagram 4.14
(a) Apabila getah tervulkan diregang dengan kuat dan dilepaskan, rangkai silang sulfur menarik
molekul-molekul getah kembali ke kedudukan asal. Maka, getah tervulkan lebih kenyal daripada
getah tak tervulkan.
When vulcanised rubber is stretched strongly and then released, the sulphur cross-links pull the rubber molecules
back to their original positions. Therefore, the vulcanised rubber is more elastic than unvulcanised rubber.
(b) Apabila getah tervulkan diregang, rangkai silang sulfur menghalang molekul getah daripada
menggelongsor antara satu sama lain. Maka, getah tervulkan lebih kuat dan lebih keras daripada
getah tak tervulkan.
When the vulcanised rubber is stretched, the sulphur cross-links prevent the rubber molecules from sliding over
each other. Thus, vulcanised rubber is stronger and harder than unvulcanised rubber.
(c) Atom-atom sulfur dalam getah tervulkan juga meningkatkan saiz molekul getah. Apabila saiz molekul
bertambah, daya tarikan antara molekul getah menjadi lebih kuat dan menyebabkan takat lebur meningkat. Maka,
getah tervulkan lebih tahan haba .
Sulphur atoms in vulcanised rubber also increasesthe molecular size of rubber. When the molecular size increases,
the intermolecular forces of attraction between rubber molecules become stronger and cause the melting point increases.
Therefore, vulcanised rubber more resistant to heat .
141
(d) Rangkai silang sulfur mengurangkan bilangan ikatan ganda dua antara atom karbon dalam
molekul-molekul getah. Maka, getah tervulkan lebih tahan pengoksidaan oleh oksigen dan bahan kimia
yang lain.
The sulphur cross-links also reduce the number of carbon-carbon double bonds in the rubber molecules. Therefore,
vulcanised rubber is more resistant to oxidation by oxygen and other chemicals.
5. Getah tervulkan juga boleh dilukis sebagai struktur yang ditunjukkan pada Rajah 4.15.
Vulcanised rubber can also be drawn as the structure shown in Diagram 4.15.
Rantai polimer getah
Rubber polymer chain
S
S
S Atom sulfur
S Sulphur atom
S
IA
S
Rajah/ Diagram 4.15
6. Getah tervulkan boleh digunakan untuk membuat barangan seperti tayar kenderaan , tapak kasut ,
sarung tangan , penebat elektrik dan paip getah .
Vulcanised rubber can be used to make things such as vehicle tires , shoes soles , gloves ,
electrical insulator , and rubber hose
AS .
AKTIVITI 4.2
Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen Wajib
Menghasilkan getah tervulkan

To produce vulcanised rubber
Bahan/ Materials:
Lateks, larutan disulfur diklorida, S2Cl2 dalam metilbenzena, asid etanoik, CH3COOH
N
Latex, disulphur dichloride, S2Cl2 solution in methylbenzene, ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
Radas/ Apparatus:
Jubin putih, pisau, rod kaca, bikar 100 ml
ml
White tile, knife, glass rod, 100 ml beaker
PA
Rod kaca
Glass rod
Jubin putih
White tile
Kepingan getah
Rubber sheet
Rajah/ Diagram 4.16

1. 20 cm lateks dituang ke dalam bikar.
3
20 cm3 of latex is poured into a beaker.

2. Beberapa titis asid etanoik, CH3COOH ditambahkan ke dalam lateks dan dikacau.
A few drops of ethanoic acid
acid, CH3COOH is added into the latex and stirred.
3. Lateks dituang ke atas jubin putih dan diratakan dengan cepat dengan menggunakan rod kaca bagi
mendapat kepingan lateks setebal kira-kira 1 mm.
The latex is poured onto the white tile and evened out quickly by using a glass rod to get about 1 mm thick sheet
of latex.
4. Lateks dibiarkan untuk menggumpal selama dua hari.
The latex is left to coagulate for two days.
5. Kepingan getah yang terhasil dipotong kepada dua jalur yang sama saiz.
The rubber sheet formed is cut into two strips of the same size.
142
6. Satu daripada jalur getah dicelup ke dalam larutan disulfur diklorida, S2Cl2 selama dua minit. Jalur getah
dikeluarkan dan dibiarkan kering.
One of the rubber strips is dipped in disulphur dichloride, S2Cl2 solution for 2 minutes. The rubber strip is removed
and left to dry.
7. Jalur getah satu lagi yang dijadikan kawalan juga dibiarkan kering.
Another rubber strip used as a control was also left to dry.
8. Pemerhatian pada kedua-dua jalur getah direkodkan.
Observations on both rubber strips are recorded.
1. Wajarkan proses pemvulkanan yang berlaku apabila getah asli dimasukkan ke dalam larutan disulfur
diklorida, S2Cl2.
IA
Justify the vulcanisation process that occurs when natural rubber is dip into disulphur dichloride,
dichloride, S2Cl2 solution.
Dalam proses pemvulkanan, atom sulfur daripada larutan disulfur diklorida, S2Cl2 merangkai silang molekul
getah melalui ikatan kovalen yang kuat. Keadaan ini mengurangkan keupayaan rantai molekul getah untuk
menggelongsor atas satu sama lain.
In the vulcanisation process, sulphur atoms from disulphur dichloride, S2Cl2 solution cross-linked rubber molecules
with a strong covalent bond. This reduces the ability of the rubber molecule chains to slide against one another.
AS
2. Apakah fungsi larutan disulfur diklorida, S2Cl2 dalam pelarut metilbenzena?
What is the function of disulphur dichloride
dichloride, S2Cl2 in methylbenzene solvent?
Membekalkan atom sulfur untuk proses pemvulkanan.
Produce sulfur atoms for vulcanisation process.
D Getah Tervulkan dan Getah Tak Tervulkan

N
Vulcanised Rubber and Unvulcanised Rubber
Eksperimen 4.2
PA
Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen
Membandingkan kekenyalan getah tervulkan dan getah tak tervulkan
Eksperimen Wajib
To compare the elasticity of vulcanised rubber and unvulcanised rubber
Adakah getah tervulkan lebih kenyal daripada getah tak tervulkan?
Is vulcanised rubber more elastic than unvulcanised rubber?
Getah tervulkan lebih kenyal daripada getah tak tervulkan
Vulcanised rubber is more elastic than unvulcanised rubber
(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Jenis getah/ Types of rubber
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Kekenyalan getah/ Elasticity of rubber
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Jisim pemberat, saiz jalur getah/ Mass of weight, size of rubber strip
Bahan/ Materials:
Jalur getah tervulkan, jalur getah tak tervulkan
Vulcanised rubber strip, unvulcanised rubber strip
Radas/ Apparatus:
Kaki retort dengan pengapit, pemberat 50 g, 100 g, 150 g, 200 g dan 250 g, pembaris meter, klip
Retort stand with clamp, weights 50 g, 100 g, 150 g, 200 g and 250 g, metre rule, clip
143
Klip
Clip
Jalur getah Jalur getah
tervulkan tak tervulkan
Vulcanised Unvulcanised
rubber strip rubber strip
Pemberat Pemberat
Weight Weight
Rajah/ Diagram 4.17
IA
1. Susunan radas seperti ditunjukkan pada Rajah 4.17 disediakan.
2. Panjang asal kedua-dua jalur getah diukur dan direkodkan.
The original length of both rubber strips is measured and recorded.
3. Pemberat 50 g digantungkan pada hujung setiap jalur getah.
A weight of 50 g is hung on the end of each rubber strip.
4. Panjang kedua-dua jalur getah diukur dan direkodkan.
AS
The length of both rubber strips is measured and recorded.
5. Pemberat ditanggalkan dan panjang kedua-dua jalur getah diukur dan direkodkan.
The weight is removed and the length of both rubber strips is measured and recorded.
6. Langkah 2 hingga 5 diulang dengan mengunakan pemberat 100 g, 150 g, 200 g dan 250 g.
Steps 2 to 5 are repeated using 100 g, 150 g, 200 g and 250 g weights.
Keputusan/ Result:
Jenis getah Getah tervulkan Getah tak tervulkan

Type of rubber Vulcanised rubber Unvulcanised rubber
N
Jisim pemberat
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
Weight mass (g)
Panjang asal
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Original length (cm)
PA
Panjang dengan pemberat

Length with weight (cm)
Panjang akhir tanpa pemberat

Final length without weight (cm)
Getah tervulkan adalah lebih kenyal berbanding dengan getah tak tervulkan .
Vulcanised rubber is more elastic compared to unvulcanised rubber. .
1. Berdasarkan keputusan yang diperoleh, jalur getah yang manakah mempunyai pertambahan panjang yang
kurang?
Based on the result obtained, which type of rubber strip have less increase in length?
Jalur getah tervulkan/ Vulcanised rubber strip
2. Jalur getah tervulkan dapat kembali kepada panjang asalnya setelah pemberat dialihkan. Ini menunjukkan
getah tervulkan adalah lebih kenyal daripada getah tak tervulkan .
Vulcanised rubber strip able to return to its original length after the weight is removed. This shows that the
vulcanised rubber is more elastic than unvulcanised rubber .
144
Perbandingan sifat-sifat getah tak tervulkan dan getah tervulkan
Comparison of the properties of unvulcanised rubber and vulcanised rubber
Sifat Getah tak tervulkan Getah tervulkan

Properties Unvulcanised rubber Vulcanised rubber
Ikatan ganda dua antara Lebih banyak ikatan ganda dua Kurang ikatan ganda dua antara
atom karbon antara atom karbon, C = C dalam molekul atom karbon, C = C kerana pembentukan
Carbon-carbon double bonds getah tak tervulkan. rangkai silang sulfur antara molekul getah.
More carbon-carbon double Less carbon-carbon double bonds,
bonds, C = C in unvulcanised rubber molecules. C = C because of formation of the sulphur cross-
IA
links between rubber molecules.
Kekenyalan Kurang kenyal kerana Lebih kenyal kerana rangkai

Elasticity molekul getah boleh menggelongsor silang sulfur dapat menarik molekul-molekul
antara satu sama lain dengan mudah getah kembali ke kedudukan asal selepas
apabila diregang. diregang.
Kekuatan dan kekerasan

AS Less
Lembut
elastic because the rubber
dan mudah bertukar

More elastic because the sulphur
molecules can slide over each other easily cross-links can pull back the rubber molecules to
when it is stretched. their original positions after it is stretched.
Lebih kuat dan lebih keras

Strength and hardness bentuk kerana molekul-molekul getah kerana rangkai silang sulfur menjadikan
dapat menggelongsor antara satu sama molekul-molekul getah lebih sukar
lain dengan mudah apabila diregang. menggelongsor.
N
Soft and easily change shape Stronger and harder because the
because the rubber molecules can slide over sulphur cross-links makes sliding of rubber
each other easily when it is stretched. molecules more difficult.
PA
Ketahanan terhadap haba Tidak tahan terhadap haba. Lebih tahan terhadap haba
Resistance to heat Apabila dipanaskan, getah ini menjadi kerana ikatan kovalen yang kuat dalam
lembut dan melekit. rangkai silang sulfur, – C – S – S – C.
Cannot withstand heat. When More heat-resistant because of
heated, it becomes soft and sticky. the strong covalent bonds in sulphur cross-link,
– C – S – S – C.
Ketahanan terhadap Tidak tahan terhadap Lebih tahan terhadap

pengoksidaan pengoksidaan kerana bilangan ikatan pengoksidaan kerana bilangan ikatan ganda
Resistance ganda dua, C = C antara atom karbon per dua, C = C antara atom karbon per molekul
to oxidation molekul yang tinggi. yang rendah.
Cannot withstand oxidation More oxidation-resistant because
because the number of carbon-carbon double of the number of carbon-carbon double bonds,
bonds, C = C per molecule is high. C = C per molecule is low.
145
Uji Kendiri 4.2
1. Lukiskan formula struktur bagi monomer getah asli dan berikan nama IUPAC.
Draw the molecular structure for the monomer of natural rubber and give its IUPAC name. TP 1
H CH3 H H
C = C – C = C
H H
2-metilbut-1,3-diena
2-methylbuta-1,3-diene
IA
2. Lateks yang diperoleh daripada pokok getah yang ditoreh akan dikutip dengan segera untuk mengelakkan lateks
daripada menggumpal. Terangkan mengapa proses penggumpalan lateks berlaku dan huraikan proses tersebut.
Latex obtained from tapped rubber trees will be collected immediately to prevent latex from coagulate. Explain why the coagulation
process of latex occurs and describe the process. TP 4 KBAT Menganalisis
Apabila lateks dibiarkan dalam udara pada jangka masa yang panjang, bakteria yang terdapat di dalam udara akan
AS
bertindak terhadap membran protein dalam lateks untuk menghasilkan asid. Ion hidrogen, H+ yang bercas positif
daripada asid akan meneutralkan cas negatif pada permukaan membran protein zarah getah. Apabila cas negatif
dineutralkan, zarah getah menjadi rapat dan berlanggar antara satu sama lain dan menyebabkan membran protein
pecah. Molekul getah yang terbebas akan bergabung antara satu sama lain dan menyebabkan lateks menggumpal.
When latex is left in the air for a long period of time, the bacteria in the air will act on the protein membrane in the latex to produces
acids. The positively charged hydrogen ion, H+ from acid can neutralise the negative charge on the surface of the rubber particle
protein membrane. When negative charge is neutralised, the rubber particles come closer and collide with each other caused the
N
protein membranes to rupture. The rubber molecules released will combine with each other and cause the latex to coagulate.
3. Getah asli tidak sesuai digunakan untuk membuat tayar kenderaan.

