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SOCIOLOGY
Meaning of Society  A large number of people who form a relatively organized, self-sufficient, and enduring body.
 A system of community life in which individuals form a continuous and regulatory association for their mutual
benefit and protection.
 One must share common interests, mutual relationships, values and motives in order to be a part of a community
life.
 Composed of interacting individuals and interacting groups sharing a common culture.
 A systematic network of social relations.
 A venue for dynamics of cooperation and conflict.
 Where man can define his cultural identity.
 Where man can see the structures that exert expectations and orders from him.
 A group of people who share a culture and a territory.
 A group of people living together in a social system of long established relationships, recognizing and following a
certain way of life.
 Two types of society:
1. Industrial
2. Non-industrial
 Social Structure – the patterned and recurrent social relationship among persons in organized collectives. Forms
are:
1. Primary group – families, friendship groups, work groups
2. Purposely organized – voluntary organizations and associations
3. Territorial – city, community, neighborhood
4. Latent – sex or racial categories
Meaning of Sociology  From the Latin word “socius” meaning ‘companion’ or ‘associate’, and the Greek word “logos” meaning ‘science’
or ‘study’
 Sociology is the study of society, groups and social behavior.
 Sociologists seek to understand:
1. The conditions that promote social conflict and stability
2. The forces that strengthen or weaken groups
3. Source of social change
Why study Sociology?  To obtain factual information about our society and different aspects of our social life.
 To understand our society more objectively and to see our place in it.
 To understand the world we live in and the intricate realities of group interactions and social processes.
 To explain and understand human behavior in a society.
 To determine the existence of groups, their functions, nature and characteristics.
 To understand “how” and “why” human beings act the way they do.
 Useful to the community leader, businessman and government official in guiding and maintaining social order in
planning the future of a society.
Sociology and Science  Scientific Method – a process by which a body of scientific knowledge is built through observation,
experimentation, generalization, and verification.
 a series of steps, which enable sociologists to study social phenomena in a reasonably objective fashion.
 Empiricism – one of the basic features of science; the view that generalizations are valid only if they rely n
evidence that can be observed directly or verified through our senses.
 Steps in Sociological Research
1. Define the problem
2. Review previous research
3. Develop one or more hypotheses
4. Determine the research design
5. Define the sample and collect data
6. Analyze the data and draw conclusions
7. Prepare the research report
Methods of  Questionnaire and Interview Studies
Sociological Research - A questionnaire is filled out by the informant himself and the interview is filled out by a trained interviewer
who asks the questions from the informant.
- Interview: conversation between two (or occasionally more) individuals in which one party attempts to gain
information from the other(s) by asking a series of questions.
 Case Studies
- Are complete detailed account of some phenomenon.
- It may be a life history of a person, or a complete account of a brief event.
- The case history of a group – a family, a clique, a union, a religious movement, may suggest some insights
into group behavior.
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 Participant Observation
- Seeks insights by taking himself in whatever he is studying.
- e.g. If he wishes to understand labor unions, he will join one, or work in the shop.
- Through his participation, together with the opportunity for very intimate observation, he may gain insights,
which no amount of external observation would provide.
 Survey
- This involves a representative sample of a population from where the subjects were chosen like a university,
working area, organization, province, region and nation.
 A statistician may be added to interpret the data so that a valid conclusion may be drawn.
Areas of Sociology  Social Organization – this studies social groups, social institutions, social stratification, mobility, ethnic relations
and bureaucracy.
 Social Change, Social Organization and Social Disorganization – this includes the study of change in culture and
social relations and the current social problems in society. These are the crime and delinquency, problems in
family, population, religion, education, health, etc
 Social Psychology – this studies human nature as the outcome of group life personality formation, social attitudes
and collective behavior.
 Human Ecology – this studies the behavior of a given population and its relationship to the group’s present social
institutions.
 Population Studies – this is concerned with population number, composition, change and quality as they
influence the economic, political, and social system.
 Sociological Theory and Method – this is concerned with listing the applicability and usefulness of the principles
of group life as bases for the regulation of man’s social environment.
 Applied Sociology – this applies scientific knowledge to solve problems in various fields of criminology, penology,
social work, education, communication, marriage, family, etc.
Sciences Related to  History – looking at the past in an attempt to learn what happened, when it happened, and why it happened.
Sociology Sociologists examine historical events to see how they influenced later social situations.
 Political Science – the study of political theory, the actual operation of government, and political behavior.
Sociology focuses on how the political system affects other institutions in society.
 Economics – the study of man’s ways of making a living and of society’s ways of using and allocating resources.
The economic activities of man involve the production, distribution, and consumption of material goods and
services.
 Psychology – the study of how human behavior is influenced and shaped by various social institutions. Psychology
and Sociology are grouped together to understand the individual’s behavior in his inter-personal relations and
group membership.
 Social Work – main goal is to help people solve their problems; while the main goal of sociology is to understand
why the problems exist
 Cultural Anthropology – the interest is in the primitive and folk cultures. The division of anthropology of major
interest to the student of social science is known as social anthropology (deals with the social structure and
culture of groups).
Historical Background  1st Stage - The first stage of sociological development governs the period before A.D. there were no special
of Sociology thinkers regarding sociology.
 Regarding the role of the western thinkers and philosophers, Plato and Aristotle are very important.
 Because of these social thinkers and philosophers though there was not the proper study of sociology but
this stage was supposed as the age for sowing seed for sociology.
 2nd Stage - The second stage of historical development of sociology extends from 4 th or 5th century.
 The bases for the sociology were formed during this stage.
 3rd and Modern Stage - This stage is very important not only because of the emergence of sociology but because
of the development of it throughout the world.
 The emergence of Industrial Revolution paved the way for the development of Sociology.
 During the same period, the four founding father of sociology, Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert
Spencer and Max Weber made the foundations of sociology very strong.
 Scientific approach began in: early part of the 18th century and the first quarter of 19th century (when
social philosophers began to be interested in the natural development of the sciences that eventually will
lead to the development of the society).
