Jonghan An

Jeremy Bourgeois
Mason Hunt
Alex Salazar

3-D SEISMIC
EXPLORATION
Informative Report
Cover Image
Athabasca Oil Corporation, "Light oil: Athabasca Oil Corporation," Athabasca Oil Corporation
Annual Report 2012, 2013. [Online]. Available: http://ar.atha.com/2011/summary-of-
operations/light-oil/. [Accessed: Nov. 18, 2016.]
 3D Seismic Exploration
Prepared for
Rebecca Walsh, Instructor
SAIT Polytechnic

Prepared by
Jonghan An, Jeremy Bourgeois,
Mason Hunt, Alex Salazar
COMM 256-X Students
Petroleum Engineering Technology
SAIT Polytechnic

Requested by
Rebecca Walsh, Instructor
SAIT Polytechnic
21 November 2016
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
With seismic exploration being at least 100 years old, the desire and need to improve on aging
technology has always been of high importance the oil and gas industry. From the use of
refraction seismic exploration in 1915 to the implementation of 2D surveying starting in the
1950’s, seismic has been the center of revision and improvement since its inception to the oil and
gas industry. After ten years of industry using 2D, research was already underway to develop
what is now 3D seismic technology. The 3D surveying allowed for vast amounts of area to be
mapped while outputting high-quality and accurate subsurface data. This opened the door for
companies to view entire basins, and consequentially the ability to re-enter old or plays
considered depleted.

The process of 3D seismic surveying begins with the plan, or the seismic program. The on-field
work can be broken up into three main components: an energy source, wave receivers, and wave
manipulation. Equipment such as thumper trucks, geophones, and recording vans are necessary
to carry out the operation. Before the process begins, the land of interest may be altered to be
accessible by the equipment. The process is then repeated at the indicated positions set out in the
seismic program in order to map the desired subsurface formations.

3D seismic has been proven to not only be more efficient than its predecessor, but also more
accurate and economical too. The efficiency comes from the ability to lower the number of dry
holes drilled and inversely raise the number of producing wells made. Accuracy is attained by
being able to map the subsurface of a large topographical area and precisely locate areas of
interest. The economical aspect is debated because of the high initial cost of 3D seismic vs. 2D
seismic, but the long-term benefit of drilling more producing wells along with increasing the rate
or success makes 3D very economical.

The disadvantages of 3D seismic include the environmental impact of deforestation and wildlife
disruption, where native vegetation and must be cleared and through deforestation wildlife is
prone to potential mass migrations. Because seismic requires access to different parts of land, the
building of access roads for transportation of crew and equipment is needed. Data processing is
also an issue because 3D data collected in the field requires further processing to become useful
interpretive data, which can be expensive and time consuming depending on the amount of data
gathered. The cost of 3D seismic is steep for any company due to the factors of environmental
impact, land area disturbance and data processing.

Even though 3D is already widely used in the oil and gas industry, research is always being
conducted with the increasing sample size of companies using 3D technology. 4D has become an
option but mostly being used on marine seismic programs. 4D uses essentially the same process
as 3D, but with the added dimension of time. This is done by reproducing 3D surveys over a
known-producing field multiple times using the same coordinates to compare variations in the
gathered data to map a reservoir in even greater detail.

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ ii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ......................................................................................................... iv
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
Purpose ........................................................................................................................................ 1
Background ................................................................................................................................. 1
Scope ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Method ........................................................................................................................................ 1
Preview ........................................................................................................................................ 1
HISTORY OF SEISMIC ................................................................................................................ 2
3D SEISMIC PROCESS................................................................................................................. 2
Seismic Preparation ..................................................................................................................... 2
Process ......................................................................................................................................... 3
3D TECHNICAL ADVANTAGES ................................................................................................ 4
Efficient ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Accurate ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Economical .................................................................................................................................. 5
3D TECHNICAL DISADVANTAGES ......................................................................................... 6
Environmental Impact ................................................................................................................. 6
Land Area .................................................................................................................................... 6
Data Processing ........................................................................................................................... 6
Cost.............................................................................................................................................. 6
3D ADVANCEMENTS.................................................................................................................. 7
4D Marine Seismic ...................................................................................................................... 7
Advantages of 4D ........................................................................................................................ 8
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 9
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 10
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................. 11

iii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures
Figure 1 - Seismic field equipment. ................................................................................................ 3
Figure 2 - Million barrels of oil equivalent (MMBOE) found, and cost per barrel of oil equivalent
(BOE) found between 1991-1996. .................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3 - 2D mapping of McLaren formation. .............................................................................. 4
Figure 4 - 3D mapping of McLaren formation. .............................................................................. 5