Natural rubber is not suitable for making vehicle tires. TP 5 KBAT Menilai
(a) Justifikasikan penyataan di atas.
PA
Justify the above statement.

Sifat getah asli yang lembut dan tidak tahan haba menjadikannya tidak sesuai digunakan untuk membuat tayar
kenderaan.
The soft and not heat-resistant character of natural rubber makes it unsuitable for making vehicle tires.
(b) Cadangkan satu proses yang boleh dilakukan agar getah asli boleh digunakan untuk membuat tayar kenderaan.
Suggest a process that can be done so that natural rubber can be used to make vehicle tires.
Pemvulkanan/ Vulcanisation
4.3 Getah Sintetik

Synthetic Rubber
A Getah Sintetik
Synthetic Rubber
1. Getah sintetik ialah polimer buatan yang dihasilkan di kilang pembuatan dengan mensintesisnya dari petroleum dan mineral
lain melalui proses pempolimeran .
Synthetic rubber is an artificial polymer produced in a manufacturing plant by synthesising it from petroleum and other minerals through
a polymerisations process.
146
2. Beberapa contoh getah sintetik seperti neoprena , getah stirena-butadiena (SBR) dan
getah silikon .
Several examples of synthetic rubber such as neoprene , styrene-butadiene (SBR) and silicon rubber .
3. Getah sintetik mempunyai daya tahan yang lebih baik terhadap julat suhu yang besar, lebih tahan terhadap pelarut,
oksigen, ozon dan bahan kimia serta lebih tahan terhadap luluhawa berbanding getah asli.
Synthetic rubber is more durable, more heat-resistant, more flame-resistant, remains flexible at low temperatures and more
resistant to grease and oil compared to natural rubber.
B Kegunaan Getah Asli dan Getah Sintetik

Use of Natural Rubber and Synthetic Rubber
IA
1. Neoprene ialah getah sintetik yang dihasilkan melalui pempolimeran kloroprena. Getah ini digunakan
dalam pembuatan peralatan sukan dan perubatan, penutup komputer riba, pakaian menyelam, pakaian kering dan
sarung tangan keselamatan.
Neoprene is a synthetic rubber produced by the polymerisation of chloroprene. This rubber is used in manufacturing
of sports and medical equipment, laptop covers, diving clothing, dry suits and safety gloves.
2. Getah stirena-butadiena (SBR) dihasilkan daripada monomer stirena dan butadiena. SBR lebih tahan terhadap
3.
automotif dan mesin.
AS
lelasan dan pengoksidaan. Ini menyebabkan SBR digunakan secara meluas dalam penghasilan tayar, bahagian
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is produced from styrene and butadiene monomers. SBR is more resistant to abrasion
and oxidation. This causes SBR being widely used in the production of tires, automotive parts and machinery.
Getah silikon ialah getah sintetik yang mengandungi silikon bersama dengan molekul lain seperti karbon,
hidrogen dan oksigen. Getah ini mempunyai rintangan yang baik terhadap suhu pada julat 100 °C hingga 250 °C.
Pada suhu yang melampau, getah ini mempunyai kekuatan regangan, pemanjangan dan rintangan yang lebih baik
berbanding getah asli. Getah ini banyak digunakan dalam industri seperti aeroangkasa, automotif, pembinaan,
perubatan, elektrik, elektronik dan pemprosesan makanan.
Silicone rubber is a synthetic rubber containing silicon together with other molecule such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
N
This rubber has a good resistance to temperatures in the range of 100 °C to 250 °C. At extreme temperatures, this rubber has
better tensile, elongation and resistance strength than natural rubber. This rubber is widely used in industries such as aerospace,
automotive, construction, medical, electrical, electronics and food processing.
4. Getah asli digunakan untuk menghasilkan pelbagai produk seperti kasut, tilam dan pelbagai lagi.
Natural rubber is used to produce various products such as shoes, mattresses and others.
PA
5. Getah asli dan getah sintetik tidak mudah diuraikan. Pelupusan getah asli dan getah sintetik yang tidak terurus boleh
mencemarkan air, tanah dan udara.
Natural rubber and synthetic rubber are not easily decomposed. Unmanaged disposal of natural rubber and synthetic rubber can
contaminate water, soil and air.
Contoh/ Example:
(a) Tayar-tayar terpakai boleh menakung air dan menjadi tempat pembiakan nyamuk aedes.
Used tires can hold water and become breeding ground for aedes mosquitoes.
(b) Pembakaran bahan-bahan terpakai yang diperbuat daripada getah boleh mencemarkan udara.
Combustion of used materials made from rubber can pollute the air.
(c) Pembuangan bahan daripada getah ke dalam sungai dan laut boleh mencemarkan sumber air.
Disposal of substance made of rubber into rivers and seas can pollute water sources.
(d) Pembuangan getah sintetik yang tidak terbiodegradasikan boleh mencemarkan tanah.
Disposal of non-biodegradable synthetic rubber can contaminate the soil.
6. Amalan 3R, iaitu kurangkan , guna semula dan kitar semula perlu diamalkan untuk
sbahan-bahan daripada getah agar dapat mengurangkan beban untuk menghapuskan sisa pepejal ini.
The 3R practice, namely reducing , reusing and recycling should be practiced for materials
made of rubber in order to reduce load for the elimination of this solid waste.
147
Uji Kendiri 4.3
1. Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan getah sintetik?
What is meant by synthetic rubber?
Getah buatan manusia yang dihasilkan di kilang pembuatan dengan mensintesis daripada petroleum dan mineral lain.
A man-made rubber produced in a manufacturing plant by synthesised from petroleum and other minerals.
2. Penutup komputer riba, pakaian menyelam, kelengkapan aeroangkasa dan peralatan perubatan adalah antara bahan
yang dihasilkan daripada getah sintetik.
Laptops cover, diving clothing, aerospace equipment and medical equipment are among the materials produced through synthetic
rubber.
Justifikasikan kelebihan getah sintetik dalam penghasilan bahan-bahan tersebut.
Justify the advantages of synthetic rubber in the production of these materials. TP 4 KBAT Menganalisis
IA
Getah
etah sintetik mempunyai daya tahan yang lebih baik terhadap julat suhu yang besar, lebih tahan terhadap pelarut,
oksigen, ozon, bahan kimia dan luluhawa berbanding getah asli.
Synthetic rubber has better resistance to large ranges of temperature, more resistance to solvents, oxygen, ozone, chemicals
and weathering compared to natural rubber.
3. Getah sintetik digunakan secara meluas dalam industri dan pembuatan. Rajah 4.18 menunjukkan peratus penggunaan
getah sintetik.
rubber.
AS
Synthetic rubber is widely used in the industry and manufacturing. Diagram 4.18 shows the percentage of the use of synthetic
8%
Komponen mesin
Machinery components
Barangan lateks
8% Latex items
Kasut
5% Shoes
3% Penyendal/ penutup
Seals
N
Tayar 8%
Tyre Lain-lain
68% Others
PA
Rajah/ Diagram 4.18

(a) Berdasarkan Rajah 4.18, nyatakan kegunaan utama getah sintetik.
Based on Diagram 4.18, state the main uses of synthetic rubber.
Pembuatan tayar kenderaan
Manufacture of vehicle tyres
(b) Sekitar 5% getah sintetik digunakan dalam pembuatan kasut. Nyatakan dua ciri getah sintetik yang sesuai
digunakan untuk membuat tapak kasut.
Around 5% of synthetic rubber is used in the manufacture of shoes. State two characteristics of synthetic rubber which are
suitable for making shoe soles.
1. Tahan panas
Heat-resistant
2. Keras
Hard
148
Bab
5 Kimia Konsumer dan Industri
Consumer and Industrial Chemistry
5.1 Minyak dan Lemak

Oils and Fats
A Persamaan dan Perbezaan antara Minyak dengan Lemak

Similarities and Differences between Oils and Fats
IA
1. Minyak dan lemak ialah sebatian karbon organik yang mengandungi unsur karbon ,
hidrogen dan oksigen .
Oils and fats are organic carbon compounds that contain carbon , hhydrogen
ydrogen and oxygen
elements.
2. Minyak boleh dijumpai dalam biji benih seperti kacang, soya, jagung, kelapa, kelapa sawit, dan biji
bunga matahari.
Oils can be found in
Fats are usually found in

ASseed
3. Lemak biasanya dijumpai dalam tisu

animal
such as nuts, soy, corns, coconuts, palm oil, and sunflower seed.
cecair
and
haiwan
human
dan
tissues.
manusia .
pepejal
4. Minyak wujud dalam bentuk manakala lemak wujud dalam bentuk pada
suhu bilik.
Oils exist in the liquid state while fats exist in the solid state at room temperature.
5. Hal ini disebabkan takat lebur lemak adalah lebih tinggi daripada minyak.
N
This is because the melting point of fats is higher than oils.
6. Minyak dan lemak merupakan ester semula jadi yang terhasil melalui pengesteran antara
asid lemak dengan gliserol .
Oils and fats are natural ester that are formed through esterification between fatty acids and glycerol .
PA
Asid lemak Gliserol Minyak atau lemak Air

Fatty acid + Glycerol Oils or fats + Water
(Asid karboksilik/ (Alkohol/ Alcohol)
acid)
Carboxylic acid
R1, R2 dan R3 mewakili kumpulan alkil, CnH2n+1
R1, R2 and R3 represent the alkyl group, CnH2n+1
O O H
R1 – C – O – H H R1 – C – O – C – H
O H – O – C – H O
R2 – C – O – H + H – O – C – H R2 – C – O – C – H + 3H2O
O H – O – C – H O Air
Water
R3 – C – O – H H R3 – C – O – C – H
3 molekul asid lemak Gliserol H
3 molecules of fatty acids (3 kumpulan –OH)
Glycerol (3 groups –OH Struktur umum bagi lemak
atau minyak
General structure of fats or oils
Rajah/ Diagram 5.1
7. Asid lemak merupakan asid karboksilik

yang mempunyai rantai atom karbon yang panjang. Asid lemak
mempunyai kumpulan berfungsi yang dinamakan kumpulan karboksil, –COOH .
Fatty acid is a carboxylic acid that has a long chain of carbon atoms. Fatty acids have the functional group known as
carboxyl group, –COOH .
149
8. Gliserol merupakan alkohol yang mempunyai tiga kumpulan hidroksil, OH– .
Glycerol is an alcohol with three hydroxyl groups, OH– .
9. Contoh minyak dan lemak yang dihasilkan daripada tindak balas antara asid karboksilik dengan alkohol.
Examples of oils and fats produced from reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol.
(a) Asid palmitik Gliserol Gliseril tripalmitat
+
Palmitic acid Glycerol Glyceryl tripalmitate
(b) Asid stearik Gliserol Gliseril tristearat
+
Stearic acid Glycerol Glyceryl tristearate
(c) Asid linoleik Gliserol Gliseril trilinoleat
+
Linoleic acid Glycerol Glyceryl trinoleate
(d) Asid oleik Gliserol Gliseril trioleat
+
Oleic acid Glycerol Glyceryl trioleate
IA
10. Persamaan dan perbezaan antara minyak dengan lemak:
Similarities and differences between oils and fats:
Persamaan
Similarities
(a) Mengandungi unsur yang sama, iaitu karbon , hidrogen dan oksigen .
Contain the same elements which are carbon , hydrogen and oxygen .
(a) Tidak larut dalam
Insoluble in
(a) Sejenis
dengan
water
ester
ASair
alkohol
tetapi larut dalam
but dissolve in
pelarut organik
organic solvent
.
.
yang terhasil daripada tindak balas antara asid karboksilik berantai panjang
.
Type of esters that are produced from the reaction between long chain carboxylic acids with
alcohol .
Perbezaan Minyak Lemak

Differences Oils Fats
N
Sumber Tumbuhan Haiwan
Sources Plants Animal
Ketepuan Tidak tepu Tepu

Saturation Unsaturated Saturated
PA
Keadaan pada suhu bilik Cecair Pepejal atau separa pepejal

State at room temperature Liquid Solid or semi-solid
Takat lebur dan takat didih Rendah Tinggi