Sociological Theories  Structural Functional Perspective
- also known as “Consensus Theory”.
- interpret society as a structure with interrelated parts.
- addresses the society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituents elements; namely norms,
customs, traditions and institutions.
- emphasizes stability, harmony, and evolution.
 Conflict Theory
- society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce resources.
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- addresses the point of stress and conflict in society and the way they contribute to social change.
- social change can only be attained through conflict.
 Symbolic-Interaction Perspective
- addresses the subjective meanings of human acts and the processes through which people come to develop
and communicate shared meanings.
- society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the
world and communicate with one another.
PIONEERS OF SOCIOLOGY
Auguste Comte (1789-  A French mathematician and philosopher who proposed a separate new science of society. This science is known
1857) as “Social Physics”.
Positivism  In 1839, he changed it to “Sociology”, a word he invented.
 He divided Sociology into two areas:
1. Social Static – concerned with the various parts of society and how these parts of society are held together.
At present, it is labeled as the SOCIAL STRUCTURE.
2. Social Dynamics – concerned with the analysis of change within and among the various parts of society.
This area is now called the SOCIAL PROCESS.
 He is generally considered as the “Founder of Sociology” and is best known for his six-volume “Positive
Philosophy”.
 He is the leading proponent of the Structural- Functional Theory.
 Based on the Philosophy of “Positivism”, he identified three stages in understanding society:
3. Theological Stage – society is an expression of God’s will; dominated by the priests and the military.
4. Metaphysical Stage – people were less likely to see society as the work of supernatural forces and placed
more emphasis on the forces of nature; ruled by the clergy and lawyers.
5. Scientific Stage – the final stage in understanding; called positivism (a path to understanding the world based
on science); guided by administration and social scientists).
Herbert Spencer  He compared society to an organism which continually changes to adapt to its environment.
(1820-1903)  A proponent of Social Darwinism: applied to society Charles Darwin’s notion of “survival of the fittest”, in which
Social Darwinism those species of animals best adapted to the environment survived and prospered, while those poorly adapted
died out.
 The fittest members will produce a more advanced society.
Karl Marx  A German philosopher, economist and a social activist, Marx regarded private property and capitalism as the root
(1818-1883) causes of poverty.
Class Conflict  He believed that conflict is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society.
 There is a conflict in industrial societies among two groups, the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat
(workers).
 His two theories:
1. Economic Determinism - economic relationships provide the foundation of which all other social and
political arrangements are built. He believed that family structure, law, and religion would be developed
after adapting to the economic structure.
2. The Dialectic – Marx viewed change as a product of contradictions and conflicts between parts of society.
i. The conflict between the “haves” and the “have-nots” or the ruling class and the working class
respectively, would lead to a new economic system.
ii. Conflict is the only factor that can bring change to a society.
Emile Durkheim  A French intellectual who viewed society as a total entity, as something more than the sum of its parts.
(1858-1919)  Social forces affect people’s behavior.
Social Integration  He believed that individuals were exclusively the products of their social environment and that society shapes
people in every possible way. In order to prove his point, Durkheim studied SUICIDE.
 The balance between regulation (control) and freedom.
i. When the society overregulates and there is less freedom, fatalistic suicide occurs.
ii. When there is too much freedom and less regulation, we have anomic suicide.
 People with weaker social ties are more likely to commit suicide.
Max Weber  A German economist, historian and philosopher, proposed that the central force in social change was religion.
(1864-1920)  He showed that religion could be a belief system that contributed to the creation of new economic conditions and
Protestant Ethic institutions.
 Protestant Ethic – self-denying approach to life to gain God’s approval through financial success.
 Verstehen Sociology – emphasizes the subjective meaning of human actions. ‘Verstehen’ is a German word
meaning “understanding”.
The Development of  Serafin N. Macaraig – the first Filipino to acquire a doctorate degree in Sociology and published a book entitled an
Sociology in the “Introduction to Sociology” in 1938.
Philippines  Fr. Valentin Marin – introduced Sociology in the Philippines, with the opening of criminology program in the
potential University of Santo Tomas in 1950s.
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 A.W. Salt and Murray Bartlett (two American educators) – offered Sociology course in the University of the
Philippines in the 1950s.
 Clyde Hetlin (Siliman University), Conrado Benitez, and Luis Rivera were among the first teachers of Sociology in
the Philippines.
 1952 – Filipino pioneers in Sociology organized the Philippine Sociological Society which main trust is to collect,
interpret and propose possible solutions to different Philippine sociological phenomena.
 The findings of this organization were soon published through its annual publication, Philippine Sociological
Review.
 1957 – the Community Development Research Council (CDRC) was created to conduct and support social science
researchers.
 1960 – Fr. Frank Lynch, SJ, founded the Institute of the Philippine Culture at the Ateneo de Manila University. It
spearheaded the research on economic development.
 1972 – Xavier University was given credit as the first school, which opens a program in Ph.D. in sociology.
 Though U.P. was the first school that offered a bachelor degree in Sociology.
 Since then, Sociology became a partner of the government in shaping public policies on urbanization, labor
problems, population and other social dilemmas.
CULTURE
Culture  From the Latin word “cultura” or “cultus” which means care or cultivation.
 The entire way of life followed by a people and everything learned and shared by people in society.
 Edward B. Tylor: “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”
 Elements of Culture:
1. Material culture – the physical objects a society produces; things people create and use (tools, furniture,
clothing, automobiles, and computer systems, etc.)
2. Non-material culture – consists of elements termed norms, values, beliefs, and language shared by the
members of a society.
i. Language – the very foundation of culture; through language, idea; values, beliefs, and knowledge are
transmitted, expressed, and shared. Without language, there will be no culture.
ii. Beliefs – ideas that people hold about the universe or any part of the total reality surrounding them.
iii. Values – shared ideas about desirable goals; make up our judgments of moral and immoral, good and
bad, right or wrong, beautiful and ugly, etc.
iv. Norms – shared rules of conduct that specify how people ought to think and act. Three forms:
a. Mores – associated with strong ideas of right and wrong
b. Folkways – are simply the customary, normal, habitual ways a group does things; no strong feeling
of right or wrong attached to them.
c. Laws – often referred to as the formal norms; are rules that are enforced and sanctioned by the
authority of the government.
