Preliminary Physics

VELOCITY
 An object’s rate of change of displacement.

ACCELERATION
 An object’s rate of change of velocity.

DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS
 A displacement-time graph displays the position of an object over time.

 Features:
- Gradient = velocity
- Straight line with gradient = uniform velocity + uniform displacement
- Curved line = non-uniform velocity; accelerating
- No gradient = no velocity + no displacement
- Negative displacement = displacement in the opposite direction

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS
 A velocity-time graph displays the velocity of an object over time.

 Features:
- Gradient = acceleration
- Straight line with gradient = uniform acceleration
- Curved line = non-uniform acceleration
- No gradient = constant velocity
- Negative velocity = velocity in the opposite direction
- Area under graph = displacement

When finding the displacement of an object, subtract the area under the x axis from the area above the x
axis.

1D VECTORS
 A negative vector is one in the opposite direction: -40m north = 40m south.
  Eg: determine the resultant vector for 10m/s east, 5m/s east, and 2 m/s west.

2D VECTORS
 Vectors in the negative direction are swapped to the positive direction and then added to give a
resultant. Eg: -20m/s east = 20m/s west

 Components of vectors:
- The components of vectors are the x and y vectors which, when added together, give a
resultant vector.
- x component = vector ¿ cos θ
- y component = vector ¿ sin θ

NON-RIGHT ANGLE TRIGONOMETRY

 Hypotenuse: c 2=a2+ b2−2 ab cos c

a2+ b2−c2
 Cos rule: cos c=
2 ab

a b c
 Sine rule: = =
sinA sinB sinC

RELATIVE MOTION
 V A relative ¿ B ¿=V A −V B ∨V A +(−V B )

 V relative =V objective −V observer

 To calculate the relative velocity/motion:

- Determine the positive and negative directions.
- Substitute the velocities into the equation.

NEWTON’S LAWS
 First law: an object will remain in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external unbalanced
force.
  Second law: the force acting on an object is equal to the object’s mass multiplied by acceleration -
F=ma. A greater amount of force is required to accelerate an object of greater mass at the same
rate as an object of a lower mass.

 Third law: a force exerted on an object will produce an equal force in the opposite direction;
F AB=−F BA

FORCES ACTING ON AN INCLINED PLANE

Work done = mgh +Fs

N=mgcosθ
Kinetic energy at bottom = mgh – Fs
2 KE
Speed =
√ 2

FRICTION
 A force that opposes the motion of an object moving against a surface.

 Static friction, μs : a force that opposes the motion of an object and keeps it at rest. To accelerate, an
object must overcome the static friction force by applying a force greater than static friction.

 Kinetic friction, μk : a force that acts between two moving surfaces.

 The coefficient of friction, μ is a measure of the roughness of contact between surfaces.

 The normal reaction force F N , is equal to mass multiplied by gravity (9.8)

 The force of friction is given by the equation: f friction =μ F N

KINETIC ENERGY
 Energy possessed by objects in motion.

1
 Ek = m v 2
2

 Measured in Joules.

POTENTIAL ENERGY
 Stored energy which has the potential to do work.

 Gravitational potential energy is energy stored by an object due to its position in a gravitational
field.

 U g=F gravitational h=m object gh:

- m = the mass of the object in Earth’s gravitational field
- g = gravitational field strength (9.8)
- h = height of the object above Earth’s surface
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

 Transfer of energy = the state of the energy is unchanged and passed on to another object.

 Transformation of energy = the state of the energy is changed to another form.

1 2 1 2
 Conservation of kinetic energy: Σ mv before =Σ m v after
2 2

 The conservation of energy only occurs in an elastic collision.

WORK
 The energy transferred to an object when a force is applied and causes motion.

 Positive work = the force and motion caused by the force are in the same direction; the object
speeds up and gains kinetic energy.

 Negative work = the force and motion caused by the force are in opposite directions; the object
slows down and loses kinetic energy.

 Work is measured in Joules.

 The quantity of work performed by an object is given by: W =F∥ s=Fscosθ

- F ∥ = the x component of the force (parallel to displacement)
- s = displacement in the direction of the force
- θ = the angle between the applied force and the displacement

 The magnitude of work done by Earth’s gravitational field is equal to the change in gravitational
potential energy: W gravity =mg ∆ h=−Δ U g

FORCE-DISPLACEMENT GRAPH
 A force-displacement graph displays the magnitude of force due to displacement.