Melting and boiling points Low High
Kehadiran ikatan kovalen ganda dua Tiada Ada

Presence of double covalent bond No Yes
Contoh Minyak kelapa sawit Lemak ayam

Example Palm oil Chicken fat
B Menukar Lemak Tak Tepu kepada Lemak Tepu

Converting Unsaturated Fats to Saturated Fats
1. Lemak boleh dikelaskan kepada lemak tepu dan lemak tak tepu .
Fats can be classified into saturated fats and unsaturated fats .
2. Lemak boleh terhasil daripada tindak balas:
Fats can formed through the reaction of:
(a) asid lemak tepu dengan gliserol
saturated fatty acid with glycerol
(b) asid lemak tak tepu dengan gliserol
unsaturated fatty acid with glycerol
150
3. Molekul lemak tepu mengandungi lebih banyak atom hidrogen berbanding lemak tak tepu.
Saturated fat molecules contain more hydrogen atoms compared to unsaturated fat molecules.
4. Nisbah atom karbon dalam molekul lemak tak tepu adalah lebih tinggi berbanding atom karbon dalam
molekul lemak tepu .
The ratio of carbon atoms in unsaturated fat molecules is higher compared to carbon atoms in saturated fat
molecules.
5. Lemak tepu terhasil daripada tindak balas antara asid lemak tepu dengan gliserol. Lemak tak tepu
terhasil daripada tindak balas antara asid lemak tak tepu dengan gliserol.
saturated fatty acids
IA
Saturated fats are formed from the reaction between with glycerol. Unsaturated fats are
formed from the reaction between unsaturated fatty acids with glycerol.
6. Asid lemak tepu hanya mengandungi ikatan tunggal dalam rantai hidrokarbonnya.
Saturated fatty acid contains only single bond in its hydrocarbon chain.
7. Asid lemak tak tepu mengandungi satu atau lebih ikatan ganda dua dalam rantai hidrokarbonnya.
Unsaturated fatty acid contains one or more double bonds in its hydrocarbon chain.
Fatty acid
AS
8. Contoh asid lemak tepu dan asid lemak tak tepu.
Example of saturated fatty acid and unsaturated fatty acid.
Asid lemak Formula struktur

Structural formula
Jenis asid lemak
Type of fatty acid
Asid laurik Tepu

CH3(CH2)710COOH
Lauric acid Saturated
N
Asid palmitik Tepu
CH3(CH2)14COOH
Palmitic acid Saturated
Asid stearik Tepu

CH3(CH2)16COOH
Stearic acid Saturated
PA
Asid oleik CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH Tak tepu

Oleic acid Unsaturated
Asid linolenik Tak tepu

CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH= CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
Linolenic acid Unsaturated
9. Lemak tepu mengandungi peratus asid lemak tepu yang tinggi . Ini menyebabkan takat lebur dan takat
didih lemak tepu lebih tinggi berbanding lemak tak tepu dan wujud sebagai pepejal
pada suhu bilik.
Saturated fats contain higher percentage of saturated fatty acids. This resulting in a higher melting
point and boiling point of saturated fats compared to unsaturated fats and exist as solid in room temperature.
10. Sumber lemak tepu biasanya datang daripada lemak haiwan seperti lemak kambing dan lemak lembu. Sumber
lemak tak tepu berasal daripada minyak sayuran seperti minyak kelapa, minyak jagung, minyak kelapa sawit
dan minyak kacang tanah.
Sources of saturated fats normally come from animal fats such as goat fat and cow fat. Sources for unsaturated fats are
from vegetable oils like coconut oil, corn oil, palm oil and groundnut oil.
11. Lemak tak tepu dapat ditukarkan kepada lemak tepu melalui proses penghidrogenan .
Unsaturated fats can be converted to saturated fats through hydrogenation process.
151
12. Dalam tindak balas penghidrogenan, gas hidrogen, H2 dialirkan ke dalam lemak tak tepu pada suhu
180 °C dengan kehadiran nikel atau platinum sebagai mangkin.
In the hydrogenation reaction, hydrogen gas, H2 is channelled into unsaturated fats at temperature of
180 °C in the presence of nickel or platinum as catalyst.
Contoh/ Example:
Penukaran lemak tak tepu daripada minyak sayuran seperti minyak kelapa sawit kepada lemak tepu seperti marjerin
melalui tindak balas penghidrogenan.
Converting unsaturated fats from vegetable oils such as palm oil to saturated fats like margarine through the hydrogenation
reaction.
Lemak tak tepu Lemak tepu

Unsaturated fat Saturated fat
Penghidrogenan
IA
Minyak kelapa sawit Gas hidrogen Hydrogenation Marjerin
Palm oil + Hydrogen gas Margarine
Rajah/Diagram 5.3
Dalam tindak balas ini, molekul gas hidrogen, H2 akan ditambahkan pada ikatan ganda dua dalam molekul lemak
tak tepu.
In this reaction, hydrogen gas molecules, H2 will be added to the
AS double bond in the molecules of unsaturated fats.
O O
180 °C
°C
C3H5[OC(CH2)7CH = CH(CH2)7CH3]3 + H2 C3H5[OC(CH2)7CH2CH2(CH2)7CH3]3
Nikel, Ni
Lemak tak tepu, gliseril Nickel, Ni Lemak tepu, marjerin
trioleat (minyak zaitun) Saturated fat, margarine
Unsaturated fat, glyceryl
trioleate (olive oil)
Penambahan dua atom hidrogen

ke dalam ikatan ganda dua H H O
Addition of two hydrogen atoms
to the double bond CH3(CH2)7 – CHCH(CH2)7 – C – O – CH2
H H O
N
CH3(CH2)7 – CHCH(CH2)7 – C – O – CH
H H O
CH3(CH2)7 – CHCH(CH2)7 – C – O – CH2
PA
Rajah/Diagram 5.4
15. Lemak tak tepu seperti minyak sayuran tidak dapat disimpan untuk jangka masa yang panjang berbanding lemak tepu
seperti marjerin kerana ikatan ganda dua dalam molekul lemak tak tepu mudah dioksidakan
oleh oksigen di udara yang menyebabkan minyak sayuran menjadi tengik.
Unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils cannot be stored for longer period as compared to the saturated fats such as margarine
because double bonds in the unsaturated fat molecules can be easily oxidised by oxygen in the air that can cause
vegetable oil to turn rancid.
C Penggunaan Minyak dan Lemak dalam Kehidupan Seharian

The Use of Oils and Fats in Daily Life
1. Minyak dan lemak merupakan sumber tenaga untuk badan.
Oils and fats are the source of energy for human body.
2. Minyak dan lemak diperlukan untuk membina sel-sel baharu dalam badan manusia.
Oils and fats are essential to build new cells in human body.
3. Pengambilan lemak tepu secara berlebihan akan menjejaskan kesihatan. Hal ini disebabkan, lemak tepu adalah kaya
dengan kolesterol .
High intake of saturated fats can affect one’s health. This is because, saturated fats are rich in cholesterol .
152
4. Pengambilan lemak secara berlebihan dalam jangka masa yang panjang akan menyebabkan pemendapan lemak
pada dinding arteri yang boleh mengakibatkan arteriosklerosis (dinding arteri menjadi keras).
Ini mungkin menyebabkan pengaliran darah dalam arteri tersekat dan boleh mengakibatkan tekanan darah tinggi,
serangan jantung dan strok.
Excessive intake of saturated fats in a long period of time will cause fatty deposits on the wall of arteries that may
cause arteriosclerosis (the wall of arteries hardened). This might block the flow of blood in the arteries and lead to high blood
pressure, heart attack and stroke.
5. Pengambilan lemak tak tepu adalah lebih baik untuk badan. Lemak tak tepu dapat menurunkan
paras kolesterol dalam darah. Ini dapat mengurangkan risiko seseorang menghidap tekanan darah tinggi dan
serangan jantung.
IA
Unsaturated fat intake is good for health. Unsaturated fats can reduce cholesterol levels in the blood. This may
reduce the risk of someone getting high blood pressure and heart attacks.
6. Biodiesel kelapa sawit dapat mengurangkan pelepasan gas karbon dioksida daripada ekzos kenderaan ke
daripada
persekitaran.
Palm oil biodiesel can to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide from the vehicles exhaust to the environment.
7. Bahan api bio dan biodiesel kelapa sawit dihasilkan daripada bahan mentah boleh baharu seperti kelapa sawit dan
.
AS
biojisim. Bahan api bio dan biodiesel adalah
boleh baharu
mesra alam kerana kedua-duanya adalah sumber tenaga
Biofuels and palm oil biodiesel are produced from renewable raw materials such as palm oil and biomass. Biofuels and biodiesel
are environmentally friendly because both are renewable sources of energy .
Uji Kendiri 5.1

1. Minyak dan lemak merupakan ester semula jadi yang terhasil daripada tindak balas antara gliserol dengan asid lemak.
Walau bagaimanapun, minyak dan lemak mempunyai perbezaan yang amat ketara.
N
Oils and fats are natural esters that result from the reaction between glycerol and fatty acids. However, oils and fats have very
significant differences.
(a) Senaraikan unsur yang hadir dalam minyak dan lemak.
List the elements present in oils and fats. TP 2
Karbon, hidrogen dan oksigen/ Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
PA
(b) Lemak wujud dalam keadaan pepejal manakala minyak wujud dalam keadaan cecair pada suhu bilik. Justifikasikan
perbezaan keadaan fizik ini.
Fats exist in solid state while oils exist in liquid state at room temperature. Justify these differences of the physical state.
TP 3 KBAT Mengaplikasi
Lemak tidak mempunyai ikatan ganda dua antara atom karbon. Jadi, lemak tidak mudah mengalami sebarang
tindak balas kimia dan sangat stabil berbanding minyak. Oleh itu, lemak wujud dalam keadaan pepejal pada suhu
bilik.
Fats do not have any double bond between carbon atoms. So, fats do not easily undergo any chemical reaction and
are very stable compared to oils. Therefore, they exist in solids state at room temperature.
2. Lemak tak tepu boleh ditukarkan kepada lemak tepu melalui tindak balas kimia.
Unsaturated fats can be converted to saturated fats through chemical reactions. TP 2
(a) Namakan proses dan keadaan yang diperlukan supaya tindak balas ini berlaku.
Name the process and conditions required for this reaction to occur.
Penghidrogenan pada suhu 180 oC dengan kehadiran mangkin nikel atau platinum.
Hydrogenation at temperature of 180 oC with the presence of nickel or platinum catalysts.
(b) Pada bahagian manakah tindak balas ini berlaku?

In which part does this reaction occur?
Pada ikatan ganda dua dalam molekul lemak tak tepu.
At the double bond in an unsaturated fats molecule.
153
5.2 Bahan Pencuci
Cleaning Agents
A Sabun dan Detergen

Soap and Detergent
1. Sabun ialah garam yang terhasil daripada tindak balas antara alkali dengan asid lemak,
RCOOH.
Soap is a salt produced from the reaction between alkalis and fatty acids, RCOOH.
2. Sabun ialah:/ Soap is:
(a) Garam natrium bagi asid lemak jika alkali yang digunakan ialah natrium hidroksida .
Sodium salts of fatty acids if the alkali used is sodium hydroxide .
IA
(b) Garam kalium bagi asid lemak jika alkali yang digunakan ialah kalium hidroksida .
Potassium salts of fatty acids if the alkali used is potassium hydroxide .
Alkali Asid lemak Garam natrium/kalium bagi asid lemak Air
Alkali + Fatty acid Sodium/Potassium salts of fatty acids + Water
(NaOH/KOH) (sabun/soap)
(sabun/soap)
(sabun/soap
3. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan beberapa contoh sabun yang terhasil daripada pelbagai jenis asid lemak dan alkali.
The table below shows the soaps produced by different types of fatty acids and alkalis.
Sabun
Soap
Natrium laurat/ Sodium laurate,

CH3(CH2)10COO–Na+
AS Asid lemak
Fatty acid
Asid laurik/ Lauric acid,

CH3(CH2)10COOH
Alkali
Alkali
Natrium hidroksida
Sodium hydroxide
Natrium palmitat/ Sodium palmitate, Asid palmitik/ Palmitic acid, Natrium hidroksida
CH3(CH2)14COO–Na+ CH3(CH2)14COOH Sodium hydroxide
Kalium stearat/ Potassium stearate, Asid stearik/ Stearic acid, Kalium hidroksida
CH3(CH2)16COO–K+ CH3(CH2)16COOH Potassium hydroxide
N
Kalium oleat/ Potassium oleate, Asid oleik/ Oleic acid, Kalium hidroksida
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COO–K+ CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH Potassium hydroxide
4. Formula am untuk sabun ialah RCOO–Na+ atau RCOO–K+, di mana R merupakan kumpulan alkil berantai
panjang .
PA
The general formula for soap is RCOO–Na+ or RCOO–K+, where R is a long-chained alkyl group .
Contoh/ Example:
Natrium palmitat/ Sodium palmitate
Berasal daripada alkali iaitu natrium hidroksida, NaOH
CH3(CH2)14 COO–Na+ Derived from alkali which is sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Sumber yang terdapat dalam asid lemak, sejenis asid palmitik yang diperoleh
daripada minyak kelapa sawit
Source found in palmitic acid, a type of fatty acid that comes from palm oil
Rajah/Diagram 5.5
5. Detergen merupakan garam natrium yang terhasil daripada tindak balas antara alkali dengan
asid sulfonik .
A detergent is a sodium salt produced from the reaction between alkali with sulphonic acid .
Asid sulfonik Alkali Garam natrium bagi asid sulfonik Air
Sulphonic acid + Alkali Sodium salt of sulphonic acid + Water
(NaOH) (detergen/detergent)
6. Detergen biasanya dibuat daripada sumber sintetik yang diperoleh dari pecahan petroleum atau hasil
sampingan industri petroleum.
Detergent are usually made from synthetic resources obtained from petroleum fractions or by-products of the petroleum
industry.
154
Contoh/Example 1
Namakan detergen yang berikut berdasarkan formula am yang diberikan.

