CONTENT

Fuel Technology-
What are Fuels?
Classification of fuels,
Combustion Equations,
Solid fuels- Advantages & Disadvantages and Carbonization
Proximate & Ultimate Analysis of Coal
Liquid Fuels- Advantages & Disadvantages,
Fractional Distillation,
Knocking, Octane Number and Cetane Number
Gaseous fuels- Advantages,
Biogas Production
Experimental-
Determination of Calorific Value by Bomb Calorimeter
Determination of Flash Point and Fire Point by Abel’s Closed Cup and Pensky Marten’s
Apparatus.
 NATURAL
RESOURCE
S

FUEL
Any combustible substance whose combustion gives large
amount of heat ,which has industrial as well as domestic
application is termed as fuel.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
FUELS
 High suitability
 High colorific value
 Moderate ignition temperature
 Low moisture content
 Low non-combustible matter content
 Moderate rate of combustion
 Harmless combustion products
 Easy to transport
 Low cost
 Low storage cost
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
Primary
fuels
Solid - coal and wood
Liquid - crude oil or petroleum
Gas - natural gas and LPG
Secondary
Fuels
Solid - coke and charcoal
Liquid - petrol, diesel, kerosene and coal tar etc.
Gas - wood gas, coke oven gas, and oil gas etc.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLID, LIQUID AND GASEOUS
FUELS
S.No. Fuel characteristics Solid Liquid Gas

1. Cost Cheap Costly then More costly

solid
2. Thermal efficiency Least Higher Highest

3. Calorific value Least Higher Highest

4. Combustion Slow Quick Very rapid
rate
5. Ash content High No ash problem No ash problem
6. Risk of fire Least Greater Very high
7. Smoke content High High carbon Smokeless
cause smoke
 COMBUSTION
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction
which is accompanied by development of heat
and light at a fast rate.
CONDITION FOR COMBUSTION
Presence of combustible
material i.e. fuels

Presence of air as supporter

of combustion

Attainment of ignition
temperature
COMBUSTION EQUATIONS
CALCULATION OF AIR REQUIRED FOR COMBUSTION
1. For Carbon (C) :-

C + O2 → CO2
(12 g) (32 g) (44 g)
Oxygen required for complete oxidation of 1 Kg fuel = 32/12 = 8/3
So, air required (in kg) = 32 x 100 = 11.49 [ since, percentage of O2 by weight is 23% ]
12 23
Now, air required by volume for 1 g Carbon = 22.4 l
12
So, air required = 22.4 x 100 liters [ since, percentage of O2 in air by volume = 21%]
12 21
2. For Carbon monoxide (CO) :-

2CO + O2 → 2CO2
(2 x 28 g) (32 g) (2 x 44 g)
Oxygen required = 32 = 4
56 7
So, air required (in kg) = 4 x 100 = 2.46
7 23

3. For Hydrogen (H) :-

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
(2 x 2 g) (32 g) (2 x 18 g)
Oxygen required = 32 = 8
4
So, air required (by weight) = 8 x 100 = 34.48
23
4. For Sulphur (S) :-

S + O2 → SO2
(32 g ) (32 g) (64 g)
Oxygen required = 32 = 1
32
So, air required (in weight) = 1 x 100 = 4.31
23

5. For Methane (CH4) :-

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

(16 g) (2 x 32 g) (44 g ) (2 x18 g)
Oxygen required = 64 = 4
16
So, air required (by weight) = 4 x 100 = 17.47
23
 Coal is highly carbonaceous solid fuel. It is regarded
COAL as a fossil fuel produced from large accumulation of
vegetable debris due to partial decay by action of heat
and pressure over million of years ago.
TYPES OF COAL
1. Peat coal
2. Lignite coal
3. Bituminous coal :-
 Sub bituminous coal
 Bituminous coal
 Semi bituminous coal
4. Anthracite coal
 CLASSIFICATION OF COAL
 Non-coking coal - The coal which on heating undergo no fusing effect,
are non-coking coals.

 Coking coal - The residue obtained after heating is porous hard, strong
and usable for metallurgical purpose, the original coal is known as coking
coal.