Tables
Table 1 - Results of 2D vs. 3D seismic surveying. ........................................................................ 5
Table 2 - Costs of 2D vs. 3D seismic surveying. ............................................................................ 6

iv
INTRODUCTION
Although it has been around since the 1970’s, the relatively new method of 3D seismic
exploration is the topic of this technical report.
Purpose
This report is to inform the reader on the history, process, advantages, disadvantages and
advancements of 3D seismic exploration.
Background
The reader is advised that becoming familiar with the upstream sector of oil and gas and idea of
different layers of rock, or original horizontality, will assist in the understanding of terms and
ideas used in this report. The topic of seismic is the heavy basis of the exploration part of the
upstream process, followed by drilling, production, and completion. Although surface seismic
exploration is not the only form a surveying for hydrocarbons, it is by far the most widely used
in the industry.

Throughout the report, terms that are bolded will be defined in the glossary section of the report
for clarification of unfamiliar words.
Scope
With seismic exploration being such a broad topic, this report will focus on the 3D seismic
exploration method, and the technologies used in the field. 2D and marine will be mentioned, but
not elaborated on much further due to the information from 3D being reiterated twice-over. The
reason for this is that the processes of 2D, 3D and marine are very similar.
Method
The data, information and graphics contained in this report have been obtained through credible
sources such as scholarly articles and journals, government info and case studies by professionals
working in their fields.
Preview
First, the history of seismic section will briefly summarize the 100-year history of seismic from
it’s early applications to the current use of 3D technology. Next, a description of the seismic
process and equipment used will be detailed, followed by the technical advantages and
disadvantages of 3D seismic exploration. Lastly, the report will conclude with the latest
advancements of 3D technology.

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 1

HISTORY OF SEISMIC
Dating back to the early 20th century, seismic activity has held a major role in the energy sector
[1]. Originally, most oil and gas explorations and operations were based on using exploration
wells to search and discover new plays. Even though drilling exploration wells helped uncover
many fundamental formations, with the advancements in technologies, more accurate
information was needed before commencing drilling operations.
In 1915, seismic refraction was initially put to work. The use of seismic refraction introduced the
initial stepping stone of seismic surveying. Seismic refraction is the operation of sending waves
into the ground and measuring the angles that they will refracted at [1]. With the introduction of
seismic surveying, geophysicists could identify a reserve of oil and gas and generally where it
was located [1]. This was important in the sense that a large percentage of “approximating” for
finding a reservoir was eliminated. This helped companies save costs in drilling wells which
might have not been profitable [1].
As stated by [1], even though seismic refraction turned out to be a huge stepping stone in
discovering resources, many questions were left unanswered about volume of products, what
obstacles that could be introduced during the drilling process, and the size and shape of the
reserve. By the 1950’s, enough technology had been created to embed the basis of 2D seismic
surveying and analysis. 2D seismic surveying involved sending acoustic waves into the ground
and the geophones in the ground receiving the reflected waves. Initially, the desire for better
information about the ground beneath us was the main goal at the forefront of 2D seismic
activity. Although better data was the goal with 2D seismic surveying, it also revealed that it was
a much faster and safer process in contrast to seismic refraction surveying. 2D Seismic surveying
helped define in better detail where a play was occurring and helped exploration companies
overcome much of the guessing game that occurred [1].
With all the major impacts 2D seismic surveying had in the oil and gas industry, there were still
questions that had not been previously answered. [2] acknowledges that 2D seismic could give a
basic idea of where plays and reservoirs were occurring, but it did not give any indication of the
size or contours that were occurring. This is when researchers developed one of the most utilized
exploration tools today: 3D seismic surveying. The idea of 3D seismic was developed in the mid
1960’s and it was finally implemented in entirety during the 1970’s. 3D seismic surveying
allowed for the observation of a vast amount of area while giving precise data of what depths the
reservoir is occurring at. In fact, it enables one to view virtually an entire basin in full detail [2].
With the current advancements and processes that are revealed from 3D seismic surveying, this
allows us to investigate deeper into the operations and processes that are used today.