 Area under graph = work done.

POWER
 The rate at which energy is transferred or transformed from one form to another; the work done.

 Power is measured in watts, W; kg m2 s−3.

 ∆ E ∆W
 P= =
∆t ∆t
- E is kinetic energy
- W is work

 P=F ∥ v=Fvcosθ
- F is applied force
- V is velocity occurring as a result of the applied force

ENERGY-TIME GRAPH
 An energy-time graph displays the change of energy over time.

 Features:
- Gradient = power
- Area under love = total energy transferred, work

MOMENTUM
 The rate of change of a mass’ velocity.

 p=mv
- p is momentum (Nm)
- m is mass
- v is velocity

 Conservation of momentum: Σ m v before=Σ m v after

COLLISIONS
 Elastic collision = a collision where no kinetic energy is lost, no damage occurs, and no heat energy
is generated. E.g. two balls colliding.

 Inelastic collision = a collision where kinetic energy is lost and either transferred or transformed,
damage occurs and heat energy is generated. E.g. two cars crashing into each other.

IMPULSE
 The change of momentum that a force produces once exerted.

 I =F ∆ t
- F is applied force
- t is the change in time

 Impulse is measured in Newton seconds.

FORCE-TIME GRAPHS
  A force-time graph displays the amount of force exerted over time.

 Features:
- Area under the graph= impulse (change in momentum)

Module 2: Waves and Thermodynamics

WAVES
 Waves are periodic disturbances which oscillate and transfer energy through space-time.

Wave Definition
Mechanical wave A wave which requires a medium to propagate and transfer
energy through.

E.g. Sound
Electromagnetic wave A wave which does not require a medium to transfer energy.

E.g. Light
Transverse wave A form of mechanical wave in which the particles of a medium
displace perpendicular to the direction of propagation in
response to the transfer of energy.

E.g. Waves in a guitar string

Longitudinal wave A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles displace in a
back and forth motion parallel to the direction of propagation
in response to the transfer of energy

Compression: a section where there is minimum wavelength

between particles.
 Rarefaction: a section where there is maximum wavelength
between particles

E.g. Sound

CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES
Characteristic Symbol SI Unit Definition Equation
Velocity V ms1 The speed at which a wave v=fλ
propagates through a v = velocity
medium. f = frequency
λ = wavelength
Frequency f 1 The number of peaks passed 1
or Hz f=
s through a time period of one T
second. f = frequency
T = period
Period T S The time taken for a particle to 1
T=
displace a wavelength f
T = period
f = frequency
Wavelength λ m The distance between λ=vT
adjacent corresponding points v
=
on a wave. f
λ = wavelength
v = velocity
T = period
f = frequency
Amplitude a m The height of a crest or trough
measured from the
equilibrium position.

DISPLACEMENT-TIME WAVE GRAPH

 A displacement-time wave graph (or vibration graph) displays the displacement of particles from an
equilibrium position over time.
  Features:
- The distance between adjacent points reveals period.

DISPLACEMENT-WAVELENGTH GRAPH
 A displacement-wavelength graph (or waveform graph) displays the displacement of particles
relative to the wavelength of the wave.
 Features:
- The distance between crests or two adjacent points reveals wavelength.

SINE WAVE
 A continuous wave with a smooth periodic oscillation represented by a curve.

 Equation: asin( fT )
- a is amplitude
- f is frequency
- T is period

REFLECTION
 The change in direction of wave velocity occurring at an interface between two different mediums
so that the wave displaces in the opposite direction and returns to the initial medium.

 Reflected waves obey the laws of reflection:

1. The angle between the incident ray and the normal is equal to the angle between the reflected
ray and the normal.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal drawn from the surface at the point of
incidence are all in the same plane.
 3. The incident ray and reflected ray are on opposite sides of the normal.

REFRACTION
 The change in displacement of propagation due to the movement from one medium to another.

 Frequency remains unchanged in refraction.

 When moving from mediums of different densities, the front section of a wave reaches the
boundary between the two mediums and changes velocity whilst the other sections continue initial
motion. The difference in velocities and wavelengths results in a change of displacement.

DIFFRACTION
 A phenomenon which occurs when waves encounter a small object or gap and spread out in
different directions.

 The smaller the gap or object the wave is moving pass, the greater the diffraction of the waves. For
substantial diffraction to occur, the wavelength must be similar to the size of the aperture
(opening) through which it passes.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
 When waves interfere, the displacements of each wave are added together to form a resultant
wave. The amplitude of the combined wave is equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the
component waves.