Characteristics of  Culture is learned.
Culture  Culture is shared.
 Culture is cumulative – tendency to grow and expand
 Culture is dynamic – continuous, not fix or static
 Culture is diverse – varies from one another
CULTURAL CONCEPTS
Ethnocentrism  a feeling that their particular way of life is superior and right and that all other cultures are inferior and often
wrong.
Cultural Relativism  the opposite of ethnocentrism.
 refers to the notion that each culture should be evaluated from the standpoint of its own standard rather than
from the standpoint of a different culture.
Xenocentrism  the belief that what is foreign is best in terms of one’s lifestyle, products or ideas.
Temporocentrism  the belief that one’s own time is more important than that of the past or future.
Subculture  a group or category within a society who shares in the general culture but who maintain distinctive ways of
thinking, acting and feeling
Counterculture  a subculture that has values and norms that sharply contradict the dominant values and norms of the larger
society.
Cultural universal  common cultural elements that are found within all known societies.
Culture lag  the inability of a given society to adapt immediately to another culture as a result of the disparity in the rate of
change between the material and non-material elements of culture.
Culture shock  the experience of disorientation and frustration that occur when individuals find them among those who do not
share their fundamental premises.
Cultural diversity  The variation of culture in some ways in another culture in which they guide human behavior.
 Conditions that affect cultural variations:
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1. Environment
2. Isolation
3. Technology
4. Cultural themes
5. Diffusion
Modes of Acquiring  Imitation – a human action by which one tends to duplicate more or less exactly the behavior of others.
Culture  Indoctrination – takes place in the form of formal teaching or training which may take place anywhere.
 Conditioning – this process is further reinforced by a system of reward and punishment found in the cultural
system.
 Acculturation – a process by which societies of different culture are modified through fairly close and long
continued contact.
 Amalgamation – intermarriage of persons coming from different cultural groups result in some kind of biological
fusion.
COMMUNITIES
Meaning of  A place where one lives, works, and plays.
Community  A group of people occupying a definite territory, living together with families and the neighborhood.
 A group of people who share common ways of life.
Elements of  People – the very basic component
Community  Territory – a definite area occupied by people
 Interaction – a day-to-day encounter with the other members.
 Common values – common standard of proper behavior. When shared, it promotes closer ties. Living together
promotes sharing of sentiments and goals.
Types of Communities  Rural Community
- It is relatively small. It is a small group consisting of one or more houses with relatively few families living on
scattered farmsteads.
- People are homogenous biologically, socially and culturally.
- It has a high degree of self-sufficiency, group identity, and group unity.
- There is established mutual relationship with one another.
- The presence of dominant activity.
 Urban Community
- Population densities are high. This is due to the migration of people from rural areas in search of employment
in the city.
- Urban community is characterized by a secondary type of relationship, which is impersonal, formal and
objective.
- There is a widely divergent group of people. Specialization is an important of the city. Because of this,
dependence over another individual is another feature. There is what we call segregation of roles.
- There is anonymity on the part of the urban dwellers. Because of the nature of work and the type of
relationship that exist, individuals cannot find time to know their neighbors personally.
 Theories of Urban Growth
 Concentric Circle Theory - cities follow a process of expansion in which population flows from the center in a
circular pattern.
 Sector Nuclei Theory - geographic factors and man-made factors like transportation routes produce sectors in
wedge shapes extending outward from the center of the city.
 Multiple Nuclei Theory - As the city increases in size, the number of nuclei correspondingly increases in
number each specializing in specific activities.
 Gemeinschaft – “bayanihan”, a strong feeling of kinship exists in a community
 Gesselschaft – little commitment to the group in a community and less consensus on values
SOCIALIZATION AND PERSONALITY
Socialization  The process by which an individual learns how to interact with others and becomes a member of society
 A process through which a person acquires the skills and behavior necessary for social living.
 Elements:
1. Childs culture
2. Biological inheritance
3. Childs interaction
 Language – an important tool in socialization
 School – transmitter of culture
 Family – most important socializing agent
 Social order – means by which people fill their expected role
Personality  Comes from the Latin word persona meaning masks which distinguished one character from another.
 Defined as the sum total of all the traits and characteristics of a person that distinguished him from another.
 Determinants of Personality
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1. Biological inheritance
2. Geographic environment
3. Social environment
4. Cultural environment
Self  the dimension of personality composed of an individual’s self-awareness and self-image
 The self is inseparable from social experience
Theories of  Reinforcement Theory - as described by Thorndike and Skinner, claims that the individual can be conditioned to
Socialization act in any way if the appropriate rewards and punishment are repeatedly applied.
 Cognitive Theory - concerned with the internal state of the individual, his/her perceptions and increasing abstract
reasoning ability, as he/she learns, at varying ages, to participate in society.
 Symbolic Interaction Theory - individuals are capable of creating their own solution to life’s problems;
emphasizes the role of language in socialization and focuses on the individual’s self-concept arising from
interaction with others.
 Interpersonal Theory - human beings are the product of their relationships with significant others, or individuals
important to them; individuals seek goals of satisfaction and security [feelings of belonging].
Theoretical A. The Looking-Glass Self
Approaches to the  Charles Horton Cooley: the notion that person’s self is a reflection of others perceive him/her
Development of the  We imagine ourselves in the same way that others see us
Self  We learn who we are by interacting with others.
 Three Steps:
1. We imagine how we look to others.
2. We interpret others’ reactions.
3. We develop a self-concept.
B. The Social Self
 George Herbert Mead: argued that the “social self” developed out of social interactions with others
 Mead explained social experience as the exchange of symbols – meanings shared by people engaged in social
interaction
 As people mature, their selves begin to reflect their concern about reaction from others, both generalized
others and the significant others
 Social interaction involves seeing ourselves as others see us or taking the role of the other.