3D SEISMIC PROCESS
To fully understand 3D seismic survey applications, there is machinery and processes that need
to be identified.
Seismic Preparation
Before the equipment is necessary, surveying companies and contractors are hired to “lay out
energy source points and receiver points” in a desired area of interest. “The receiver points – to

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 2

record the reflected vibrations from the source points – are laid down in parallel lines (receiver
lines), and the source points are laid out in parallel lines that are approximately perpendicular to
the receiver lines” [3]. Once the area is laid out accordingly, temporary access roads may be
created for the equipment to reach the areas of interest. After this preparation, 3D seismic
surveying can commence.
Process
3D seismic surveys are conducted by sending energy wave (seismic wave) into the ground from
an energy source which is then collected on the surface. Conducting a 3D seismic survey can be
broken down into three main components which involve an energy source, wave receivers, and
wave manipulation.
As expressed by [3], the energy waves (seismic waves) are created by two different sources: one
method is “by small explosive charges in shallow holes” called shot holes, the second by a large
vehicle equipped with heavy plates that send vibrations into the subsurface called a vibroseis
truck or thumper truck.
“The seismic wave travels into the earth, is reflected by subsurface formations, and returns to the
surface where it is recorded by receivers called geophones – similar to microphones” [3]. These
geophones are connected to recording vans that store the data. The collected information is then
manipulated by geologists and geophysicists. In this stage, the professionals create 3D images of
the data and later the information and images are sold to oil companies. To have a better
visualization of the seismic process, Figure 1 illustrates the process.

Figure 1 - Seismic field equipment.

Source: [4]

The use of this technology and machinery has innovative advantages in the exploration of oil and
gas industry.

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 3

3D TECHNICAL ADVANTAGES
With the knowledge of the seismic process and machinery in place, we can now look to explore
the advancements within 3D seismic exploration.
Efficient
[5] demonstrates that as the 3D seismic method increased amount of petroleum and natural gas
(P&NG) resources found in exploration wells, the cost of finding those viable P&NG resources
also decreased, as shown in Figure 2. It should be noted that exploration wells and the
probability of success
(PS) increased;
additionally, the drilling
of and finding resources
between the years of
1993 to 1997 improved
drastically. Furthermore,
less dry holes were
being drilled and
inversely more
producing holes were
made [5].
Accurate Figure 2 - Million barrels of oil equivalent (MMBOE) found, and
cost per barrel of oil equivalent (BOE) found between 1991-1996.

3D seismic surveying technology has Source: [5]

assisted in the detailed location of
reservoirs or “plays” that have also
matched the advancements of horizontal
drilling. According to [6], Norcen Energy
Resources Ltd utilized the new 3D seismic
technology available to create an
improved seismic program to be
integrated with the equally new horizontal
drilling method in 1992. The goal for the
company was to re-map the known
reservoir structures, using 3D equipment
to accurately locate zones of interest, with
the purpose of drilling 15 new horizontal
wells into the heavy-oil rich South Bodo
Field in southeastern Alberta [6].

The initial problem with the heavy oil

acreage was described as, “In 1989, due to
high water cuts and low oil production,
Figure 3 - 2D mapping of McLaren formation.

Source: [6]

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 4

the field was shut-in” [6]. Armed with new technology, Norcen Energy could now very
accurately locate the reservoirs in higher seismic resolution as shown in Figure 4, opposed to the
original 2D data from the late 1970s that is pictured in Figure 3 [6].