Constructive An interference which

 interference occurs when two waves
travelling in opposite
directions with the same
amplitude pass through
each other and align crests,
forming a resultant wave
with a higher amplitude.
Destructive An interference which
Interference occurs when the crest of
one wave meets the trough
of the other, forming a
resultant wave with a lower
amplitude.

PROGRESSIVE WAVES
 A travelling wave which transfers energy through a medium.

STANDING WAVES
 A travelling wave which contains energy but does not transfer the energy through a medium.

 Standing waves are formed by the superposition of two progressive waves moving in opposite
directions.

NODES AND ANTINODES ON STANDING WAVES

 Nodes are points of zero displacement on a standing wave.

 Antinodes are points of maximum displacement on a standing wave.

λ
 The distance between consecutive nodes and antinodes is .
2

HARMONICS

 Frequencies:
v
- Fundamental frequency, f 1=
2L
- f 2=2 f
 - f 3=3 f
- f 4=4 f

 Wavelengths:
2
- λ 1= L=2 L
1
2
- λ 2= L=L
2
2
- λ 3= L
3
2
- λ 4= L
4

2L
λ n=
n

v
f n=n( )
2L

SOUND
 Sound is a longitudinal wave; the particles oscillate parallel to the direction of energy flow.

INTENSITY OF SOUND
 The energy carried by a wave per second through a unit area perpendicular to the wave’s velocity.

 The intensity of a spherical wave decreases in proportion to the inverse square of the distance from
the source.

1
 I∝
d2
- I is intensity (Wm−2)
- d is the distance from the source (m)

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

 The intensity of a sound at two different distances from a source can be related by taking the ratio
I 1 d2 2
of the two intensities: =
I 2 d1 ( )
MEASURING SOUND IN DECIBELS
db
 I =10 10
( −12)

- db is the sound level in decibels

- I is intensity

 Example: The intensity of a lawn mower is 10−3 . What is the decibel level?
db
( −12)
−3 10
10 =10

db
−12 log ( 10 )=log ( 10−3 )
10
db
−12=−3
10
db
=9
10
db=90
BEATS
 When the superposition of two waves with slightly different amplitudes occurs, the resultant wave
will alternate between constructive and destructive interference.

 f beat =|f 2−f 1|

- f 2 and f 1 are source frequencies
- Note : the difference will always be positive

 Example: What beat frequency will be heard if two sounds are played at the same time, one with a
frequency of 328Hz and the other 372Hz?
f =|328−372|
¿ 24 Hz
RESONANCE
 Resonance occurs when an object oscillates due to a driving force at a frequency which is the same
as its natural frequency.

 E.g. the Tacoma bridge collapsed due to wind gusts which drove the vibration of the oscillating
bridge to its natural frequency, resulting in its collapse.

THE DOPPLER EFFECT

 The change in frequency that an observer hears when there is relative motion between the source
of sound and the observer.

 The Doppler effect occurs as a result of compressed sound waves caused by velocity which push the
waves together, resulting in higher frequency waves at the front of the sound source and lower
frequency waves behind the source.

(v wave +v observer )
 f ' =f
(v wave−v source )
- f’ is observed frequency
- v wave is the speed of sound
- v observer is the velocity of the observer
- v source is the velocity of the sound source
  Example: A police car travelling at 30m s−1 north is chasing a second car that is travelling at 45m s−1
north. The police siren operates at a frequency of 350Hz. What frequency would the second car
hear?
(340+(−45))
f ' =340
( 340−30 )
¿ 333 Hz

LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection: i=r
2. The angle of incidence is the angle between
the incident ray and the normal perpendicular to the surface
3. The law of reflection applies at each point on a surface

RAY DIAGRAMS
 Concave: a mirror which curves inwards and reflects light
towards a centre focal point.

 Convex: a mirror which curves outwards and reflects light outwards.

 Concave ray diagrams:

- The principal axis is a line which is perpendicular to the mirror and passes through its centre.
- The centre of curvature (c) is the diameter of the curved surface.
- The focal point is a point at which all rays pass through after reflection.
- The focal point (f) is half he distance between the mirror and the centre of curvature.
- The reflected image is drawn where the two reflected rays meet after passing through the focal
point.