 Taking the role of the other involves a constant interplay between the “I” and the “Me”.
 Three stages:
1. preparatory stage - mimic others
2. play stage - play the role of others (3 yrs old)
3. game stage – organized games
 Play – critical to the development of self because it is during play that children learn to take the role of others
 Components of the Social Self
1. The “I” – the subjective element of the self; involves the direct experiences of the self; develops without
language
 Active, creative part of the social self
 “I joined you”
2. The “Me” – the objective element of the self; involves how we look at others and see ourselves; develops
with language
 Made up of attitudes from interaction with others
 “you joined me”
3. The “Mind” – taking the roles of others; the interplay between I and Me
C. Impression Management
 Erving Goffman : self develop through the impressions we convey to others and groups
 Impression management
 The altering of the presentation of the self in order to create a distinctive appearance and satisfy particular
audience.
 Dramaturgical Approach
 A view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers
 Face work
 The efforts people make to maintain the proper image and avoid public embarrassment
D. Psychotherapy
 Sigmund Freud : biological factors play an important part in the human personality
 Two basic needs:
 All humans have a basic need for bonding which he described as the life instinct or Eros.
 People also have an aggressive drive, which he called the death instinct or Thanatos.
 Model of Personality
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1. Id - Represents the human being’s basic needs, which are unconscious and demand immediate satisfaction
 This is present at birth
 It operates according to the pleasure principle (it seeks pleasure and avoids pain)
2. Ego - Represents the conscious attempt to balance the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the human
organism and the demands of the society
 It decides between the demands of the id and the superego.
 It operates according to the reality principle.
3. Superego - May be thought of as our understanding of why we cannot have everything we want
 This is the moral part of the personality.
 It is divided into two parts: the ego ideal (the standards of good behavior that we aspire to) and the
conscience (seen as an “inner voice” that tells us when we have done something wrong)
 Stages of Development
a. Oral Stage (birth to one year)
 In this stage, eating is the major source of satisfaction.
 Frustration or indulgence in this stage can lead to overeating or alcoholism in adulthood
b. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
 The influencing factor at this stage in personality development is toilet training.
 The results of fixation at this stage are personalities who are grasping and stingy
c. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
 The greatest source of pleasure comes from the sex organs
 The child desires the parent of the opposite sex that boys desire their mothers (Oedipus complex) and
girls desire their fathers (Electra complex)
d. Latency Stage (6 years to adolescence)
 Children turn their attention to people outside the families like teachers and friends, and the erotic
impulses are dormant.
e. Genital Stage (adolescence and beyond)
 The sexual impulses become active again and the individual focuses on the opposite sex, looks around
for potential marriage partner, and prepares for marriage and adult responsibilities.
Types of Socialization • Primary socialization
– Socialization that occurs without the subject’s knowledge of it
• Secondary socialization
– Socialization that is purposeful and obvious
• Anticipatory socialization
– Socialization that prepared people for future roles and statuses
• Reciprocal socialization
– When children socialize parents like parents socialize children
• Resocialization : the process of unlearning old norms, roles, and values, and learning new ones required in a
new social environment
– Voluntary resocialization: learning something contrary to prior experiences, such as may be involved in
taking a new job
– Involuntary resocialization
– Total Institution
• A place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and
their lives are almost completely controlled by officials who run the institution
• Examples: prisons, asylums, and the military
• Characteristics of Total Institution
1. Same place, same single authority
2. Immediate company of others, all members are treated alike, do the same activities
3. Activities are tightly scheduled
4. System of explicit formal rules
Agents of Socialization  An institution or group that prepares an individual for social life and society
1. Family
 the most important agent of socialization
 the entire social world of children, at least, until the onset of schooling
 most central to our social experiences throughout the life course
 provides for basic needs, and teaches children skills, cultural values, and attitudes about themselves and
others
2. School
 teaches children a wide range of knowledge and skills
 first agent of socialization controlled by non-relatives
3. Peer Group
 a group of persons of roughly the same age who are linked by common interests
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 provides young people the experience in developing social relationships on their own and establishing an
identity apart from their family
 provides the opportunity to discuss interests not shared by adults
 first agent of socialization controlled by non-adults
4. Mass Media
 makes him come in close contact with different thought processes, belief systems, etc.
 the interaction that then happens, helps a person to broaden his/her horizons in terms of social acceptance
and tolerance towards the others
5. Church
 influences morality, and ideas about the dress, speech and other manners that are appropriate
6. Workplace
 makes him come in close contact with different thought processes, belief systems, etc.
 the interaction that then happens, helps a person to broaden his/her horizons in terms of social acceptance
and tolerance towards the others
Social Interaction  Three Dimensions that Describe the Ways in which People Can Interact
 Direction
 Horizontal Interaction – individuals can interact with people at the same social level as themselves.
 Vertical Interaction – individual can interact with people either socially above or below them.
 Number
 Dyadic Interaction – individuals can interact either horizontally or vertically with one other person.
 Polyadic Interaction – individuals can interact either horizontally or vertically with more than one
person
 Intensity
 Individuals can interact with others vertically or horizontally, dyadicly or polyadicly:
 Single Stranded – on a single matter of little importance
 Multistranded – on many matters of great importance
Types Of Social  Nonverbal Behavior
Interaction  Kinesics – study of body movements
 It attempts to examine how such things as slight nods, yawns, postural shifts, and other nonverbal cues
affect communication
 Exchange Interaction
 When people do something for each other with the express purpose of receiving a reward or return
 Cooperative Interaction
 occurs when people act together to promote common interests or achieve shared goals
 Conflict
 People struggle with one another for some commonly prized object or value
 the struggle is carried on by eliminating or weakening those who might become competitors
 Coercion
 involves the use of power that is regarded as illegitimate by those whom it is exerted.