Name the following detergents based on the general formula given.
(a) O (b) O
R S O–Na+ R O S O–Na+
O O
Natrium alkil sulfat Natrium alkilbenzena sulfonat

Sodium alkyl sulphate Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate
IA
B Penyediaan Sabun
Soap Preparation
1. Sabun disediakan dengan menghidrolisis lemak atau minyak dalam keadaan beralkali . Tindak balas ini
dikenali sebagai saponifikasi .
AS
Soap can be prepared by hydrolysing fats or oils under alkaline condition. This reation is called
2. Minyak tumbuhan biasanya digunakan dalam pembuatan sabun. Contohnya, minyak sawit, minyak kelapa dan
minyak zaitun.
The vegetable oil is usually used in the manufacturing of soaps. For examples, palm oil, coconut oil and olive oil.
saponification .
3. Saponifikasi melibatkan dua langkah:/

langkah:/ Saponification involves two steps:
(a) Hidrolisis minyak atau lemak untuk menghasilkan asid lemak dan gliserol.
Hydrolysis of oils or fats to produce fatty acids and glycerols.
N
(i) Dua bahagian molekul minyak atau molekul lemak diasingkan dengan mendidihkan minyak
atau lemak dengan larutan natrium hidroksida atau kalium hidroksida pekat.
The two parts of the oil or fat molecules are separated by boiling the oil or fat with
concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide solutions.
PA
(ii) Molekul minyak atau lemak akan dipecahkan kepada asid lemak dan gliserol oleh
air .
Oil or fat molecules are broken up into fatty acid and glycerol by the water .
Minyak/ Lemak Air Asid lemak Gliserol

Oils/ Fats + Water +
Fatty acids Glycerols
Pemecahan ikatan
O Bond breaking O
CH3(CH2)14 – C – O – CH2 CH3(CH2)14 – C – OH CH2 – OH
O O
CH3(CH2)14 – C – O – CH2 + 3H – OH CH3(CH2)14 – C – OH + CH – OH
Air
O Water
O
CH3(CH2)14 – C – O – CH2 CH3(CH2)14 – C – OH CH2 – OH
Gliseril tripalmitat Asid palmitik (asid lemak) Gliserol (alkohol)
(minyak kelapa sawit) Palmitic acid (fatty acids) Glycerols (alcohol)
Glyceryl palmitate (palm oils)
Rajah/Diagram 5.6
(b) Peneutralan asid lemak dengan alkali pekat untuk menghasilkan sabun dan air.
Neutralisation of fatty acids with concentrated alkali to produce soap and water.
155
Asid lemak yang terhasil dalam langkah pertama bertindak balas dengan alkali pekat untuk membentuk
garam natrium bagi asid lemak iaitu sabun.
The fatty acid produced in the first step reacts with concentrated alkali to form sodium salts of fatty acids
which is soap.
Garam natrium bagi asid
Asid lemak Alkali Air
+ lemak (sabun) +
Fatty acids Alkali Water
Sodium salt of fatty acids (soap)
3 molekul air disingkirkan

O 3 water molecules are eliminated
CH3(CH2)14 – C – OH
O O
CH3(CH2)14 – C – OH + 3NaO–H– 3CH3(CH2)14 – C – O–Na+ + 3H2O
IA
Natrium palmitat (sabun) Air
O Sodium palmitate (soap) Water
CH3(CH2)14 – C – OH
Asid palmitik (asid lemak) Natrium hidroksida (alkali)
Palmitic acid (fatty acids) Sodium hydroxide (alkali)
Rajah/Diagram 5.7
4. Persamaan keseluruhan proses saponifikasi:
Minyak/ Lemak
Oils/ Fats
O
AS
The overall equation of saponification process:
+ Alkali
Alkali
Garam natrium bagi asid
lemak (sabun)
Sodium salt of fatty acids (soap)
+ Gliserol
Glycerols
CH3(CH2)14 – C – O – CH2 CH2 – OH

O O
CH3(CH2)14 – C – O – CH2 + 3NaOH 3CH3(CH2)14 – C – O–Na+ + CH – OH
O Natrium hidroksida Natrium palmitat (sabun)
N
(alkali) Sodium palmitate (soap)
CH3(CH2)14 – C – O – CH2 Sodium hydroxide CH2 – OH
(alkali)
Gliseril tripalmitat Gliserol (alkohol)
(minyak kelapa sawit) Glycerols (alcohol)
Glyceryl palmitate (palm oils)
PA
Rajah/Diagram 5.8
5. Sabun yang terhasil ditambahkan natrium klorida, NaCl

bagi mengurangkan keterlarutannya dalam
air supaya boleh dimendakkan. Sabun kemudiannya diperoleh melalui proses penurasan .
Soap that is produced is added with sodium chloride, NaCl to reduce its solubility in water so that it can
precipitated. The soap is then obtained through a filtration process.
AKTIVITI 5.1
Tujuan/ Aim:
Menyediakan sabun melalui proses saponifikasi
Eksperimen Wajib
To prepare soap through saponification process
Bahan/ Materials:
Minyak kelapa sawit, larutan natrium hidroksida pekat, NaOH, 5.0 mol dm-3, serbuk natrium klorida, NaCl,
kertas litmus merah, air suling
Palm oil, 5.0 mol dm-3 concentrated sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution, sodium chloride, NaCl powder, red litmus paper,
distilled water
156
Radas/ Apparatus:
Bikar 250 cm3, rod kaca, tungku kaki tiga, kasa dawai, penunu Bunsen, spatula, silinder penyukat 10 cm3 dan
100 cm3, corong turas, kertas turas, tabung uji
250 cm3 beaker, glass rod, tripod stand, wire gauze, Bunsen burner, spatula, 10 cm3 and 100 cm3 measuring cylinders,
filter funnel, filter paper, test tube
1. 5 cm3 minyak kelapa sawit dimasukkan ke dalam sebuah bikar.
5 cm3 of palm oil is poured into a beaker.
2. 30 cm3 larutan natrium hidroksida pekat, NaOH 5.0 mol dm–3 ditambahkan ke dalam bikar yang sama.
30 cm3 of 5.0 mol dm –3 concentrated sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is added to the same beaker.
3. Campuran dididihkan perlahan-lahan sambil dikacau menggunakan rod kaca selama 10 minit. Campuran
IA
dihalang daripada berbuih.
The mixture is boiled slowly while being stirred with a glass rod for 10 minutes. The mixture is prevented from
bubbling.
4. 50 cm3 air suling dan dua spatula serbuk natrium klorida, NaCl ditambahkan ke dalam campuran tersebut.
50 cm3 of distilled water and two spatula of sodium chloride, NaCl powder are added into the mixture.
5. Campuran tersebut dibiarkan mendidih dan dikacau untuk beberapa minit.
The mixture is brought to boil and stirred for a few minutes.
6. Campuran di dalam bikar disejukkan dan pepejal putih yang terhasil dituras.
AS
The mixture in the beaker is cooled and the resulting white solid is filtered.
7. Pepejal putih yang terhasil dibasuh dengan sedikit air suling dan dikeringkan dengan kertas turas.
The white solid formed is washed with a little distilled water and dried with the filter paper.
8. Ujian berikut dijalankan ke atas pepejal putih yang terhasil.
The following tests are carried out on the white solid formed
(a) Sentuh dengan jari/ Touch with fingers
(b) Goncangkan sedikit pepejal putih bersama dengan air suling dan uji campuran dengan kertas litmus
merah
Shake some of the white solid formed with distilled water in a test tube and test the mixture with red litmus
paper.
9. Pemerhatian direkodkan.
N
The observation is recorded.
Ujian Pemerhatian
Test Observation
PA
Sentuh dengan jari Licin

Touch with fingers Smooth
Goncangkan dengan air suling. Banyak buih terhasil.

Campuran diuji dengan kertas litmus merah. Kertas litmus merah berubah menjadi biru.
Shake with distilled water. Many bubbles are produced.
The mixture is test with red litmus paper. The red litmus paper turns to blue.
1. Pepejal putih yang terhasil ialah sabun dan bersifat alkali .
The white solid formed is soap and has alkaline properties.
2. Apabila larutan natrium hidroksida pekat, NaOH ditambahkan, proses saponifikasi berlaku untuk
menghasilkan garam natrium bagi asid lemak atau sabun.
When concentrated sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is added, saponification process occurs to produce
sodium salts of fatty acid or soap.
3. Sabun boleh di disediakan melalui proses saponifikasi dengan mendidihkan minyak kelapa sawit dalam
larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH pekat .
Soap can be produced by boiling the palm oil with concentrated sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution through the
saponification process .
157
C Penyediaan Detergen
Detergent Preparation
1. Detergen natrium alkil sulfat disediakan melalui tindak balas peneutralan antara asid alkil sulfonik
dengan larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH .

Sodium alkyl sulphate detergent is prepared through neutralisation reaction between alkyl sulphonic acid with
sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.
2. Sebatian hidrokarbon rantai panjang daripada pecahan petroleum atau hasil sampingan industri petroleum diubah
kepada asid sulfonik melalui proses pensulfonatan .
Long-chain hydrocarbon compounds from petroleum fractions or by-products of petroleum industry are converted into sulphonic
acid through the sulphonation process.
dineutralkan
IA
3. Asid sulfonik yang terhasil kemudiannya dineutralkan oleh larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH
untuk menghasilkan detergen.
The sulphonic acid produced is then neutralised with sodium hydroxide to produce a detergent.
Contoh/Example 2
Penyediaan detergen natrium alkil sulfat:/ Preparation of sodium alkyl sulphate detergent:
(a) Pensulfonatan/Sulphonation:
Rantai panjang alkohol bertindak balas dengan
The long chain of alcohol reacts with
AS
Menyingkirkan molekul air
Remove water molecule
asid sulfurik, H2SO4
sulphuric acid, H2SO4
untuk membentuk asid alkil sulfonik.
to form alkyl sulphonic acid.
O O
CH3(CH2)nCH2OH + H–O–S–O–H CH3(CH2)nCH2 – O – S – O – H + H2O
Alkohol berantai panjang O O
Long-chain alcohol
N
Asid sulfurik pekat Asid alkil sulfonik Air
Concentrated sulphuric acid Alkyl sulphonic acid Water
(b) Peneutralan/ Neutralisation:

Asid alkil sulfonik seterusnya ditukarkan kepada natrium alkil sulfat (detergen) melalui tindak balas dengan natrium
hidroksida, NaOH.
PA
Alkyl sulphonic acid is subsequently converted to sodium alkyl sulphate (detergent) by reaction with sodium hydroxida, NaOH.
O O
CH3(CH2)nCH2 – O – S – O – H + NaOH CH3(CH2)nCH2 – O – S – O–Na+ + H 2O
Air
O Larutan natrium O Water
hidroksida
Asid alkil sulfonik Natrium alkil sulfat (detergen)
Sodium hydroxide
Alkyl sulphonic acid Sodium alkyl sulphate (detergent)
solution
4. Menyediakan detergen natrium dodekil sulfat, C12H25SO3-Na+ melalui tindak balas antara asid dodekil hidrogen sulfat,
C12H25SO4-H+ dengan larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH.
Preparing sodium dodecyl sulphate detergent, C12H25SO3-Na+ through reaction between dodecyl hydrogen sulphate acid,
C12H25SO4-H+ and sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.
O O
CH3(CH2)10CH2 – O – S – OH + NaOH CH3(CH2)10CH2 – O – S – O–Na+ + H 2O
Larutan natrium Air
O hidroksida (alkali) O Water
Natrium dodekil hidrogen sulfat Sodium hydroxide Natrium dodekil sulfat (detergen)
Sodium dodecyl hydrogen sulphate solution (alkali) Sodium dodecyl sulphate (detergent)
(asid alkil sulfonik/ alkyl sulphonic acid)
158
D Tindakan Pencucian Sabun dan Detergen
Cleansing Action of Soap and Detergent
I Sabun dan Detergen/ Soap and Detergent
1. Apabila sabun dilarutkan dalam air, molekul sabun terion kepada kation natrium, Na+ atau kation
kalium, K+ dan anion sabun .
When a soap dissolve in water, soap molecules will ionises into sodium, Na+ cations or potassium, K+ cations
and soap anions.
2. Anion sabun terdiri daripada dua bahagian:
A soap anion consists of two parts:
IA
(a) Bahagian hidrofilik: kepala ion karboksilat yang larut dalam air .
A hydrophilic part: carboxylate ion head that is soluble in water .
(b) Bahagian hidrofobik: ekor hidrokarbon berantai panjang yang larut dalam ggris
ris atau minyak .
A hydrophobic part: long hydrocarbon tail that is soluble in grease or oils .