 Convex ray diagrams:

- The focal point of a convex mirror is imaginary and behind the lense in the same position as the
imaginary focal point in front of the lense.
- The first reflected ray is drawn as a straight line from the top of the reflecting object and is
reflected as the imaginary focal point meets the line.
- The second reflected ray is towards the centre of the mirror and passes through the imaginary
centre of curvature.
- The image is then drawn where the first and second rays meet behind the convex lens.

 Lense ray diagrams:

- The first ray goes from the object to the focal point on the other side of the lense.
- The second ray goes through the centre line and continues.
- The image is drawn where the first and second rays meet.
SNELL’S LAW
 When a light ray travels from one medium with a refractive index n1and enters a second medium
with a refractive index n2 , an angle of incidence with the normal to the boundary in the first
medium is made.

 n1 sin θ1=n 2 s∈θ2

 Example: Light travelling in water (n=1.33) strikes the interface with flint glass (n=1.65) at an
incident angle of 36°. What is the angle of refraction?

1.35 sin ( 36 )=1.65 sin ⁡(θ)

0.79
sin θ=¿ ( )
1.65
¿

0.79
θ=sin−1 ( )
1.65
¿ 28.7 °

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

 Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the
ray is reflected back into the first medium.

 The critical angle is the angle of incidence that results in an angle refraction of θ=90 °.

 n1 sin θ1=n 2 s∈90 °

 Example: Light travelling in water (n=1.33) strikes the interface with flint glass (n=1.65) at an
incident angle of 36°. What is the critical angle for light travelling from flint glass into water?

LIGHT INTENSITY AND THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW

 Light from a point source spreads uniformly into surrounding space.

 The source strength, S, is the energy per second being emitted (Watts).

s
 I=
4 π d2
- d is distance from the source
- S is source strength
 1
Inverse square law: I ∝ 2 2
 2 and I 1 d 1=I 2 d 2
d

KINETIC THEORY
 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a material.

 When matter is heated, the bonds between atoms are broken and create kinetic energy.

 Concepts:
- All matter is made up of small particles in constant motion; these particles have kinetic energy.
- Collisions between particles are perfectly elastic; the total kinetic before and after the collision
is the same.
- Potential energy is stored in bonds that connect particles; potential energy depends on the
distance between particles.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Solids Particles are densely compacted, limited in movement and
possess limited kinetic energy. The particles are only able to
vibrate in place.
Liquids Particles are compacted, but held less tightly than solids.
Particles can roll over one another and have a small amount
of kinetic energy.
Gases Particles are loosely compacted and are not limited in
movement; they are free to move. Particles possess great
kinetic energy,

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
 If two bodies are placed in thermal contact, thermal energy will flow from the hotter substance to
the cooler substance until each substance is the same temperature and thermal equilibrium is
reached.

 Thermal equilibrium is the condition where no energy flows between two bodies in thermal
contact.

 Different substances at the same temperature may feel as though they are different in
temperature. This is because certain materials are able to transfer thermal energy at a faster rate
due to greater kinetic energy within
Electrons

LATENT HEAT
 Latent heat of fusion: the amount of thermal energy required to change the phase of a solid object
without altering its initial temperature.

 Latent heat of vaporisation: the amount of energy required for a liquid to become a gas without
altering its temperature.
  Q=mL
- Q is the amount of thermal energy
applied (J)
- m is the mass of the substance that
changes phase (kg)
- L is the specific heat of fusion of the
substance (J/kg)

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

 The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a 1kg substance by 1 degree
Celsius.

Q
 c=
m∆T
- c is specific heat capacity ( Jk g−1 K −1)
- Q is the amount of thermal energy applied
- T is the change in temperature
- m is the mass of the substance (kg)

 Example: 250 mL of pure water at 25° is heated to 95° . How much energy is needed to achieve this
temperature change?
Q
4200=
0.25× ( 95−25 )
Q
4200=
17.5
Q=73500 J
¿ 73.5 kJ

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
 Thermal conductivity is a material’s ability to transfer thermal energy.

 Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred from one place to another without the net
movement of particles.

 Thermal conduction can occur through two processes:

- Atomic collision; particles collide and transfer thermal energy through bonds between particles.
- Free electrons; electrons transfer energy rapidly throughout materials due to high energy and
the ability to move.