3D seismic surveying assisted a seemingly

depleted field and repurposed it as a viable
play of heavy oil for further production
opportunity. With the cost of this seismic
project in the $600,000 CAD range and a
horizontal well adding $550,000-$600,000
CAD at that time, 3D seismic is very
economical for the worth of highly
accurate data and increased drilling
success [6].
Economical
It is a fact that 3D has a higher front end
cost than traditional 2D surveying [8], but
the effectiveness in usable, high-quality
data returning higher success rates of
finding producer wells has little downside.
This is best described as, “The popularity
of 3-D seismic methods for hydrocarbon Figure 4 - 3D mapping of McLaren formation.
exploration can be attributed to simple
Source: [6]
economics: its use has significantly
reduced exploration costs by reducing the
number of dry holes drilled” [7].
2D vs. 3D Seismic Estimated Results (1997)

Wells Drilled Drill Density Seismic Est. Quality of

on Seismic Costs/ Well Completion Production
Rate
2D 3000 1 per 10 km $50,000 60% Fair
3D 8000 1 per 3 km2 $52,500 80% Good
Table 1 - Results of 2D vs. 3D seismic surveying.

Source: [8]

Referring to Table 1, 2D has the edge in costs per well, but 3D excels in the other four
categories. Three dimensional proves its worth in three specific and important categories: wells
drilled on seismic, estimated completion rate, and quality of production. This point will be of
emphasis in the next section of this report.

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 5

3D TECHNICAL DISADVANTAGES
The 3D seismic survey, however valuable, does have disadvantages that come with the process
of exploration.
Environmental Impact
 Deforestation: Vegetation may need to be cleared for the deployment of equipment,
leading to gradual deforestation [9]. Deforestation leaves the topsoil open to erosion and
mass wasting and tends to create barren land areas in locations where this occurs.

 Wildlife Disruption: Habitat disturbance is very likely to occur in remote areas that have
been cleared for seismic surveys. Trees and other natural habitat of wildlife are disturbed
or removed leading to mass migration of wildlife from such locations [9].
Land Area
3D surveys need to be conducted over large land surface areas to obtain enough data for a
complete analysis of subsurface geology. According to [3], “3D surveys commonly cover 50 to
100 square miles or more”. Seismic surveys may sometimes require the building of access roads
for transportation of people and equipment [9]. These factors will cause an increase in the cost of
production, while also leaving a large land footprint.
Data Processing
The 3D seismic survey delivers results in the form of raw data. Further analysis is needed to
convert this data into useful information for drilling operations. There is a relatively high cost
and lengthy time duration associated with data processing, depending on factors such as land
area and quantity of data to be processed [3].
Cost
The short-term or upfront cost of 3D seismic surveys is significantly higher than that of 2D
survey, these are due to some other factors already mentioned such as land area, access road
building, data analysis, etc. Table 2 below shows a summary of 2D vs. 3D overall costs
associated with seismic data acquisition and processing.
2D vs. 3D Seismic Activity Levels (1997)

Program Crew Channels Average Total

Recorded Months per Crew Cost Expenditure
2D 30,000 km 200 200 $5,000 $150,000,000

3D 24,000 km2 350 1200 $350,000 $420,000,000

(1200 programs)
Table 2 - Costs of 2D vs. 3D seismic surveying.

Source: [8]

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 6

With these disadvantages, the seismic process looks for improvement on a consistent basis. The
following are some of the latest technological advancements in 3D technology.

3D ADVANCEMENTS
Modern advancements in seismic technology have been made during the recent decade. A
significant development is known as the 4D seismic survey.
4D Marine Seismic
The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers [10] states that the 4D seismic survey
technique is just like the 3D technique, except it includes the time factor and is often used in
marine seismic surveying. It consists of reproducing 3D surveys over a producing field multiple
times, for the same coordinates. This is used to compare variations in the volume and region of
oil and gas in the reservoir as oil production is ongoing [10]. Figure 5 illustrates the marine
seismic process, including zones of interest.
As stated in [10], “During a survey, the seismic vessel travels approximately five knots in a
predetermined pattern and tows one or two sound sources to generate sound waves, and one or
several long cables or ‘streamers’ containing hundreds of evenly-spaced hydrophones”.
Advanced navigation and acoustic systems are also employed to monitor the location of the
vessel and equipment to ensure accuracy [10].
The aim of 4D seismic
surveys is to understand
the changes and
behaviour of the reservoir
along the period of
production. The 4D
survey, much like the 3D
survey requires precise
interpretation to produce
a proper correlation
between static and
dynamic reservoir models
[11].