.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 O
Bahagian
AS CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
minyak atau gris

O–Na+
1444444442444444443 123
hidrofobik . Bahagian
C
hidrofilik
air
.
Larut dalam . Larut dalam .
Hydrophobic part. Dissolves in Hydrophilic part.
oils or grease . Dissolves in water .
N
Rajah/Diagram 5.9
3. Apabila detergen dilarutkan dalam air, molekul detergen terion kepada kation natrium, Na+ dan anion
detergen .
PA
When a detergent dissolve in water, its molecule will ionises into sodium, Na+ kations and detergent anions.
4. Anion detergen terdiri daripada dua bahagian:
A detergent anion consists of two parts:
(a) Bahagian hidrofilik: kepala ion sulfat atau ion sulfonat yang larut dalam air .
A hydrophilic part: sulphate or sulphonate ions head that is soluble in water .
(b) Bahagian hidrofobik: ekor hidrokarbon berantai panjang yang larut dalam gris atau minyak .
A hydrophobic part: long hydrocarbon tail that is soluble in grease or oils .
O
CH3(CH2)nCH2 – O – S – O–Na+
O
1442443 14243
Bahagian hidrofobik . Bahagian hidrofilik .

Larut dalam minyak atau gris . Larut dalam air .
Hydrophobic part. Dissolves in Hydrophilic part.
oils or grease . Dissolves in water .
Rajah/Diagram 5.10
5. Tindakan pencucian sabun dan detergen adalah sama.
The cleansing action of soap and detergent is the same.
159
6. Anion sabun atau detergen larut dalam air dan merendahkan
ketegangan permukaan air. Air membasahi permukaan Bahagian hidrofobik Bahagian hidrofilik
kotor sepenuhnya. Hydrophobic part Hydrophilic part
The soap or detergent anions dissolve in water and lowering the

surface tension of water. Water wets the dirty surface thoroughly. Air
Water
7. Bahagian hidrofilik anion sabun atau detergen melarut Gris

dalam air. Bahagian hidrofobik anion sabun atau detergen melarut Grease
dalam kotoran seperti gris .

Kain
Cloth
The hydrophilic part of the soap or detergent anion dissolves
in water. The hydrophobic part of the soap or detergent anions dissolves
grease
in dirt such as .
IA
8. Kocakan mekanikal akan membantu menanggalkan gris
Titisan
daripada permukaan pakaian dan memecahkan gris kepada kecil gris
titisan-titisan kecil . Small
droplet of
Mechanical agitation helps to pull the grease away from the cloth surface grease
small droplets.
and break the grease into .
9. Daya tolakan antara cas negatif pada permukaan titisan-

titisan kecil gris menghalang titisan-titisan kecil gris daripada
dalam air.
AS
mendap semula pada kain, lalu membentuk emulsi yang terampai
The repulsion forces between the negative charges on the surface of

the small droplets of grease prevent the droplets from redepositing on the
Daya
cloth surface, hence forming emulsion that suspends in the water. tolakan
Repulsion
10. Buih sabun yang terhasil membantu mengapungkan emulsi force
dalam air. Emulsi disingkirkan apabila dibilas dengan air.

Rajah/Diagram 5.12
Foam produced hepls to float the emulsion in the water.
The emulsion is removed when rinsed with water.
N
II Keberkesanan Tindakan Pencucian Sabun dan Detergen

The Effectiveness of the Cleansing Action of Soap and Detergent
1. Keberkesanan tindakan pencucian sabun dan detergen bergantung pada jenis air yang digunakan.
PA
The effectiveness of the cleansing action of soap and detergent depends on the type of water used.
2. Terdapat tiga jenis air, iaitu air lembut , air liat dan air berasid .
There are three types of water, which is soft water , hard water and acidic water .
(a) Air lembut: Mengandungi sedikit atau tiada ion kalsium, Ca 2+

dan ion magnesium, Mg2+ .
Soft water: Contains little or no calcium ions, Ca2+ +
and magnesium ions, Mg2+ .
(b) Air liat: Mengandungi ion kalsium, Ca 2+

dan ion magnesium, Mg 2+
.
Hard water: Contains calcium ions, Ca 2+
and magnesium ions, Mg 2+
.
(c) Air berasid: Mengandungi ion hidrogen, H+ .

Acidic water: Contains hydrogen ions, H+ .
3. Sabun dan detergen ialah bahan pencuci paling berkesan dalam air lembut.
Soap and detergent are the most effective cleaning agents in soft water.
4. Keberkesanan sabun dan detergen sebagai bahan pencuci berkurangan apabila digunakan dalam
air liat dan air berasid .
Effectiveness of soap and detergent as cleaning agent reduces when it is used in hard water and
acidic water .
160
5. Sabun tidak boleh digunakan dalam air liat kerana ion magnesium, Mg2+ dan ion kalsium, Ca2+ akan bertindak
balas dengan sabun untuk membentuk mendakan yang tidak larut dalam air. Mendakan ini
dikenali sebagai kekat .
Soap cannot be used in hard water because the magnesium ions, Mg2+ and calcium ions, Ca2+ will react with the soap anions
to form an insoluble precipitate in water. This precipitate is known as scum .
6. Sabun tidak menghasilkan buih dalam air liat dan keadaan ini membazirkan sabun.
Soap cannot produce foams in the hard water and this condition results in the wastage of soap.
7. Kekat tidak mudah dibilas. Kekat meninggalkan enapan yang jelas kelihatan pada pakaian dan
menyebabkan pakaian menjadi keras. Selain itu, kekat juga akan melekat pada bahagian dalam singki dan mesin
IA
basuh.
Scum is not easily cleaned. It will leave a clear deposits that can be seen on cloths, and cause the cloths to feel
hard. Scum also stick to the inner part of the sinks and washing machines.
8. Detergen tidak membentuk kekat dalam air liat. Hal ini disebabkan bahagian hidrofilik anion
detergen tidak membentuk ikatan ion yang kuat dengan ion magnesium, Mg2+2+
dan ion kalsium, Ca2+ daripada air
liat.
Detergent does not form scum in hard water. This is because the hydrophilic part of the detergent anion will not
form a strong ionic bond with the magnesium ions, Mg2+ and calcium ion, Ca2+ from the hard water.
9. Dalam air berasid,

ASion hidrogen, H+ yang terdapat dalam air berasid bertindak balas dengan sabun
untuk membentuk asid lemak berantai panjang yang tidak larut.
In acidic water, hydrogen ions, H+ react with the soap to form insoluble long-chain fatty acid.
mengurangkan
10. Penghasilan asid lemak berantai panjang yang tidak larut bilangan sabun yang dapat
digunakan untuk mencuci.
Formation of insoluble long-chain fatty acids reduces the amount of soup used for cleaning.
11. Ion hidrogen, H+ dalam air berasid bertindak balas dengan detergen menghasilkan asid yang
N
terlarutkan.
Hydrogen ions, H+ in acidic water react with the detergent to form soluble acids.
12. Detergen tidak menghasilkan mendakan dalam air berasid. Jadi, detergen dapat bertindak sebagai
bahan pencuci dalam air berasid.
precipitate
PA
Detergent does not form in acidic water. Therefore, detergent can perform as cleaning agent in acidic
water.
13. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan tindak balas kimia sabun dan detergen dalam air liat dan air berasid.
The table below shows the chemical reaction of soap and detergent in hard water and acidic water.
Jenis air Tindakan pencucian

Type of water Cleansing action
Sabun/ Soap
2CH3(CH2)16COO–Na+(ak/aq) + Ca2+(ak/aq)  [CH3(CH2)16COO]2Ca(p/s) + 2Na+(ak/aq)

Tidak larut/ Insoluble
(kekat/ soap scum)
2CH3(CH2)16COO–Na+(ak/aq) + Mg2+(ak/aq)  [CH3(CH2)16COO]2Mg(p/s) + 2Na+(ak/aq)

Tidak larut/ Insoluble
Air liat
(kekat/ soap scum)
Hard water
Detergen/ Detergent
2CH3(CH2)11OSO3–Na+(ak/aq) + Mg2+(ak/aq)  [CH3(CH2) 11OSO3-]2Mg2+(ak/aq) + 2Na+(ak/aq)

Larut/ Soluble
2CH3(CH2)11OSO3–Na+(ak/aq) + Ca2+(ak/aq)  [CH3(CH2) 11OSO3-]2Ca2+(ak/aq) + 2Na+(ak/aq)

Larut/ Soluble
161
Sabun/ Soap
CH3(CH2)16COO–Na+(ak/aq) + H+(ak/aq)  CH3(CH2)16COOH(p/s) + Na+(ak/aq)

Air berasid Tidak larut/ Insoluble
Acidic water Detergen/ Detergent
CH3(CH2)11OSO3–Na+(ak/aq) + H+(ak/aq)  CH3(CH2) 11OSO3–H+(ak/aq) + Na+(ak/aq)

Larut/ Soluble
14. Perbandingan antara sabun dan detergen.

Comparison between soap and detergent
Sabun Detergen
Soap Detergent
Sabun berkesan dalam air lembut Detergen berkesan dalam air liat dan air lembut.
IA
Soaps are effective in soft water. Detergents are effective in hard water and soft water.
Sabun membentuk kekat dalam air liat. Detergen tidak membentuk kekat dalam air liat.
Soaps form scum in hard water. Detergents do not form scum in hard water.
Sabun membentuk mendakan dalam air berasid. Detergen tidak membentuk mendakan dalam air
Soaps form precipitate in acidic water. berasid.
Detergents do not form precipitate in acidic water.
Sabun ialah bahan pencuci yang baik dalam air Detergen ialah bahan pencuci yang baik dalam air
lembut.
AS
Soaps are good cleaning agent in soft water.
lembut, air liat dan air berasid.
Detergents are good cleaning agent in soft water, hard water
and acidic water.
Eksperimen 5.1
Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen
Membandingkan keberkesanan tindakan pencucian sabun dan detergen dalam air liat
Eksperimen Wajib
To compare the effectiveness of the cleansing action of soap and detergent in hard water
N
Adakah tindakan pencucian detergen lebih berkesan daripada sabun dalam air liat?
Is the cleansing action of a detergent more effective than a soap in hard water?
PA
Tindakan pencucian detergen lebih berkesan daripada sabun dalam air liat
The cleansing action of a detergent is more effective than a soap in hard water

(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Larutan sabun dan detergen/ Soap and detergent solutions
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Kotoran berminyak pada kain/ Oily stains on cloth
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Isi padu air liat, isi padu dan kepekatan bahan pencuci
Volume of hard water, volume and concentration of cleaning agent
Bahan/ Material:
Larutan sabun 5%, larutan detergen 5%, air liat (larutan magnesium sulfat 1.0 mol dm–3), 2 helai kain kecil berminyak
5% soap solution, 5% detergent solution, hard water (1.0 mol dm–3 magnesium sulphate solution), 2 small pieces of cloths with oily stains
Radas/ Apparatus:
Bikar 100 cm3, silinder penyukat 50 cm3
100 cm3 beaker, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder
1. 20 cm3 air liat (larutan magnesium sulfat) dituang ke dalam dua buah bikar berasingan, A dan B.
20 cm3 of hard water (magnesium sulphate solution) is poured into two separate beakers, A and B.
162
2. 50 cm3 larutan sabun 5% ditambah ke dalam bikar A dan 50 cm3 larutan detergen 5% ditambah ke dalam bikar
B.
50 cm3 of 5% soap solution is added into beaker A and 50 cm3 of 5% detergent solution is added into beaker B.
3. Sehelai kain kecil berminyak direndam ke dalam setiap bikar.
A small piece of cloth with oily stains is dipped into each beaker.
4. Setiap kain dicuci dengan larutan di dalam bikar masing-masing.
Each cloth is washed with the solution in respective beakers.
5. Tindakan pencucian sabun dan detergen pada kain kecil diperhatikan dan direkodkan.
The cleansing action of the soap and detergent is observed.
IA
Bikar Pemerhatian
Beaker Observation
A Mendakan putih terbentuk. Kesan berminyak masih kelihatan.

(Larutan sabun 5%/ 5% soap solution) A white precipitate is produced. The oily stains remain.
B Tiada mendakan putih terbentuk. Kesan berminyak telah hilang.

(Larutan detergen 5%/ 5% detergent solution) No white precipitate is produced. The oily stains disappear.
Tindakan pencucian
The cleansing action of a
detergen
detergent
AS lebih berkesan daripada
is more effective than a soap
sabun dalam air liat.
in hard water.
III Bahan Tambah Detergen/ Detergents Additives

1. Hanya 20% daripada kandungan detergen merupakan surfaktan. Kandungan selebihnya adalah bahan tambah.
Only 20% of the contents in a detergent are surfactants. The rest of the contents are detergent additives.
N
2. Bahan tambah detergen diguna untuk meningkatkan kecekapan pencucian
pencucian.
Detergent additives are used to enhance the cleaning efficiency
ciency.
3. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan bahan tambah detergen dan fungsinya.
The table below shows the detergent additives and their functions.
Bahan tambah Fungsi

PA
Additives Function
Enzim biologi Menguraikan kotoran seperti makanan, darah atau minyak.