Q KA ∆T
=
t d
Q= thermal energy (J)
t= the time taken to transfer energy (s)
 K= the thermal conductivity of the material (W m−1 K −1)
A= the surface area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow (m 2)
T= the temperature difference across the material (C °)
d = the thickness of the material through which the heat is being transferred (m)

 Example: The thermal conductivity of aluminium is 204W/mK, how much energy is transferred
through a 40cm block with a cross sectional area of 0.25m, with one side at 60 degrees and the
other at 10 degrees, in 100 seconds?

Q 204 × 0.25 ×(60−10)

=
100 0.4
Q
=6375
100
Q=100 × 6375
Q=637500 J
¿ 637.5 KJ

ELECTRIC CHARGE
 Rules of electric charge:
1. Neutral objects are attracted to charged objects.
2. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
3. The force that a charged object exerts on a neutral or charged object decreases with distance.
4. The larger the charge, the greater the force that is exerted and experienced.

 Protons or electrons move between objects due to imbalances in electrical charge which prompts
the electrons or protons to spread evenly to achieve equilibrium.

 Negative and positive charges:

- Negative charges occur when there are more electrons than protons.
- Positive charges occur when there are more protons than electrons.
- Neutral charges occur when there is equilibrium of protons and electrons.

 Induction is the phenomenon of charging an object without physical contact.

 Static electricity:
- A static charge is a build-up of electric charge in an object due to an imbalance in the number of
electrons and protons.
- Occurs when materials rub together and exchange electrons.
- E.g. When a glass rod is rubbed with cloth, the rod becomes positively charged and, when
placed near pieces of paper, attracts the neutral paper due to the large number of protons.
- Glass rod = positively charged when rubbed, ebonite rod= negatively charged when rubbed.

ELECTRIC FIELDS
 Electric fields are a region in space where a charge would experience a force. The magnitude and
strength of the field varies with distance; greater distance = weaker force, smaller distance =
greater force.

 Forces are either contact or field forces:

- Contact forces act when two objects are in contact.
- Field forces act when the objects exerting and experiencing the force are not touching.

 Field diagrams:
- Lines are drawn at 90 degree angles around the atomic molecule.
- Field lines move inwards towards electrons.
- Field lines move outwards and away from protons.

 A dipole is a pair of positive and negative charges attracting each other separated by a small
distance. (Diagram 1)

F
 E=
q
- E = electric field strength ( N c−1)
- F = the force experienced by a point charge in the field.
- q = the point charge of the object experiencing a force.

 Example: an electron of mass 9.1 ×10−31 kg and charge −1.6 ×10−19 C is placed in a uniform electric
field of strength 25N/C west. Find:
a) The magnitude and direction of the force on the charge.
F
E=
q
F
25=
−1.6 × 10−19
F=−4 ×10−18 N west
¿ 4 ×10−18 east
b) The acceleration of the charge.
F=ma
4 ×10−18 =9.1× 10−31 × a
4 ×10−18
a=
9.1× 10−31
¿ 4.39 ×10 12 m s−2 east
 Eq
 a=
m

PARALLEL PLATES
 Oppositely charged parallel plates produce a uniform electric field.

 The charge of the electric field becomes non-uniform closer to the plates.

 If a plate is grounded it means that it doesn’t have a charge; neutral.

 The density of the lines (how close they are together) reveals the strength of the electric field.

ELECTRIC FIELDS AND FORCES

 The force between two charges is given by Coulomb’s law:

1 q1 q2
F= × 2
4 π ε0 r
- F = the force between charges (N)
- q1 + q2 = the two charges (C)
- r is the distance between charges (m)

 Example: calculate the force exerted by a proton on an electron at a distance of 8.0x10^-11 m.

−19
9 −1.602 ×10 ×1.602 ×10−19
F=9.0 ×10 ×
8 ×10−11
F=−3.6 ×10−8 N
WORK IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 w=qV
- w = the work done on a point charge (J)
- q = the charge of the point charge (C)
- V = voltage (V)

 w=qEd
- w = work done on a point charge (J)
- q = the charge of the point charge (C)
- E = electric field strength (N/C)
- d = distance between the charges parallel to the field (m)
  Example: a student sets up a parallel plate arrangement so that one plate is at a potential of 12.0V
and the other earthed plate is positioned 0.5m away (q p=+1.602 ×10−19 C). Calculate the work
done to move the proton from the earthed plate a distance of 10.0cm towards the negative plate.
−0−12
E=
0.5
¿ 24 N C−1

W =1.602× 10−19 × 24 ×0.1

¿ 3.84 ×10−19 J
V
 E=
d
- E = electric field strength (N/C)
- V = the electric potential difference between two points (V)
- d = displacement or distance between points parallel to the field (m)

 Example: a small piece of paper of mass 0.1g has a charge of 6 ×10−6 C . If the piece of paper is
observed to levitate in a vertical electric field. Find the magnitude and direction of the applied field.
If the paper is levitating, the electric field must be equal to the gravitational field
mg
E=
q
9.8 ×0.0001
¿
6 × 10−6
¿ 163.33 N C−1 upwards

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 Voltage is the electric potential difference between two points in an electric field.