 Competition
 A form of conflict in which individuals or groups confine their conflict within agreed-upon rules
 the struggle is carried on through the development of excellence
Elements of Social  Status – the position a person occupies in society by virtue of age, birth, marriage, occupation or achievement
Interaction 1. Ascribed status – status into which people enter automatically without choice, usually at birth or through
some other universal event in the life cycle.
2. Achieved status - occupied as a result of the individual’s actions
3. Master status – a status that dominates the others in patterning a person’s life
 Role – the manner in which a given individual performs the duties and obligations of a status and enjoys its
privileges and prerogatives.
Social Groups  Two or more people who identify with one another and have a distinct pattern of interaction.
 Characteristics:
1. Has identity and is identifiable
2. Has social structure
3. Has roles to play
4. Mutual reciprocity
5. Has norms of behavior
6. Has a goal or purpose
7. Group activity is towards the attainment of goals
8. Has relative performance
 Other collection of people:
1. Aggregate - temporarily clustered together on the same location (people riding together on a bus, people
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lined up to attend a movie show, shoppers)
2. Category - a collection of people who share a common characteristic but do not interact (Filipinos, gays,
dorm residents)
3. Collectivity - a collection of people interacting with each other but the interactions are short-lived (El
Shaddai gatherings, mass demonstrations)
 Importance of groups:
1. Major source of solidarity and cohesion
2. Reinforces and strengthens integration
3. Shares basic survival and problem solving techniques
4. Gives meaning and support to an individual
 Reasons for the formation of groups:
1. The desire to achieve an objective
2. To meet the needs of the individual member
3. People are treated alike by others
 Classification of groups:
1. Primary group – typically a small group in which relationships are both personal and enduring; characterized
by intimate, face-to-face association, and cooperation.
2. Secondary group – formal, large and impersonal created for a limited purpose.
 In-groups - an esteemed social group commanding a member’s loyalty; comprises anyone who is regarded as ‘We’
or ‘Us’.
 Out-groups - a group or category to which people feel they do not belong; viewed as ‘They’ or ‘Them’.
 Group boundaries:
1. Formal boundary – determined by predetermined criteria
2. Informal boundary – membership is determined by non-specific criteria
 Group interaction
1. Cooperation – occurs when people act together to promote common interests or achieve shared goals or
promote common interests.
2. Competition – occurs when individuals or groups struggle to reach the same goal.
3. Conflict – the struggle is carried on by eliminating or weakening those who might become competitors.
 Factors affecting small group interactions:
1. Size
2. Proximity
3. Communication patterns
4. Cohesion
5. Social control
6. Decision-making
Organization  Is a process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and
authority, and establishing relationship for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
accomplishing objectives.
 Classifications of organizations:
1. Formal organization
2. Informal organization
Bureaucracy  a large scale, formal organization that is highly differentiated and efficiently organized by means of formal rules
and departments or bureaus of highly trained experts whose activities are coordinated by a hierarchical chain of
command.
 Characteristics of bureaucracy:
1. Specialization
2. Hierarchy of offices
3. Rules and regulations
4. Technical competence
5. Impersonality
6. Formal, written communication
 Limitations:
1. Alienation
2. Ritualism
3. Incompetence
4. Inequality
 Problems of bureaucracy in the Philippines:
1. Nepotism and favoritism
2. Perpetuation of the spoil system
3. Too much red tape
4. Graft and corruption
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5. Laxity in supervision
6. Presence of factions and cliques
7. Inefficiency
8. Red tape
9. Official misconduct
Basic Social  Family – basic unit and oldest of all institutions.
Institutions  Religious institution – a system of beliefs and practices related to a supernatural being.
 Economic and political institution – man’s activities are determined primarily by his economic needs such as
food, clothing and shelter.
 Educational institution – primary institutions for the shaping and molding society’s members’ minds and behavior
for socialization.
Social Stratification  A system whereby people rank and evaluate each other as superior or inferior.
 Types:
1. Caste system - based on ascription; the individual is simply born into a particular level called a caste and
remains in that caste for life.
 Four Major Castes in India
a. Brahmins – composed of the priests and scholars
b. Kshatriya – class of the warriors
c. Vaisya – the merchants and farmers
d. Sudra – the laborers and peasants
2. Estate system - characteristic of Europe during the medieval times; mobility was possible.
 Three Feudal Estates
a. Nobility – comprised of the kings, the nobles, and the military aristocracy
b. Clergy – composed of high-ranking religious leaders to the lower ranking officials of the church
c. Peasantry – composed of farmers, laborers, as well as serfs.
3. Open Class system – class position within the society is determined by his or her personal effort and ability
rather than by factors relating to birth.
Social Mobility  Movement of a person or persons from one social status to another.
 Commonly refers to the change in wealth and social status of individuals or families.
 Types of Social Mobility:
1. Horizontal Mobility – change of occupational position or role of an individual or a group without involving
any change in its position in the social hierarchy.
2. Vertical Mobility – moving up or down the so-called social ladder.
 Other Concepts:
1. Intragenerational social mobility – refers to a change in social position occurring during a person’s lifetime.
2. Intergenerational social mobility – upward or downward social mobility of children in relation to their
parents; a change in the status of family members from one generation to the next.
3. Ecological mobility – the movement of persons from one physical location to another; sometimes referred to
as geographical mobility
 Factors affecting Social Mobility
 Level of economic development of one’s country
 Level of industrialization and urbanization
 Rapid expansion of the service sector
 Availability of opportunities
 Competition
 education
Gender Inequality  Sex – biological differences or characteristics of males and females
 Gender – social aspects of sex or to socially defined expectation, roles, feelings, or concepts associated with sex
Racial and Cultural  Ethnic minorities – groups defined by national origin, language and cultural patterns that are different from the
Minorities dominant group.
