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Zavatsky
MT07
Lecture 1
Tension and Compression
Normal stress and strain of a prismatic bar
Mechanical properties of materials
Elasticity and plasticity
Hooke’s law
Strain energy and strain energy density
Poisson’s ratio
Normal stress
P P
P P
Lo+ δ
P P 4 (10 × 10 3 ) N 6 N
σ= = = = 5 . 0929 × 10
Ao (π d 2 / 4 ) π (50 × 10 −3 )2 m 2 m2
σ = 5.093 MPa
Ao
Lo
P P
Lo+ δ
Define normal strain ε as the change in length δ divided by the
original length Lo (ε = δ / Lo).
δ 1.4 × 10 − 3 m
ε= = = 0.0007
Lo 2 .0 m
P a
P
b
Pb
Pa
P
P P
δ (δ / 2) (δ / 3 )
ε= = = etc.
Lo (Lo / 2) (Lo / 3)
Stress Concentrations
If the stress is not uniform where the load is applied (say a
point load or a force applied through a pin or bolt), then there
will be a complicated stress distribution at the ends of the bar
(known as a “stress concentration”).
P P
If we move away from the ends of the bar, the stresses become
more uniform and σ = P/A can be used (usually try to be at
least as far away as the largest lateral dimension of the bar, say
one diameter).
grip
Standardization of specimen
extenso- size and shape and of test
specimen
meter procedure (ASTM, BSI, ISO)
load
cell Output plots of force versus
extension, but slope of
fixed base curve, maximum values, etc
depend on specimen size
Stress-strain diagram for tension
Structural steel in tension (not to scale)
σ
Ultimate stress
Fracture
Yield stress
Proportional
limit
ε
Linear Perfect plasticity Strain Necking
region or yielding hardening
Structural steel (also called mild steel or low-carbon steel; an iron alloy
containing about 0.2% carbon). Static (slow) loading.
⎛P ⎞ ⎛δ ⎞ PLo
σ = Eε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ δ=
⎝ Ao ⎠ ⎝ Lo ⎠ EAo
Tables of mechanical properties
(Howatson, Lund, Todd – HLT)
ing
g
in
ad
ad
Lo
Lo
g
in
g
ad
din
lo
loa
Un
Un
ε εy ε
Elastic Plastic Elastic Perfectly plastic
The stress-strain curve need not The stress-strain curve for structual
be linear in the elastic region. steel (and some other metal alloys) can
be idealized as having a linear elastic
region and a perfectly plastic region.
di n
ing
ading
in
ad
ad
l oa
g
d in
Lo
Lo
adin
Re
Relo
lo a
Unlo
Un
ε ε
Residual Residual Elastic
strain Elastic recovery strain recovery
This work W produces strains, which increase the energy of the bar itself.
The strain energy U (= W) is defined as the energy absorbed by the bar
during the loading process. Units are N m or J (joules).
A
1
U = W = area OAB = Pδ
P
2
B
O Displacement
δ
PLo P 2 Lo EAoδ 2
For a linearly elastic bar, δ = , so U = =
EAo 2EAo 2Lo
kδ 2 P 2
For a linearly elastic spring, P = kδ , so U = =
2 2k
Elastic and inelastic strain energy
Load
B
A
Displacement
O D C
During loading along curve OAB, the work done is the area under the curve
(OABCDO).
If loading is past the elastic limit A, the bar will unload along line BD, with
permanent elongation OD remaining.
u=
U
=
(P 2 Lo 2EA o )
=
P2
=
(EAo δ 2 2Lo ) Eδ 2
=
volume (Ao Lo ) 2EAo
2
(Ao Lo ) 2Lo
2
σ2
Eε 2
Using σ = P / Ao and ε = δ / Lo gives: u = =
2E 2
If the material follows Hooke’s Law (σ = E ε), then u is the
area under the stress-strain diagram.
Stress
b
o Strain
ε
1 σ 2 Eε 2
u = area oab = σε = =
2 2E 2
Poisson’s ratio
When a prismatic bar is stretched, it not only gets longer, it gets thinner.
P P
Lo+ δ
So there is a tensile strain in the axial direction and a compressive
strain in the other two (lateral) directions.
− lateral strain − ε lateral
Define Poisson’s ratio as: ν = =
axial strain ε axial
Greek letter ν (nu)
If axial strain is tensile (+), lateral strain is compressive (-).
If axial strain is compressive (-), lateral strain is tensile (+).
So Poisson’s ratio is a positive number.
For most metals and many other materials, ν ranges from
0.25 – 0.35. The theoretical upper limit is 0.5 (rubber comes
close to this).
Limitations
For the lateral strains to be the same throughout the entire bar,
the material must be homogeneous (same composition at every
point).
ε x = (σ x − ν σ y − ν σ z )
1 … and similarly for εy and εz.
E