 Charges further away from an electric field have more potential energy than charges closer to the
electric field.

 The electric potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the potential
energy change a charge experiences when moved between two points.

∆U work
V= =
q q
- V is the electric potential difference
- U is the change in potential or work done
- q is the charge
ELECTRIC CURRENT
 Current: the rate at which charge moves past a point in a circuit, C s−1 or A.

q
 I=
t
- I is current
- q is the charge passed through a point
- t is the time over which the flow of charge was measured.

 Number of electrons:
q
n e=
qe
- qe is the charge of an electron
- q is the total charge

OHM’S LAW
 Resistance is the measure of a material’s resistance to current flow.

 V =IR
- V is potential difference
- I is current (A)
- R is resistance

 Ohm’s law states that the current that flows through a conductor is proportional to the potential
difference applied across the conductor.

 V is directly proportional to current with a gradient of R

 Voltage-current graphs:
- Gradient = resistance
- A steep line indicates high resistance
- A shallow line indicates low resistance
- A straight line is constant resistance.
- A curved line is an non-ohmic resistor; inversely
proportional.

 An ohmic resistor is a resistor that resists current at a

constant rate.

 A non-ohmic resistor is a resistor that doesn’t resist

current at a constant rate. E.g. a globe.

CIRCUITS
 Parallel circuits:
 - A circuit where the current splits into two or more branches and then recombines.
- Components are wired in parallel with one another and have the same potential difference
across them.

 Series circuits:
- Circuits which are connected one after another in a continuous loop
- Current flows through one path and flows through each individual component.

CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
 Electric charges are not created or destroyed within an electrical circuit; the current flowing out of
the power supply must be equal to the current flowing through the component.

 Current flows from the positive terminal of the power supply to the negative terminal.

 Electrons move from the negative to the positive terminal.

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLAGE LAW

 The sum of the potential difference across all components is equal
to zero; the voltage of the power supply is equal to the total voltage
of the components.

 E.g. if a battery provides 12V to a circuit, the sum of all the potential drops across the components
must add to 12V:

SERIES CIRCUITS
 Total (equivalent) resistance:

R series=R 1+ R 2 … Rn
  Example 1: A 100Ω, 690Ω, and 1.2kΩ resistor is connected in series. Calculate the equivalent series
resistance.
R=100+690+1200
¿ 1990 Ω

 Example 2: Calculate the current flowing in the series circuit below and find the potential difference
across each resistor:

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 Total (equivalent) resistance:
1 1 1 1
= + +…
R series R1 R 2 Rn

 Example: Calculate the potential difference and current across each resistor in the circuit below:

 Example 2: Calculate the potential difference across and the current through each resistor in the
circuit below:
RESISTANCE
 Conductors:
- Materials which allow the flow of electrons when a potential difference is applied.
- Conductors are not resistant in nature; they increase the flow of current.
- In good conductors, the electrons of the valence shell are loosely bound and are free to move
through the material, thus causing more collisions between the electric current electrons,
generating electricity.

 Insulators:
- Materials which restrict the flow of electrons.
- Insulators are resistant; they decrease the flow of current.
- In good insulators, the electrons of the valence shell are tightly bound and are unable to move
freely. This means that there are fewer collisions between electrons and ions, lowering the
amount of electricity.

 Factors affecting resistance:

- Length of the conductor:
o The resistance of a conductor is caused by collisions between electrons and positive ions
in the conductor.
o As the length of a wire increases, more collisions occur, creating greater resistance;
directly proportional relationship.
- Cross-sectional area:
o The smaller the cross-sectional area of a conductor, the lower the amount of space free
electrons can move.
o Therefore, the amount of collisions increases as the cross-sectional area decreases.
- Temperature:
o Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.
o The greater the temperature, the faster the particles within the conductor and the more
space they occupy due to vibrating, increasing the number of collisions.