 Problems:
1. Prejudice – an emotional attitude that is unfavorable
2. Segregation – setting apart of the minority and dominant groups
3. Expulsion – removal of the minority group
4. Genocide – destruction of one group by another
Means to minimize ethnic problems:
1. Accommodation – acceptance of the minority by the dominant group
2. Cultural pluralism – coexistence based on mutual respect for cultural differences
Social Class  Refers to a group of people having similar social rank
 People who share similar positions or status
 Determinants:
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1. Education
2. Income
3. Intelligence
4. Occupation
 As viewed by Karl Marx:
1. Bourgeoisie (capitalist)
2. Proletariat (worker)
 As viewed by Max Weber:
1. Class – consists of a number of individuals who possessed similar economic standing within society
2. Status – ranking of social prestige and/or honor
3. Power – the chance of people to realize their own will against the resistance of others
 Social Classes in the Philippines:
1. Upper Class
2. Middle Class
3. Lower Class
Deviance  Refers to non-conformity with social norms.
 Any violation of social norms and expectations.
 A breach of social order.
 Consequences:
1. It teaches people what is acceptable social behavior.
2. It strengthens group norm and values.
3. It is a sign and source of social change.
 Negative effects:
1. Harms group stability
2. Induces distrust and ill will
3. Drains human and economic resources
4. Weakens people’s faith in and conformity to social norms
 What is deviant in one culture may not be deviant to another.
Forms of Deviant  Social problem – a situation affecting a significant number of people that is believed by them to be a source of
Behavior and Social difficulty or happiness; a problem in human relationships which seriously threatens society or impedes the
Problem important aspirations of the people.
 Forms of Deviant Behavior:
1. Drug Abuse
i. Classifications of Drugs:
a. Sedatives – drugs that exert calming effects on the nervous system
b. Stimulants – drugs that increase the alertness and physical disposition of the individual
c. Hallucinogens – drugs that are capable of provoking changes of sensation, thinking, and self-
awareness and emotion
d. Narcotics – drugs that relieve pain and induce sleep and make one drowsy and relaxed
2. Crime – violation of any one of the specific norms that we call laws. Serious offenses are classified as:
i. Crime against person
ii. Crime against property
iii. Crime against chastity
iv. Crime against morale and orders
3. Prostitution – indiscriminate provision of sexual relations in return for money. Effects are called ‘venereal
disease’, an infection transmitted from person to person by intimate body contact (AIDS, gonorrhea, syphilis,
herpes)
Social Control  A process planned or unplanned, by which people are made to conform to collective norms.
 Types of social control:
1. Informal social control – a self-restraint exercise because of fear of what others would think.
2. Formal social control – rules are written down and laws specified. Members are then expected to follow the
rules. Failure to conform means punishment, ranging from fines, imprisonment or death penalty.
Conformity  People living together, sharing a common culture that regulates their collective existence and provides methods
for the satisfaction of their needs and their adaptation to their environment.
Social Change  Involving the alternation or modification of social institutions and society over a period of time.
 Processes of social change:
1. Invention and discovery
2. Diffusion – transfer of cultural elements from one society to another
 Modernization – is the process of social change initiated by industrialization
THE FAMILY
Family  a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction.
 includes adults of both sexes, at least owned or adopted, of the sexually cohabitants adult.
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 a socially sanctioned, relatively permanent grouping of people who are united by blood, marriage or adoption,
which generally lives together and cooperate economically.
 the most basic social institution
Functions of Family  The family provides for the continuity of mankind through reproduction.
 The family regulates sexual behavior.
 The family provides the necessary care, training, and protection of every member.
 The family is responsible for socializing the child.
 The family provides the means by which an individual’s social status is initially fixed.
 The family is an important mechanism for social control.
 The family performs the function of biological maintenance.
 The family has an educational function.
 The family has a religious function.
 The family has political function.
Importance of the  The strong or weak mental and physical aspects of the organism inherited from the parents can be developed in
Family the family.
 In the family, the child learns the meaning of social responsibility and the necessity for cooperation. It plays a
significant role in socializing persons.
 The family is the transmitter of culture.
 The family serves as a model for the establishment of another family.
Classifications of  According to Organization
Family 1. Conjugal family - This is composed of a husband and wife. A newlywed couple and / or couples with no
children.
2. Nuclear Family - Consist of husband, wife and their dependent children.
- Family of Orientation
- Family of Procreation
3. Extended family – This is composed of two or more nuclear family. This family usually exists when the wife-
husband pair and their children live with other kin and share economic and child rearing responsibilities with
them.
 According to Place of Residence
1. Neolocal - This occurs when norms of residence require that a newlywed couple take up residence away
from ther parents. The husband and wife decide the place of their resident.
2. Patrilocal - This occurs when norms of residence require a newlywed couple to take up residence with the
husband’s kin.
3. Matrilocal - This occurs when norms of residence require newlywed couple to take up residence with the
wife’s kin.
 According to Descent
1. Patrilineal – This is a family that traces its ancestry from the paternal or father’s side.
2. Matrilineal – This is family that traces its roots from the maternal or mother’s side.
3. Bilineal – This is a family that traces its ancestry from both the paternal and maternal side.
 According to Authority
1. Patriarchal – With this type of family, authority is solely exercised by the father
2. Matriarchal – In this type, the members live together under the authority of the mother.
3. Egalitarian – This occurs when spouses jointly share in decision-making, control of family resources and
child-rearing.
 According to Form of Marriage
1. Monogamy – Marriage in which there is only one wife and one husband.
2. Polygamy – Any form of marriage in which a person may have more than one spouse at a time.
 Polyandry – A form of marriage in which one woman may have more than one husband at a time.
 Polygyny – A form of marriage in which a man may have more than one wife at a time.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
Courtship  all forms of behavior by which one seek to win the consent of another marriage.
 the stage preparatory to marriage.
 a process of trial and error undertaken by individuals to find out who best fulfill their love requirements.
 Stages of Courtship
1. Dating – friendly relations
2. Going steady – dating one person exclusively
3. Private understanding – a man openly declares his love and affection for the woman and his desire to have
her for a wife
4. Engagement – public announcement for marriage
Marriage  a formal and durable sexual union of man and woman, which is conducted w/in a set designated rights and duties.