Contoh: amilase, protease, selulase, lipase To break down stains such as food, blood or oil.
Biological enzyme
Example: amylase, protease, cellulase, lipase
Agen pemutih Melunturkan warna kotoran pada fabrik putih tetapi tidak
Contoh: natrium perborat, natrium hipoklorit melunturkan warna pencelup pada fabrik berwarna.
Whitening agent To bleach dirty colours on white fabrics but does not bleach dye
Example: sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite colour on coloured fabrics.
Bahan pendarfluor Menyerap sinaran ultraungu dari matahari dan memancarkan

Fluorescent material cahaya biru supaya fabrik kelihatan lebih putih.
Absorbs ultraviolet rays from the Sun and shine blue light to make
the fabrics look brighter.
Agen antienapan Menambah cas negatif bagi menghalang kotoran melekat

Contoh: natrium karboksimetilselulosa (CMC) semula pada fabrik.
Suspension agent Increase the negative change to prevent dirt from redepositing onto
Example: sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) fabrics.
Pembina Melembutkan air kerana mendakan logam fosfat terhasil

Contoh: natrium tripolifostat apabila ion fosfat bergabung dengan ion magnesium dan ion
Builders kalsium.
Example: sodium tripolyphosphate Softens the water because metal phosphate precipitates formed
when phosphate ions combine with magnesium ions and calcium
ions.
163
Agen pengering Mengekalkan detergen serbuk dalam keadaan kering dan
Contoh: natrium sulfat, natrium silikat memudahkan detergen cecair mengalir.
Drying agent Maintains the detergent powder in dry form and enable the liquid
Example: sodium sulphate, sodium silicate detergent to be poured easily.
Agen penstabil Menghalang penghasilan terlalu banyak buih terutama

Contoh: Etanolamina semasa penggunaan mesin basuh.
Stabilising agent Prevents the production of too many bubbles especially during
Example: Ethanolamine usage in a washing machine
Uji Kendiri 5.2

1. Lukiskan struktur sabun dan labelkan bahagian hidrofilik dan hidrofobik.
Draw the soap structure and label the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. TP 1
IA
Na+
Bahagian hidrofobik Bahagian hidrofilik

Hydrophobic part Hydrophilic part
2. En. Musa merupakan seorang peniaga yang menjual pisang goreng. Apabila En. Musa pulang ke rumah, isteri En.
AS
Musa mendapati bajunya penuh dengan kotoran yang tidak dapat dibersihkan dengan menggunakan air. Terangkan
bagaimana kotoran ini dapat ditanggalkan dengan bantuan sabun.
Mr. Musa is a hawker who sells fried bananas. After En. Musa arrives at his home; Mr Musa’s wife found his shirts full of dirt that
could not be cleaned with water. Explain how this dirt can be removed with the help of soap. TP 4 KBAT Menganalisis
Molekul sabun dapat mengurangkan ketegangan permukaan air supaya air dapat membasahi permukaan baju dengan
lebih baik. Air membasahi permukaan kotor. Bahagian hidrofilik melarut dalam air manakala bahagian hidrofobik
melarut dalam minyak. Bahagian hidrofobik mengemulsi dan memecahkan minyak menjadi titisan kecil. Semasa
kocakan, titisan kecil minyak tertanggal daripada permukaan baju.
Soap molecules can reduce the surface tension of water so that water can wet the surface of the shirt better. Water wets the dirty
N
surface. The hydrophilic part dissolves in water while the hydrophobic part dissolves in oil. The hydrophobic part emulsifies and
breaks down the oil into small droplets. During agitation, the tiny droplets of oils lifted from the surface of the shirt.
Bahan Tambah Makanan

PA
5.3
Food Additives
A Bahan Tambah Makanan dan Fungsinya

Food Additives and Their Functions
1. Bahan tambah makanan merupakan bahan semula jadi atau bahan sintetik yang ditambah ke dalam makanan untuk
tujuan:
A food additive is a natural or synthetic substance which is added to food for the purpose of:
(a) memperbaiki rasa, bau, tekstur atau rupa sesuatu makanan
improve the taste, texture or appearance of a food.
(b) mengawet dan memanjangkan hayat penyimpanan sesuatu makanan
preserve and extend the food storage life
2. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan beberapa jenis bahan tambah makanan.
The table below shows several types of food additives.
Bahan tambah Fungsi Contoh bahan tambah Contoh makanan

Additives Function Example of additive Examples of food
Pengawet Menghalang atau melambatkan Asid benzoik, natrium Sosej, makanan
Preservatives pertumbuhan bakteria atau kulat agar benzoat, tartrazin, sulfur dalam tin
makanan dapat disimpan dengan lebih dioksida, natrium nitrat Sausage, canned
lama. Benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, food
Prevent or slow down the growth of bacteria tartrazine, sulphur dioxide,
or fungi, so that the food can be kept longer. sodium nitrate
164
Pengantioksida Melambatkan pengoksidaan yang Asid askorbik, asid sitrik Minyak masak,
Antioxidants menyebabkan lemak menjadi tengik dan Ascorbic acid, citric acid marjerin
buah-buahan menjadi lebam. Cooking oil,
Slow down oxidation that causes rancid fats margarine
and brown fruits.
Perisa Meningkatkan rasa atau bau untuk Mononatrium glutamat Minuman ringan,
Flavourings menyedapkan makanan. (MSG), aspartam gula-gula
Improve the taste or smells to make the food Monosodium glutamate (MSG), Soft drinks, candy
more edible. aspartame
Penstabil Mencampurkan dua cecair yang tidak Lesitin, gelatin, gam akasia Aiskrim, sos
Stabilisers bercampur, menghalang pemendapan Lecithin, gelatin, acacia gum tomato
IA
cecair dan memberi tekstur yang Ice cream, tomato
seragam dan licin. sauce
Mixes two liquids that usually do not mix,
prevents the sedimentation of liquids and
provides smooth and uniform texture.
Pemekat Memekatkan makanan dan mengubah Gelatin, kanji Sos tiram, sup
Thickeners tekstur makanan menjadi halus, licin, Gelatin, starch cendawan
seragam dan kental. Oyster sauce,
mushroom soup
Pewarna
Colourings
AS
Thicken food and give the food a firm, smooth
and uniform texture.
Memberikan warna atau memulihkan Metanil kuning, karamel,

warna makanan yang hilang semasa sebatian azo, sebatian trifenil
pemprosesan. Metanil yellow, caramel, azo
Add or replace colour lost during food compounds, triphenyl compounds
processing.
Aiskrim, minuman
ringan
Ice cream, soft drinks
Pengemulsi Menstabilkan campuran minyak dan air. Lesitin, asid sitrik, asid Aiskrim, coklat
Emulsifier Stabilises the mixture of oil and water. tartarik, kuning telur Ice cream, chocolate
Lecithin, citric acid, tartaric acid,
egg yolk
N
B Kesan Penggunaan Bahan Tambah Makanan
Effect of Using Food Additives
PA
1. Bahan tambah makanan seperti perisa dan pengawet berkemungkinan menyebabkan alahan pada sesetengah orang.
Food additives such as flavourings and preservatives might cause allergic to some people.
2. Berikut merupakan kesan-kesan pengambilan bahan tambah makanan secara berlebihan:
The following is the effects of excessive intake of food additives:
Bahan tambah Kesan sampingan

Additives Disadvantage
Pengawet Pengambilan garam berlebihan meningkatkan risiko penyakit kardiovaskular seperti

Preservatives tekanan darah tinggi, serangan jantung dan strok.
Excessive salt intake increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as high blood pressure,
heart attack and stroke.
Pengambilan gula berlebihan menyebabkan obesiti, pereputan gigi dan diabetes.
Excessive sugar intake causes obesity, tooth decay and diabetes.
Sulfur dioksida boleh menyebabkan masalah gastrik, loya, asma dan kecacatan pada
janin.
Sulphur dioxide might cause gastric problems, nausea, asthma and defects to foetus.
Natrium nitrit yang ditambah untuk mengekalkan warna merah pada daging boleh
menyebabkan kanser perut. Semasa memasak, nitrit akan ditukarkan kepada
nitrosamina yang bersifat karsinogen.
Sodium nitrite which is added to maintain the red colour of the meats may cause stomach
cancer. During cooking, nitrite is converted into nitrosamines which are carcinogenic.
165
Pengantioksida BHA bersifat karsinogen kepada manusia.
Antioxidants BHA is carcinogenic to humans.
Perisa Aspartame boleh meningkatkan risiko kanser, masalah neurologi dan leukemia.
Flavourings Aspartame might increase the risk of cancer, neurological problems and leukaemia.
MSG boleh menyebabkan sakit kepala, rasa loya, panas di bahagian belakang leher
dan lengan, dahaga, sakit dada, perubahan kadar denyutan jantung dan kesukaran
bernafas.
MSG can cause headaches, nausea, burning sensation at the back of neck and forearms, thirsty,
chest pain, changes in heart rate and difficulty to breath.
Pemekat Kanji diubah suai boleh mengakibatkan cirit-birit pada bayi.

Thickeners Modified starch can cause diarrhoea to infants.
IA
Uji Kendiri 5.3
Rajah 5.13 menunjukkan label bahan-bahan yang terdapat dalam suatu makanan dalam tin.
Diagram 5.13 shows a label of ingredients present in a canned food. TP 4
AS Ingredi
Kandungan:// Ingredient:
Kandungan:
Pektin, gula, etil butanoat,

tartrazin dan natrium
benzoat
Pectin, sugar, ethyl
benzoate, tartrazine and
sodium benzoate
Rajah/Diagram 5.13
1. Apakah fungsi natrium benzoat?

N
What is the function of sodium benzoate?
Untuk mengelakkan pertumbuhan bakteria
To prevent the growth of bacteria
2. Jelaskan bagaimana gula memanjangkan jangka hayat makanan?

PA
Explain how sugar prolong the life span of food?

Gula bertindak sebagai pengawet
Sugar act as preservatives
3. Kenal pasti jenis bahan tambah makanan dan nyatakan fungsinya.

Identify the types of food additive and state its function.
Bahan tambah Jenis bahan tambah

Fungsi
makanan makanan
Function
Food additives Types of food additive
Etil butanoat Perisa Membantu meningkatkan bau makanan

Ethyl butanoate Flavouring Helps to enhance the smell of foods
Lesitin soya Pemekat Membantu mengelakkan emulsi daripada terpisah

Soy lecithin Thickener Helps to prevent emulsion from separating
166
5.4 Ubat-ubatan dan Bahan Kosmetik
Medicines and Cosmetics
A Jenis Ubat, Fungsi dan Kesan Sampingan

Types of Medicine, Their Functions and Side Effects
1. Ubat merupakan bahan kimia yang diguna untuk merawat atau mencegah suatu penyakit.
Medicines are chemicals used to treat or prevent diseases.
2. Ubat yang digunakan untuk merawat penyakit boleh dibahagikan kepada ubat tradisional dan
ubat moden .
IA
Medicines that are used to treat diseases can be divided into traditional medicines and modern medicines .
3. Ubat tradisional tidak diproses secara kimia.
Traditional medicines are not process chemically.
4. Sumber ubat tradisional biasanya diperoleh daripada sumber semula jadi seperti haiwan dan
tumbuh-tumbuhan .
The source of traditional medicine usually devived from natural sources such as animals and plants .
Traditional medicine
Bawang putih
Garlic
AS
5. Jadual di bawah menyenaraikan beberapa contoh ubat tradisional dan fungsinya.
The table below same examples of traditional medicines and their functions.
Ubat tradisional Fungsi

Function
Merawat tekanan darah tinggi, mencegah kanser, mencegah selesema

Treats high blood pressure, prevents cancer, prevents flu
Serai Merawat batuk, sakit sendi, sakit kepala, sakit perut

Lemon grass Treats coughs, achy joints, headaches, stomach aches
N
Halia Menyingkirkan angin dalam badan, mencegah selesema, membantu memanaskan badan
Ginger Relieves gas in the body, prevents common cold , helps keeping the body warm
Kunyit Merawat kurap, cirit-birit, penyakit hati

PA
Turmeric Treats ringworm, diarrhoea, liver diseases
Lidah buaya Merawat penyakit kulit, melegakan luka pada kulit akibat terkena objek panas
Aloe vera Treats skin diseases, relieves skin wounds resulting from contact with hot objects
Limau Membantu pencernaan , merawat penyakit kulit, meningkatkan sistem ketahanan badan
Lime Helps digestion, treats skin diseases, increase body immune system
Tongkat Ali Menguatkan badan, melegakan sakit kepala

Eurycoma longifolia Strengthen the body, relieves headache
6. Ubat moden disintesis melalui tindak balas kimia di dalam makmal.