Figure 5 - Marine seismic

exploration process.

Source: [11]

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 7

Advantages of 4D
The 4D seismic survey, by continuous monitoring, has both short and long term benefits. The
following are some of those advantages:
 Minimizing waste and Ensuring Production Efficiency
› The 4D technique of seismic surveys minimizes wastage and help to boost
efficiency. This is done by identifying depleted and non-swept zones [11].
Identification of non-swept zones will ensure that no zones are left untapped, and
at the same time knowing the location will increase production efficiency.

 Important Management Tool for Building Production Strategy

› The 4D seismic survey proves to be an invaluable tool for reservoir management
by providing a clear model of hydrocarbon volume changes in the reservoir [11].
This helps to predict and estimate production volumes and build a fitting
production strategy for recovering said hydrocarbons.

 Reveals Unexpected Changes in Reservoir

› Spontaneous changes which would normally be undetectable or unpredictable,
such as ‘propagation pathways of injected gas’ can be identified by continuous
surveying. This technique will also identify upcoming flow barriers, thereby
giving a warning to the drilling engineers [11].

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 8

CONCLUSION
In summary, this report has outlined in detail the history of seismic exploration, the process and
equipment of 3D surveying, its advantages and disadvantages, and recent advancements in
technology. 2D seismic has been a massive help for the oil and gas industry since the early part
of the century, but the implementation and success of 3D technology has proved its worth as a
viable replacement in the industry. 3D has become a crucial aspect of locating and extracting
P&NG resources, and it has given companies a renewed lease to make money while spending
less.

By using credible sources and peer-reviewed material, the research has indicated the following:

History of Seismic
 Seismic refraction is the first use of seismic exploration in the oil and gas industry.
 2D seismic technology was used for approximately 20 years, before 3D technology.
 3D technology was created in the 1960’s, and implemented in the 1970’s.

3D Process
 The 3D process is theoretically simple: setup recording devices, create sound waves,
record return waves, repeat.
 Equipment used consist of a vibrator truck, geophones, and a recording vehicle.

Advantages
 The 3D process has become very efficient.
 The technology is accurate enough to map out entire subsurface basins.
 The operational costs are initially high, but it is economical long-term.

Disadvantages
 Two main sources of environmental impact: deforestation and wildlife disturbance.
 Land disturbance is common when the need for access roads or simply to cover the
required large surface area.
 Data processing is needed post-surveying for recording to be interpreted.
 Upfront costs of 3D are significantly higher than 2D.

Advancements
 4D seismic surveying, most common in marine, is the current successor of 3D technology
and the advantages of better reservoir management and production efficiency keep the
high standard of the technology.

3D has become a crucial aspect of locating and extracting P&NG resources, and it has given
companies a renewed lease to make money while spending less. Evaluating the disadvantages,
the 3D technology has a very high upside, with most of its negative aspects being able to be
circumvented through further research and regulation.