 The New Family Code of 1988 defines marriage as a special contract of permanent union between a man and
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woman entered into, in accordance with law for establishments of conjugal and family life.
 both a” contract” and “status”; a man and woman sign an agreement, a permanent union that it can only be
dissolved by the death of the other party.
Requisites for  Legal capacity of the contracting parties.
Marriage  Consent of the contracting parties.
 Valid marriage license
Dissolution of  Annulment – marriage is considered null and void due to defective marriage that has existed on or before the
Marriage marriage; the marriage is set aside and the parties can marry again.
 Divorce – complete dissolution of marriage wherein both parties can marry again
 Legal separation – only separation from bed and board and those parties remain married.
Grounds for  Lack of parental consent
Annulment  Insanity of one of the parties
 Fraud
 Force, intimidation or undue influence
 Impotency
 Affliction or sexual transmissible disease found to be serious and which appears incurable
Grounds for Legal  Repeated physical violence or grossly abusive conduct
Separation  Physical violence or moral pressure to compel the petitioner to change religion or political affiliation
 Attempt to corrupt petitioner or child to engage in prostitution
 Final judgment sentencing respondent to more than six years of imprisonment
 Drug addiction or habitual alcoholism
 Lesbianism or homosexuality
 Contracting by one spouse of another marriage
 Sexual infidelity or perversion
 Attempt by one spouse against the life of the other
 Abandonment of one spouse by the other for than one year
EDUCATION
Education  The process, in school or beyond, of transmitting society's knowledge, skills, values, and behaviors. Every society
seeks to educate its young members, to prepare them for adult roles.
  Is deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to transmit more acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
 Perspectives:
1. Formal Education
2. Informal Education
 Effects on Schooling on Individuals
1. Knowledge and attitude. Education has always been seen to influence the general knowledge, habits and
attitudes of those who obtain it.
2. Getting a job. Education is also the important factor in getting a job.
3. Job performance. While many social scientists concur that education is needed to help get a job, there is
less agreement on whether it helps a person do a job well.
4. Education and Income. There is always a wide range of income of people with various levels of education.
5. Education and mobility. The relationship between education and income and jobs varies by social class.
POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
Politics  Refers to the social processes or strategy in any position of control which people gain, use or lose power.
 The study of political groups is referred to as the study of power.
Government  is the organization through which the state expresses and enforces its will
 Exists for the benefit of the governed.
State  Defined as “community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite territory,
independent of external control and possessing an organized government.
 Four Elements of State
 People
 Territory
 Government
 Sovereignty
Important Organs of  Executive
the Philippine  The executive department is perceived by the citizens in the political environment as the center of power - “the
Government nerve center” of the nation.
 The President is the chief executive and is the most visible citizen of the country.
 Legislative
 The Philippine legislature is composed of two houses and is in charge of enacting the laws of the land to
regulate human conduct and to promote the common good and general welfare of the people.
 Judiciary
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 is responsible for deciding disputed points of law, for protecting the rights of the individuals under the law, for
determining infractions of laws; and imposing corresponding penalties.
 judicial power is vested in Supreme Court and in such lower courts established by law.
Local Government  The Province
 comprises a cluster of municipalities and component cities.
 it serves as a dynamic mechanism for developmental processes and effective governance of local government.
 Sangguniang Panlalawigan - is the legislative body of the provincial government which enacts ordinances and
adapts resolutions for the general welfare of the provinces.
 The City
 consist of more urbanized and developed barangays.
 These local units direct and supervise delivery of services for the inhabitants within their respective jurisdiction.
 The Municipality
 comprises barangays and primarily serves the inhabitants within its jurisdiction through effective delivery of
basic services.
 Sangguniang Bayan - is the legislative organ of the municipal government which enacts ordinances and adopts
resolution for the general welfare of the municipality and its citizens.
 The Barangay
 the basic political unit
 deals with primary planning and implementing government programs, projects and developmental activities
in the community.
Power  is the ability to control what others do.
 Two Uses of Power
1. Illegitimate - forbidden by law
2. Legitimate - in accordance with law or legal.
 Three Types of Authority
1. Traditional Authority. The right to make decisions is on the force of traditions and customs that are handed
from the past and are considered sacred.
2. Rational-legal authority. The legitimacy of the government rests on the people’s recognition of the
bureaucracy – a system of formal, hierarchical, and explicit rules and written documents. This bureaucracy is a
system of authority, offices, men, and methods that the government uses to carry out its programs.
3. Charismatic authority. This type of authority hinges on the leader’s personal qualities to persuade followers
to work for a common objective.
Forms of Government  Monarchy - a form of government in which the final authority is in the hands of a single person without regard to
the source of his election or the nature or duration of his tenure.
 It is divided into two types:
(a) Absolute monarchy -in which the ruler rules by, divined right. He exercises absolute powers. He is the chief
executive, the legislator and the judge at the same time.
(b) Constitutional monarchy- in which the ruler rules in accordance with the constitution.
 Aristocracy - a form of government ruled by the few – the aristocrats holding exception rank and privileges,
especially the hereditary nobility, exercise the political power of the state.
 Democracy - a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by
them or by their elected delegates or representatives under a free electoral system.
- is a government of the people, by the people, for the people [Abraham Lincoln]
 Two Types:
 Direct or pure democracy
 Representative or indirect democracy
ECONOMY
Economics  Scientific study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
Types of Economy  Recollecting and hunting
 Nomadic pastoralism
 Settled agricultural
 Modern industrial
Market  The means by which we establish values for the exchange of goods and services.
 Medium of exchange: the means by which people value and exchange goods and services.
 Barter: one of the earliest mediums of exchange; the direct exchange of one item for another.
Major Forms of  Capitalism - based upon the accumulation and investment of capital by private individuals who then become the
Political Economy owners of the means of production and distribution of goods and services.