 Caking coal - The coal which on heating, in absence of air becomes soft
and plastic are called caking coal.
The process of converting coal into coke is
called carbonization. In carbonization the
coal is heated in the absence of air the
porous, hard and strong residue left is
called a coke.
TYPES OF CARBONIZATION
 Low temperature carbonization - In low temperature carbonization ,
heating of coal is done at 500 to 700 C by low temperature, we get
smokeless and free, burning semi coke.

 Middle temperature carbonization - The carbonization is carried out

at 725 to 850 C. Tar oil, ammonia, paraffin etc. are separated during
process and coke is produced.

 High temperature carbonization - This carbonization is carried out at

900 to 1200 C . In high temperature carbonization solid coke is produced
and different by products are obtained.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOW AND HIGH
TEMPRATURE CARBONIZATION

Characteristics Low temperature High temperature

carbonization carbonization
1. Heating temperature About 500 to 700 C 900 to 1200 C

2. Yield of coke 75 to 80% 65 to 75%

3. Mechanical strength Poor Good

4. Quantity of by product 130-150m/tone 300-390m/tone

5. Coke produced Soft Hard

6. Smoke produce on burning Smokeless Smoky

OTTO HOFFMANS OVEN
 To determine the quality of coal.

 To determine the presence of various constituents present in coal

which directly affect the calorific value of coal.

 To specify its use for particular purpose.


 To calculate air requirement for complete combustion.

 To decide price of coal.

The analysis of coal is carried out by following two process :-

ANALYSI
S OF
COAL

PROXIMA
ULTIMATE
TE
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS

To determine presence of moisture, volatile To determine presence of ultimate constituents

matter, ash and fixed carbon present in coal. in dry coal like C, H, N, S, O and ash.
 MOISTURE Surface Moisture
CONENT
Internal Moisture

VOLATILE Combustible Gases

MATTER Non-Combustible
Gases

Fixed Ash
ASH
Free Ash

FIXED CARBON = TOTAL - ( MOISTURE + VOLATILE MATTER + ASH)

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

Determination of
Determination of ‘N’
‘C’ and ‘H’ (Kjeldahl’s
method)

Determination of
‘S’

Determination of Determination of
ash ‘O’
 PETROLEUM
Petroleum is crude, dark, greenish brown oil found deep
in earth crust. It is formed due to partial decomposition
of dead animals and vegetation.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM

HYDROCARBON SULPHUR

INORGANIC
COMPOUNDS

OXYGEN NITROGEN
 The process by which the crude oil is separated into
various fractions is called fractional distillation. The
fraction obtained are finally converted into desired
products by removing. The process is called “refining of
crude oil”.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION {TOWER}
S.No. Name of fraction Boiling Approximate Uses
temperature composition in
terms of HC
1. Uncondensed gases Below 30◦c C1 – C4 Used as L.P.G.
2. Petroleum ether 30◦c – 70◦c C3 – C7 Used as solvent.
3. Gasoline or Petrol 40◦c – 120◦c C3 – C8 Used as for gines solvent.

4. Naphtha 120◦c – 180◦c C8 – C10 Solvent; in dry cleaning.

5. Kerosene oil 180◦c – 250◦c C10 – C18 Fuel; in preparing Laboratory

gases

6. Diesel oil 250◦c – 320◦c C10 – C18 Used as diesel engine fuel.

7. Heavy oil :- 320◦c – 400◦c C17 – C30 For getting gasoline by

cracking.

a. Lubricating oil - - As lubricants.

b. Vaseline - - In cosmetics.
c. Grease - - As lubricant.
d. Paraffin wax - - In candles, wax, paper,
tarpaulin, cloth etc.

8. Residue :- Above 400c C3 and above

a. Asphalt - - Water proofing of roofs.
b. Petroleum - - In moulding arc light rods.
 KNOCKING
Knocking is sharp metallic sound similar to rattling of
hammer which is produced in the internal combustion due
to immature ignition of the air/fuel mixture.
Factors on which knocking depends :-

Knocking

Engine Running
Design Condition
 OCTANE NUMBER
The octane number can be defined as “the percentage by volume of iso-
octane in the mixture isooctane and n-heptane which has the same
anti-knock qualities as fuel under examination”.