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 9

REFERENCES
[1] N. C. Sharma, "History of Seismic Prospecting in ONGC - A Chronological Sketch of
Events," Geohorizons, pp. 1–10, Jan. 2002. [Online]. Available:
http://www.spgindia.org/geohorizon/jan2002/2002jan_n_c_sharma.PDF. [Accessed:
Nov. 09, 2016.]
[2] J. Cartwright and M. Huuse, "3D seismic technology: The geological ‘Hubble’," Basin
Research, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1–20, Feb. 2005. [Accessed: Nov. 08, 2016]
[3] J. McFarland, "How do seismic surveys work?" Oil and Gas Lawyer Blog, John McFarland,
2009. [Online]. Available: http://www.oilandgaslawyerblog.com/2009/04/how-do-
seismic-surveys-work.html. [Accessed: Nov. 08, 2016.]
[4] J. M. Enjolras, "Total pioneers ‘cable-less 3D seismic’ surveys in Uganda," Oil in Uganda,
2013. [Online]. Available: http://www.oilinuganda.org/features/environment/uganda-
pioneers-3d-seismic-surveys.html. [Accessed: Nov. 08, 2016.]
[5] A. R. Brown, "Interpretation of Three-Dimensional Seismic Data," Investigations in
Geophysics, vol. 7, pp. i–xviii, Jan. 2011. [Accessed: Nov. 08, 2016.]
[6] E. C. Howell and E. C. Stacey, "3D seismic and horizontal drilling - A case history, Bodo,
Alberta," SPE Latin America/Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference, Buenos
Aires, Argentina: Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1994, pp. 1–15. [Online]. Available:
https://www.onepetro.org. [Accessed: Nov. 08, 2016.]
[7] D. W. Eaton, B. Milkereit, and E. Adam, "3-D Seismic Exploration," Proceedings of
Exploration, vol. 97, pp. 65–78, 1997. [Online]. Available:
https://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/3-D-Seismic-
Exploration.pdf. [Accessed: Nov. 08, 2016.]
[8] Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) and N. M. Cooper, "The Value of 3D Seismic,"
ANWR, 2014. [Online]. Available: http://anwr.org/2014/11/the-value-of-3d-seismic/.
[Accessed: Nov. 09, 2016.]
[9] Wikipedia Contributors, "Reflection Seismology," Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 2004.
[Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/reflection_seismology#land.
[Accessed: Nov. 13, 2016.]
[10] Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP), "Marine seismic surveys: The
search for oil and natural gas offshore," CAPP Publications, Canadian Association of
Petroleum Producers, 2015, pp. 1–4. [Online]. Available:
http://www.capp.ca/publications-and-statistics/publications/273937. [Accessed: Nov. 13,
2016.]
[11] CGGVerita, "4D Time-Lapse Seismic," 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://www.cgg.com/data/1/rec_docs/1892_4D-Brochure.pdf. [Accessed: Nov. 18, 2016.]

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 10

GLOSSARY
2D Seismic Data: A vertical section of seismic data consisting of numerous adjacent traces
acquired sequentially.
4D Seismic Data: Three-dimensional (3D) seismic data acquired at different times over the same
area to assess changes in a producing hydrocarbon reservoir with time. Changes may be
observed in fluid location and saturation, pressure and temperature. 4D seismic data is one of
several forms of time-lapse seismic data. Such data can be acquired on the surface or in a
borehole.
Exploration: The initial phase in petroleum operations that includes generation of a prospect or
play or both, and drilling of an exploration well. Appraisal, development and production phases
follow successful exploration
Hydrocarbon: A naturally occurring organic compound comprising hydrogen and carbon.
Hydrocarbons can be as simple as methane [CH4], but many are highly complex molecules, and
can occur as gases, liquids or solids. The molecules can have the shape of chains, branching
chains, rings or other structures. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. The most
common hydrocarbons are natural gas, oil and coal.
Play: An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur. For
example, the shale gas plays in North America include the Barnett, Eagle Ford, Fayetteville,
Haynesville, Marcellus, and Woodford, among many others. Outside North America, shale gas
potential is being pursued in many parts of Europe, Africa, Asia, and South America.
Reservoir: A subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and permeability to store and
transmit fluids. Sedimentary rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because they have more
porosity than most igneous and metamorphic rocks and form under temperature conditions at
which hydrocarbons can be preserved. A reservoir is a critical component of a complete
petroleum system.
Seismic Refraction Method: A seismic acquisition method in which the incident and reflected
angles are critical. These refraction surveys can be useful for evaluating increasing velocity
gradients and locating features that have anomalously high velocities, such as a salt dome within
surrounding rocks of lower velocities.
Seismic Survey: A seismic data set measured and recorded regarding a area of the Earth's
surface, to evaluate the subsurface.
Shot holes: Small explosive charges in shallow holes in seismic surveying.
Upstream: Pertaining to equipment, facilities or systems located in the wellbore or production
train before the surface choke or Christmas tree.
Vibrator: An adjustable mechanical source that delivers vibratory seismic energy to the Earth
for acquisition of seismic data. Mounted on large trucks, vibrators are commonly used for
acquisition of onshore seismic data.
Definitions courtesy of Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary.
http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com

3D SEISMIC EXPLORATION AN, BOURGEOIS, HUNT, SALAZAR 11