 Socialism - The means of production and distribution are collectively owned.
 Communism - All property is communally owned and no social distinctions are made on the basis of people’s
ability to produce.
RELIGION
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Religion  a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things.
Elements of Religion  Ritual and prayer — these refer to the formalized social rituals possessed by all religions and also, many religions
also feature private prayers.
 Emotion — one of the functions of ritual and prayer is to produce an appropriate emotional state.
 Belief — basic to every religion are beliefs concerning the nature of the universe and man in relation to it.
 Organization — almost all religions adopt an organized structure through which specialists can be recruited and
trained, religious meetings conducted, and interaction facilitated between society and the members of the religion.
Techniques of  Prayer — this is the communication between a believer and the supernatural power through speech. It is viewed
Religion as talking to a God or to gods.
 Sacrifice — it expresses the desire to please the supernatural powers by gift-giving. It may also put the
supernatural power under compulsion to repay the gift by doing what one wants.
 Reverence — this refers to awe coupled with admiration which one offers to the supernatural powers.
 Divination — this means the control by foreknowledge of supernatural power.
 Taboo — this is a sacred prohibition against touching, mentioning, or looking at certain objects, acts, or people.
 Rituals — these are patterns of behavior or practices related to the sacred.
 Ceremony — this involves a number of interconnected and related rituals performed at a given time.
 Magic — this is a type of interaction with the supernatural.
Functions of Religion  Facilitate the quest for moral identity.
 Provide interpretation for man’s environment.
 Promote social cohesion and solidarity.
Types of Religious  Cult – a new religion with few followers
Institutions  All religions began as a cult.
 Begins with the appearance of a charismatic leader.
 Cult’s message is seen as a threat to the dominant culture.
 Demands intense commitment.
 Its followers confront a hostile world.
 Sect – larger than a cult.
 Still feels substantial hostility from and toward society.
 Loosely organized
 Emphasize personal salvations and emotional expression of one’s relationship with God
 Recruitment of new members (evangelism)
 If grows, changed to church.
 Church – a large, highly organized religious group with little emphasis on personal conversion and formal, sedate
services.
 Highly bureaucratized
 Ecclesia – so integrated into the dominant culture that it is difficult to tell where the one begins and the other
leaves off
 All called state religions.
 No recruitment of members, for citizenship makes everyone a member.
 Denomination – a “brand name” with a major religion
DEMOGRAPHY
Population  An aggregate of individuals who have access to environment as a means of sustenance and who are in the state of
interdependence.
 Components of Population
1. Population Growth
i. Demography – The study of the size, composition, growth, and distribution of human populations
ii. Growth rate – rate at which population is increasing or decreasing; surplus or deficit of births over deaths
and net migration.
2. Population structure – age-sex structure of a population.
3. Spatial distribution – the number of population per square meter of land area.
i. Fertility Rate – refers to the number of children that the average woman bears.
ii. Mortality Rate – refers to the number of death per 1000 population
iii. Migration – movement of people from one place to another
FAMILY PLANNING
Family Planning  The rational, voluntary, and moral management of all the processes of family life including human reproduction.
 The process by which responsible couples determine by themselves the timing, spacing, and number of children
born to them.
 totality of human efforts to achieve human dignity, economic stability, health and happiness, and promote welfare
through:
- birth regulation and spacing of children by the use of accepted scientific methods.
- treatment for infertility.
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- family life and sex education.
- pre-marital guidance and marriage counseling.
- pre-natal and post-natal care.
Methods of  Folk Method:
Contraception 1. Postcoital Douche or Douching – flushing out the vagina with a medicated solution immediately after
intercourse to remove or destroy the sperm.
2. Prolonged Lactation – prolonged breast-feeding of babies is an ancient practice or contraception to delay
ovulation.
 Behavioral Contraceptives:
1. Rhythm Method – couples indulge in sexual intercourse only on those days of the menstrual cycle during
which ovulation is theoretically unlikely to occur.
2. Ovulation Method – observes the mucous discharge from the vagina as a sign of an impending ovulation and
therefore, is the beginning of the unsafe period.
3. Withdrawal or Coitus Interruptus – withdrawal of the male organ from the female organ just prior to
ejaculation
4. Coitus Reservatus – the man withholds ejaculation allowing the erection to subside just before orgasm.
 Mechanical Contraceptives:
1. Condom – prophylactic, is a protective sheath made of rubber or thin animal skin, which is worn over the
erect penis during sexual intercourse.
2. Diaphragm – a shallow rubber cup with a flexible spring rim, which is compressed and inserted into the
vagina so that it fits snugly over the cervix.
3. Cervical caps – made of rubber with a tapering dome appearance, designed to fit snugly over the cervix.
 Chemical Contraceptives:
1. Suppositories and Tablets – a small, bullet-shaped substance similar to paraffin or a piece of candle,
containing chemicals capable of killing sperms.
2. Contraceptive Jellies, Creams and Foams – inserted shortly before intercourse.
 Intrauterine Devices – A small plastic or metal object, which is inserted into the uterus by a physician.
 Oral Pills - contains hormones, which prevent conception by inhibiting the ovaries from releasing egg cells.
 Sterilization or Surgery
1. Vasectomy - the vas deferens, the tube through which sperms are transported, is tied off or cauterized,
causing the sperm to be reabsorbed by the body instead of becoming part of the semen.
2. Tubal Ligation - the fallopian tubes are cut and tied off. Ovulation and menstruation continue as usual but the
ripened egg cannot enter the uterus.

References:

 Bagolong, Saidamin P. et.al. (2014) Introduction to Sociology: Culture, Family Planning and Other Social Issues
 Cabalu, Danilo, et.al.(2011) Applied Sociology: A Modular Approach (2011)
 Estoque, Ronan, S. and Leano, Jr., Ronan D. (2006) College Sociology
 Hunt, Elgin F. & Colander, David C. (2008) Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society

Prepared by:

April Mae A Ydel