Modern medicine is synthesised through chemical reaction in the laboratory.
7. Sumber ubat moden diperoleh sama ada daripada haiwan atau tumbuhan.
The source of modern medicine are from animals or plants.
8. Secara amnya, ubat moden dapat dikelaskan kepada beberapa jenis, iaitu analgesik , antimikrob ,
psikoterapeutik , antialergi dan kortikosteroid .
In general, modern medicine can be classified into several types, such as analgesics , antimicrobials ,
psychotherapeutic , antiallergy and corticosteroids .
167
9. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan beberapa contoh ubat moden, fungsi dan kesan sampingannya.
The table below shows some examples of modern medicines, its function and side effects.
Jenis Contoh Fungsi Kesan sampingan

Type Example Function Side effect
Analgesik • Aspirin • Mengurangkan sakit sendi, sakit otot, Ruam kulit, alahan dan
Analgesics Aspirin sakit kepala dan sakit gigi pendarahan pada dinding perut
• Parasetamol Reduces achy joints, muscle aches, atau usus
Paracetamol headaches and toothaches Skin rash, allergy and internal
• Kodeina • Meredakan demam stomach or intestinal bleeding
Codeine To treat fever
• Mengurangkan bengkak
Reduces swelling
Antimikrob • Antibiotik • Digunakan untuk merawat penyakit Alahan, cirit-birit, sesak nafas,
IA
Antimicrobials Antibiotics yang disebabkan oleh bakteria, kulat lebam dengan mudah, kegagalan
• Antiseptik dan parasit ginjal dan saraf untuk berfungsi
Antiseptics Used to treat diseases caused by bacteria, Cause allergic, diarrhoea, difficulty
fungi and parasite. breathing, easily bruising, kidney
• Contoh antibiotik: penisilin, and nerves disfunction
streptomisin
Example of antibiotics: penicillin,
streptomycin
• Contoh antiseptik: larutan iodin,
AS hidrogen peroksida
Example of antiseptics: iodine solution,
hydrogen peroxide
Psikoterapeutik Stimulan • Merangsang dan meningkatkan • Ketagihan

Psychotherapeutic Stimulant kecerdasan, tumpuan dan tenaga Addiction
Stimulate and increase alertness, attention • Tidak boleh tidur, hilang akal,
and energy berat badan menurun
• Meningkatkan denyutan jantung Insomnia, loss of memory, weight
Increase heartbeats loss
• Mengurangkan keletihan
Reduces fatigues
N
• Contoh stimulan: amfetamin, kafein
Example of stimulants: amphetamine,
caffeine
Antidepresan • Dapat tidur dengan mudah dan nyenyak

Antidepressants Can sleep easily and peacefully
PA
• Menenangkan fikiran
Calms the thought
• Menghilangkan rasa resah
Curbs the feeling of anxiety or nervousness
• Contoh antidepresan: barbiturat, ubat
penenang
Example of antidepressants: barbiturates,
tranquilisers
Antipsikotik • Mengawal simptom penyakit psikosis

Antipsychotic seperti halusinasi dan delusi
Controls the psychotic symptoms such as
hallucination and delusions
• Contoh antipsikotik: haloperidol,
clozapin
Examples of antipsychotics: haloperidol,
clozapine
Antialergi • Cetirizine Membantu mengurangkan alahan Mengantuk

Antiallergy • Clemastine Help to reduce the allergic Drowsiness
• Fexofenadine
• Loratadine
168
Kortikosteroid • Aristocort • Mengurangkan radang Batuk, sakit kerongkong, susah
Corticosteroids • Decadron Reduces inflammation bercakap, kulit menjadi nipis dan
• Mometasone • Melegakan bengkak, gatal, kemerahan mudah lebam
• Cotolone dan alahan Cough, sore throat, difficult to speak,
Ease swelling, itchiness, redness and thin skin and easy bruising
allergic reaction
10. Ubat tradisional digunakan untuk membantu badan sembuh secara sendiri dan bukan untuk menghapuskan simptom
penyakit. Oleh itu, ubat tradisional mengambil masa yang lebih panjang untuk menyembuhkan penyakit.
Traditional medicines are normally used to aid the body in healing itself and not suppressing symptoms of diseases. So, traditional
medicines might take longer period to cure disease.
IA
11. Ubat tradisional boleh mendatangkan berberapa kesan sampingan sekiranya tidak digunakan dengan betul
dan berkemungkinan boleh memburukkan lagi penyakit dan membawa maut.
Traditional medicines can cause some side effects, if not used properly , it might worsen the diseases or even result in
death.
B Kosmetik
Cosmetics
membersih melindungi
mengubah
AS
1. Kosmetik merupakan produk yang dihasilkan untuk tujuan
penampilan luaran badan.
Cosmetics are products produced for the purpose of
external appearance of the body.
2. Kandungan asas bahan kosmetik ialah

pemekat , pelembap ,
air
pewarna
cleansing
,
dan
, protecting
pengemulsi
pewangi
,
and
,
.
enhancing
pengawet
dan
the
The basic contents of cosmetics are water , emulsifier , preservative , thickener ,

moisturiser , dye and fragrance .
N
3. Bahan kosmetik boleh dikelaskan kepada kosmetik rias , kosmetik perawatan dan pewangi .
Cosmetics can be classified into make-up cosmetics , treatment cosmetics and fragrances .
4. Kosmetik rias digunakan sebagai hiasan untuk bahagian muka atau wajah. Contohnya bedak, gincu,
pensel alis, pemerah pipi, pembayang mata, celak dan maskara.
PA
Make-up cosmetics are used as enhancers for face. For example, powder, lipstick, eyebrow liner, blusher, eyeshadow,
eyeliner and mascara.
5. Kosmetik perawatan meliputi produk yang digunakan untuk merawat tubuh, termasuk krim,
pelembap kulit dan masker muka.
Treatment cosmetics include products that are used to treat the body, including creams, skin moisturisers and facial
masks.
6. Contoh pewangi ialah deodoran dan minyak wangi .

Examples of fragrances are deodorants and perfumes .
C Penggunaan Bahan Kosmetik

Uses of Cosmetics
1. Walaupun bahan kosmetik dapat memberikan penampilan yang cantik serta meningkatkan keyakinan seseorang,
namun penggunaan bahan kosmetik juga mendatangkan kesan sampingan kepada manusia.
Even though cosmetics can provide a pleasant appearance and increase the confident level, but it also has a certain side effects
to human.
2. Penggunaan kosmetik berkemungkinan boleh menyebabkan kulit menjadi sensitif, kering, alahan, keracunan dan
kematian.
Uses of cosmetics might cause skin to become sensitive, dry, allergic, poisoning and death.
3. Sesetengah ubat tradisional seperti lidah buaya, daun inai dan kunyit sering digunakan sebagai bahan kosmetik
buatan sendiri.
Some of the traditional medicine such as aloe vera, henna leaves and turmeric are used as homemade cosmetics.
169
Uji Kendiri 5.4
1. Aspirin ialah contoh ubat jenis analgesik dan barbiturat ialah contoh ubat jenis psikoterapeutik.
Aspirin is an example of analgesic medicine and barbiturate is an example of psychotherapeutic medicine. TP 4
(a) Nyatakan fungsi barbiturat.
State the function of a barbiturate.
Antidepresan yang berfungsi menenangkan fikiran, menghilangkan resah dan membolehkan seseorang tidur
dengan lena.
Antidepressants that work to calm the mind, relieve anxiety and enable a person to sleep easily.
(b) Kanak-kanak tidak disarankan mengambil aspirin kerana boleh menyebabkan pendarahan pada dinding perut dan
usus. Sarankan ubat lain untuk menggantikan aspirin.
Children are advised not to take aspirin as it may cause stomach and intestinal bleeding. Suggest another medicine to
IA
substitute the aspirin.
Parasetamol/ Paracetamol
2. Bahan kosmetik boleh dikelaskan kepada kosmetik rias, kosmetik perawatan dan pewangi. Terangkan kegunaan
kosmetik rias.
Cosmetic ingredients can be classified into makeup cosmetics, treatment cosmetics and fragrances. Explain the use of make up
cosmetics. TP 3
Digunakan sebagai hiasan untuk bahagian muka atau wajah. Contohnya bedak, gincu, pensel alis, pemerah pipi,
pembayang mata, celak dan maskara. AS
Used as enhancers for the face or face. For example, powder, lipstick, eyebrow pencil, blush, eye shadow, eyeliner and mascara.
5.5 Nanoteknologi dalam Industri

Nanotechnology in Industry
A Nanoteknologi
Nanotechnology
N
1. Nanosains ialah kajian pengolahan bahan-bahan pada skala nano .
Nanoscience is the study on processing of substances at nano scale.
2. Zarah nano ialah zarah bersaiz antara 1 hingga 100 nanometer (1 nm = 10-9 meter). Semakin kecil saiz sesuatu zarah,
semakin besar nisbah antara luas permukaan dengan isi padu. Maka, pada saiz nano, sifat fizik dan
PA
sifat kimia suatu bahan akan berubah.

Nano particle is a particle with the size between 1 to 100 nanometer (1 nm = 10–9 meter). The smaller the size of the particle, the
bigger the ratio of the surface area to its volume. Hence, in the size of nano, the physical and chemical properties of
a substance will change.
3. Nanoteknologi merupakan pembangunan bahan atau peranti dengan memanfaatkan ciri-ciri zarah nano.
Nanotechnology is the development of substances or gadgets using the properties of nano particles.
Contoh/Example:
Saiz zarah yang sangat kecil membolehkannya menembusi lapisan kulit untuk memasuki sistem aliran darah, sistem
limfa dan lain-lain. Ciri ini boleh dimanfaatkan untuk mencipta sistem penghantaran ubat atau vaksin bagi rawatan
sasaran penyakit tertentu.
The extremely small size of the particle enables it to penetrate the skin layer into the blood circulation system, lymphatic system
and others. This feature can be used to create a drug or vaccine delivery systems for the targeted treatment of a certain disease.
B Nanoteknologi dalam Kehidupan Seharian

Nanotechnology in Daily Life
1. Nanoteknologi merupakan salah satu cabang sains yang mendapat perhatian dan berkembang dengan pesat dalam
dunia industri dan penyelidikan di seluruh dunia.
Nanotechnology is one of the branches in science that receive high attention and growing rapidly in the industry and research all
over the world.
170
2. Nanoteknologi telah diaplikasikan dalam industri seperti semikonduktor dan elektronik, tenaga dan elektrik, pertanian,
tekstil, makanan, perubatan dan kosmetik.
Nanotechnology has been applied in various industries such as semiconductor and electronics, energy and electric, agriculture,
textile, food, medical and cosmetics.
3. Karbon boleh wujud dalam pelbagai bentuk seperti berlian, grafit, fullerenes dan grafen. Grafen mempunyai lapisan
atom-atom karbon yang tersusun dalam bentuk sarang lebah.
Carbon can exists ini various forms, such as diamonds, graphite, fullerenes and graphene. Graphene has layers of carbon atoms
arranged in the form of a honeycomb structure.
Atom-atom karbon
Carbon atoms Ikatan kovalen
Covalent bonds
IA
Rajah/Diagram 5.13
4. Sifat fizik grafen:/ Physical properties of graphene:
rendah.
AS
(a) Lebih keras daripada berlian, lebih kenyal daripada getah, lebih keras daripada keluli, lebih ringan daripada
aluminium, mempunyai takat lebur yang tinggi, tekstur yang lembut dan licin serta mempunyai ketumpatan yang
Harder than diamond, more elastic than rubber, tougher than steel, lighter than aluminium, has a high melting point, has a
soft and slippery texture and has a low density.
(b) Mengkonduksi haba dan elektrik lebih baik berbanding bahan lain.
Conduct heat and electricity better compared to other materials.
5. Secara amnya, grafen mempunyai sifat kimia yang serupa dengan berlian iaitu tidak larut dalam air dan pelarut
organik.
In general, graphene has similar chemical properties with diamond where it is insoluble in water and organic solvent.
N
6. Grafen merupakan aplikasi nanoteknologi dalam industri seperti polimer, tenaga dan elektronik.
Graphene is the applications of nanotechnology in the industries such as polymer, energy and electronic.
(a) Industri polimer/
polimer/ Polymer industry
Gabungan grafen dan polimer menghasilkan bahan komposit polimer yang tahan lasak, tahan lama, rintang
bahan kimia dan kakisan serta degradasi terma.
The combination of graphene and polymer produces a durable, longer lasting polymer composite material, resistant to
PA
chemical, resistant to corrosion and resistant to thermal degradation.