FUEL OCTANE
NUMBER CHARACTERISTICS
1. N-heptane 0 Knock severely

2. Isooctane 100 High resistance to

knocking
 CETANE NUMBER
It is measure of the ease with which a fuel will ignite under compression.
In order to grade diesel fuels, cetane rating is employed.

DIESEL FUEL CETANE NUMBER REMARKS

1. Cetane ( C16H34 ) 100 Very short ignition delay

2. 2-methyl naphthalene 0 Longer ignition delay

( C11H10 )
DIESEL FUEL
> It is cheaper then petrol.
> Its consumption per unit of power produced is less.
> Its thermal efficiency is higher (about 30-35%).
> Its exhaust gases contain lesser amount of pollutants.
> Its combustion requires heavy equipment to compress air.

GASOLINE
OR PETROL > It is costlier than diesel.
> Its consumption per unit of produced is more.
> Its thermal efficiency is lower.
> Its exhaust gases contain higher amount of pollutant gases.
> No compression is needed during combustion of gasoline.
POWER ALCOHOL
Ethyl alcohol is an important fuel & when it is used
in an internal combustion engine (used for
generation of power) it is called power alcohol.
E.g. Blends of alcohol with gasoline or with gasoline plus
benzol or with ethers and water are used as motor fuels.
 ORSAT`S APPARATUS

 Theory- The apparatus is used for

flue gas analysis.
Working :- It consist of a horizontal tube which is connected to three way
stop cock is further connected to a U-tube. The U-tube is packed with fused
calcium chloride and glass wool for drying flue gas. It consist of three bulbs:

1. The first bulb has KOH and it absorbs carbon dioxide.

2. The second bulb has alkaline pyrogallic acid and it can
absorb oxygen and carbon dioxide.
3. The third bulb contains ammonical cuprous chloride
and it can absorb carbon mono oxide, oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
 DETERMINATION OF CALORIFIC VALUE BY BOMB
CALORIMETER
Calorific value of a fuel is the total quantity of
heat liberated from the combustion of unit
mass of fuel in air or oxygen.
 NOTE
Oxygen when present in fuel is always in combination with hydrogen . Do the
quantity of hydrogen which is in combination with oxygen, present in fuel, will not
take part in combustion reaction. Thus quantity of hydrogen in combination with
oxygen is deduced from total hydrogen.
So, the quantity of hydrogen available for combustion = H – O
8

Hence, weight of air = 11.49 ( C ) + 34.48 ( H – O ) + 4.31 ( S )

per Kg of fuel 8
HCV :- It is the amount of heat liberated
when a unit quantity of fuel is completely
burnt and the products of combustion are
cooled to room temperature.

LCV :- It is the amount of heat

liberated when a unit quantity of fuel
is completely burnt and the products
of combustion are allowed to escape.
 BOMB CALORIMETER

Principle :- It is an apparatus to measure the heat of combustion or calorific value

of solid or non volatile liquid fuel. A known mass of the fuel is burnt and the
quantity of heat produced is absorbed in water and measured. The calorific value
of the fuel is then determined by applying the principle of calorimetry.

Heat liberated mainly from = Heat absorbed by + Heat absorbed by

the combustion of fuel water apparatus
 BOMB BURN
APPARATUS
1. Bomb ASSEMBLY
2. Calorimeter
3. Beckmann’s
Thermometer
4. Stirrer
5. Insulated
1. G = (W+w)(T2-T1) cal/gm
x
2. LCV = HCV – 0.09H * 587 cal/gm

3. HCV = 1 [ 8080%C + 34500(%H - %O/8) + 2240%S ]

100

NOTE :- 1. For calculation of calorific value of fuel.

2. For determination of net calorific value.
3. Dulong’s Law.
DETERMINATION OF FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT BY
ABEL’S CLOSED CUP AND PENSKY MARTEN’S
APPARATUS