Contoh/Example:
• Grafen oksida digunakan dalam pembuatan tayar kenderaan.
Graphene oxide is used in the manufacture of vehicle tires.
• Cat yang mengandungi grafen tahan kakisan dan tahan lama.
Paint containing graphene resistant to corrosion and lasts longer.
(b) Industri tenaga/ Energy industry

Grafen boleh meningkatkan kapasiti penyimpanan tenaga dan kadar cas dalam bateri ion litium.
Graphene can increase energy storage capacity and the charge rate of lithium ion batteries.
Contoh/Example:
• Bateri ion litium yang menggunakan polimer grafen mempunyai kelajuan mengecas yang lebih cepat.
Lithium ion batteries that use graphene polymers have a faster charging speed.
• Grafen meningkatkan kapasiti penyimpanan tenaga sel suria.
Graphene increases the energy storage capacity of the solar cells.
(c) Industri elektronik/ Electronics industry

Grafen boleh meningkatkan fungsi skrin sentuh pada telefon pintar dan menjadikan litar komputer lebih laju dan
pantas.
Graphene can enhance the functionality of the touch screen of smartphones and make a faster computer circuits.
Contoh/Example:
• Fleksibiliti grafen membolehkan skrin sentuh telefon pintar dilentur atau dilipat.
Graphene flexibility allows the touch screen of a smartphone to be flexed or folded.
• Transistor yang diperbuat daripada grafen adalah lebih cepat daripada transistor silikon.
Transistors made of graphene are faster than silicon transistors.
171
Pautan Interaktif
Apakah itu grafen?
What is graphene?
Uji Kendiri 5.5

1. Senaraikan tiga contoh industri yang mengaplikasikan nanoteknologi.
List three examples of industries that apply nanotechnology. TP 2
Semikonduktor dan elektronik, tenaga dan elektrik, pertanian, tekstil, makanan, perubatan dan kosmetik.
Semiconductor and electronics, energy and electric, agriculture, textile, food, medical and cosmetics.
IA
2. Grafen ialah sejenis karbon yang berada dalam skala nano. Nyatakan sifat-sifat fizik grafen.
Graphene is a type of carbon that is on the nano scale. State the physical properties of graphene. TP 2
Mempunyai kekerasan yang tinggi, kekenyalan yang tinggi, lebih ringan, takat lebur yang tinggi, tekstur yang
lembut dan licin serta ketumpatan yang rendah.

Harder, more elastic, has a high melting point, has a soft and slippery texture and low density.
5.6
AS
Teknologi Hijau dalam Pengurusan Sisa Industri
Green Technology in Industrial Waste Management
A Teknologi Hijau
Green Technology
1. Teknologi Hijau didefinisikan sebagai pembangunan dan aplikasi produk atau peralatan dan sistem untuk
memelihara alam sekitar dan alam semula jadi serta meminimumkan kesan negatif daripada aktiviti manusia.
N
Green Technology is defined as the development and the application of products or equipment and systems to preserve the
environment and nature as well as to minimise the negative effects of human activities.
2. Segala alat, produk dan sistem yang dapat mengurangkan degradasi kualiti persekitaran, rendah atau sifar pembebasan
gas rumah hijau, jimat tenaga dan sumber asli, menggunakan sumber tenaga boleh baharu dan selamat pada alam
sekitar dianggap sebagai Teknologi Hijau.
PA
Whatever tools, products and system that able to reduce the degradation of environment quality, low or zero greenhouse gases
emission, energy and natural resources saving, use of renewable resources and safe to the environment are considered as Green
Technology.
3. Melalui Teknologi Hijau, impak negatif terhadap persekitaran dapat diminimumkan dan pemuliharaan dapat
dilaksanakan dengan lebih berkesan.
Through Green Technology, the negative impact towards the environment can be minimized and the conservation process can be
done in a more effective manner.
B Aplikasi Teknologi Hijau dalam Sektor Pengurusan Sisa dan Air Sisa Industri
Application of Green Technology in The Sectors of Waste and Industrial Wastewater Management
1. Teknologi rawatan biologi aerobik dan anaerobik membantu menukarkan sisa organik yang terhasil
kepada baja organik. Proses ini boleh mengurangkan pelepasan gas rumah hijau.
Biological treatment such as aerobic and anaerobic treatment help in converting organic waste produced to organic
fertiliser. This process reduces the emission of greenhouse gases.
2. Penguraian anaerobik dalam menjana biogas khususnya gas metana daripada sisa organik melalui proses penguraian
tanpa oksigen adalah salah satu teknologi hijau dalam penukaran sisa kepada tenaga.
Anaerobic decomposition to generate biogas especially methane gas from organic waste through decomposition without using
oxygen is one of the green technologies in converting waste into energy.
172
3. Penunuan (incineration) ialah teknologi olahan sisa yang melibatkan pembakaran bahan dan objek organik. Kaedah
penunuan amat berkesan bagi mengelakkan sisa daripada memenuhi tapak pelupusan.
Incineration is a processing technology that involves the burning of organic matter and objects. Incineration is very effective to
prevent waste from filling the landfill.
4. Peratus keberkesanan teknologi moden perlu mencapai hingga 90% bagi meningkatkan jangka hayat tapak
pelupusan dan mengurangkan kesan pencemaran terhadap alam sekitar akbat penghasilan gas metana dan
larut lesap .
The percentage of the effectiveness of modern technology must achieve up to 90% in order to increase the lifespan of landfills and
reduce the impact of pollution on the environment because of the production methane gas and leachate .
5. Air sisa merupakan air yang telah digunakan dan mengandungi bahan sisa domestik, sisa industri, minyak, sabun dan
bahan kimia.
IA
Wastewater is water that has been used and contains pollutants from domestic waste, industrial waste, oil, soap and chemicals.
6. Rawatan enap cemar sering digunakan untuk merawat air sisa yang terhasil daripada perindustrian,
pertanian dan domestik.
Sludge treatment is often used to treat wastewater produced from industrial, agricultural and domestics.
7. Rajah 5.15 menunjukkan proses rawatan enap cemar.
Diagram 5.15 shows the process of sludge treatment.
AS Air sisa kumbahan dari perindustrian

dan domestik disalirkan melalui paip
pembetungan bawah tanah.
Sewage wastewater from industrial and
domestic premises is drained through
underground sewer pipes.
Kebok pengumpul kerikil

kerikil/
Pebble collector chamber
Menyaring sampah sarap, pepejal, batu
halus dan pasir
N
Screening rubbish, solids, fine stones and
sand
Penjernih utama/ Primary clarifier

Mengeluarkan pepejal yang terapung dan
bahan organik
Remove floating solids and organic matter
PA
Tangki pengudaraan/ Aeration tank

Mengandungi oksigen yang digunakan
oleh bakteria untuk menguraikan bahan
Biogas/ Biogas organik.
(Tenaga haba atau elektrik/ Heat or electrical energy) Contains oxygen used by the bacteria to
decompose organic matter
Biopepejal/ Biosolid
(Baja, tenaga haba atau elektrik/ Fertiliser, heat or electrical energy)
Rawatan enap cemar
Sludge treatment
Efluen terawat dipamkan kembali ke
sungai
Treated effluent is pumped back to the
river
Disinfeksi/ Disinfection
(Pengklorinan/ Chlorination)
Penjernih sekunder/ Secondary clarifier

Mengumpul enap cemar di bahagian
bawah
Collect sludge on the bottom part
Rajah/Diagram 5.15
173
C Aplikasi Teknologi Hijau dalam Kehidupan Seharian
Application of Green Technology in Daily Life
1. Konsep Teknologi Hijau telah diaplikasikan dalam kehidupan seharian manusia melalui sektor bekalan tenaga,
bangunan, pengangkutan, pertanian, perindustrian, tenaga boleh baharu dan pengangkutan.
The concept of Green Technology is applied in human daily life through the sectors of energy supply, building, transportation,
agriculture, industry, renewable energy and transportation.
2. Aplikasi Teknologi Hijau bertujuan untuk mengurangkan atau meminimumkan kesan negatif daripada aktiviti
manusia terhadap alam sekitar. Teknologi Hijau adalah bertujuan untuk menggalakkan persekitaran alam sekitar yang
sihat dan selamat.
The purpose of Green Technology application is to reduce or minimise the negative impact of human activities on the
environments. The Green Technology is intended to promote a healthy and safe environment.
3. Aplikasi Teknologi Hijau adalah diperlukan dalam bidang kimia bagi memastikan bahan kimia yang digunakan
IA
dalam kehidupan harian tidak akan memusnahkan kelestarian alam sekitar.
The application of Green Technology is needed in the field of chemistry to ensure that chemicals used in daily life will not destroy
environmental sustainability .
Uji Kendiri 5.6

1. Terangkan maksud Teknologi Hijau.
Explain the meaning of Green Technology.
AS TP 2
Pembangunan dan aplikasi produk atau peralatan dan sistem untuk memelihara alam sekitar dan alam semula
jadi serta meminimumkan kesan negatif daripada aktiviti manusia.
The development and the application of products or equipment and a system to conserve the environment in order to minimise
the negative effects from human activities.
2. Teknologi Hijau turut digunakan dalam sektor pengurusan sisa dan air sisa industri. Terangkan kelebihan rawatan
N
menggunakan Teknologi Hijau.
Green Technology is also used in the sector of waste and industrial wastewater management. Explain the advantages of treatment
by using Green Technology. TP 2
Menerusi teknologi rawatan aerobik dan anaerobik, sisa organik yang terhasil boleh diguna semula sebagai baja
organik. Ini akan mengurangkan pelepasan gas rumah hijau.
PA
Through a technology of aerobic and anaerobic treatment, organic waste produces can be reused as organic fertiliser. This
will reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.
174

Manual Guru Modul A+ Kimia TG 5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual Guru Modul A+ Kimia TG 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bab

1 Tindak Balas Redoks

1.1 Pengoksidaan dan Penurunan

A Menerangkan Tindak Balas Redoks

Oksigen Penambahan Kehilangan

Nombor pengoksidaan Peningkatan Penurunan

Agen penurunan/ Reducing agent Agen pengoksidaan/ Oxidising agent

1. Menderma/ Donates hidrogen/ hydrogen 1. Menerima/ Accepts hidrogen/ hydrogen

2. Menerima/ Accepts oksigen/ oxygen 2. Menderma/ Donates oksigen/ hydrogen

3. Menderma/ Donates elektron/ electron 3. Menerima/ Accepts elektron/ electron

4. Pertambahan/ Increase nombor pengoksidaan/ 4. Pengurangan/ Decrease nombor pengoksidaan/

(a) Magnesium, Mg mengalami pengoksidaan kerana berlaku penambahan oksigen.

(d) Plumbum(II) oksida, PbO ialah agen

Cu2+ + 2e– Cu (Persamaan setengah/Half-equation)

Nombor pengoksidaan bertambah / The oxidation number increases

(a) Hidrogen, H2 mengalami

/ The oxidation number

kerana nombor pengoksidaan bertambah daripada

Elektrod karbon Elektrod karbon

Agen penurunan Agen pengoksidaan

Asid sulfurik cair H2SO4

Pemerhatian/ Observation Inferens/ Inference

elektrod dalam larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid

(d) Mendakan perang terbentuk apabila Ion ferum(III) hadir.

2. Larutan kalium iodida, KI + larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K2Cr2O7 berasid

Pemerhatian/ Observation Inferens/ Inference

The brown solution turns to dark blue when starch

3. Nyatakan yang berikut/ State the following:

B Tindak Balas Redoks Berdasarkan Perubahan Nombor Pengoksidaan

II Penamaan Sebatian Mengikut Sistem Penamaan IUPAC

Formula kimia sebatian Nombor pengoksidaan Nama IUPAC sebatian

FeCl2 x + 2(–1) = 0, x = +2 Besi(II) klorida/ Iron(II) chloride

Cu2O 2x + (–2) = 0, x = +1 Kuprum( I ) oksida/ Copper( I

SnO x + (–2) = 0, x = +2 Stanum( II ) oksida/ Tin( II ) oxide

SnO2 x + 2(–2) =0, x = +4 Stanum( IV ) oksida/ Tin( IV ) oxide

PbO x + (–2) = 0, x = +2 Plumbum( II ) oksida/ Lead( II ) oxide

PbO2 x + 2(–2) = 0, x = +4 Plumbum( IV ) oksida/ Lead( IV ) oxide

A Pertukaran ion ferum(II), Fe2+ kepada ion ferum(III), Fe3+

B Pertukaran ion ferum(III), Fe3+ kepada ion ferum(II), Fe2+

(i) Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation: Fe2+  Fe3+ + e–

(ii) Penurunan/ Reduction: Br2 + 2e–  2Br-

(b) Nyatakan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi:

2. Berdasarkan penurunan ion Fe3+ kepada ion Fe2+:

(ii) Ion ferum(III)/ Iron(III) ions: +3  +2

(b) Namakan agen pengoksidaan:/ Name the oxidising agent:

(c) Namakan agen penurunan:/ Name the reducing agent:

Cu2+ is reduced because oxidation number decreases from +2 ke 0

(b) Persamaan ion/ Ionic equation: Cu + 2Ag+  Cu2+ + 2Ag

(c) Kuprum dioksidakan kerana nombor pengoksidaan bertambah daripada 0 ke +2.

Penurunan/ Reduction – Terima elektron/ Gain electrons

Mengkaji tindak balas penyesaran logam daripada larutan garamnya

Larutan garam nitrat

Fe (D) ✓ (E) ✓ (F) ✓

Zn (G) ✓ (H) ✓ (I) ✓ (J) ✓

Mg (K) ✓ (L) ✓ (M) ✓ (N) ✓ (O) ✓

Persamaan setengah Persamaan setengah

A Pb  Pb2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu

penurunan pengoksidaan Pb + Cu2+  Pb2+ + Cu

B Sn  Sn2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu

D Fe  Fe2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu

penurunan pengoksidaan Fe + Cu2+  Fe2+ + Cu

E Fe  Fe2+ + 2e– Pb2+ + 2e–  Pb

penurunan pengoksidaan Fe + Pb2+  Fe2+ + Pb