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Topic 4. Vectors
Topic 4. Vectors
LECTURE NOTES
MATHEMATICS SL/HL
Dr Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 4
VECTORS
Only for HL
January 2017
TOPIC 4: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ DEFINITION
We distinguish two kinds of quantities in nature:
SCALARS vs VECTORS
(magnitude) (magnitude and direction)
examples: examples:
age
(28) length force
(4m)
velocity
(7N)
temperature
35m/sec)
(25oC)
r
a letter: u or two letters: AB
[A=tail, B=head]
r
u B
A
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TOPIC 4: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ EQUAL VECTORS
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction. Thus, two equal vectors must be parallel.
r r r
u u=v
r
v
A B AB = DC AD = BC
BA = CD DA = CB
D C
r r
♦ ADDITION OF VECTORS: u + v
In order to add two vectors we must place them one after the
other (head to tail)
r r
u v
r r
Then the sum u + v is given by the following shape
r
u r
v
r r
u+v
A AB + BC = AC
C
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TOPIC 4: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r
♦ THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
r r
u -u
It has the same magnitude but the opposite direction. Again, the
two vectors are parallel. It is more convenient to use the head and
tail notation
B
AB = −BA
A
NOTICE:
• From now on in the head and tail notation we will be writing
AB instead of AB as the direction from A to B is obvious.
• It is easy to verify that
r r r r
u + v = v +u (commutative law)
r r r r r r
u +( v + w ) = ( v +u )+ w (associative law)
• Head and tail notation helps to add several vectors even without
drawing them:
AB+CD+BC = AB+BC+CD = AD
AB-AC=AB+CA=CA+AB=CB
r r r r
• If |u |=5 and | v |=3 then | u + v | is not necessarily 8. It is expected
to be less than 8. Indeed, the triangle inequality gives
r
u r
v
r r r r r r
u+v |u + v | ≤ |u |+| v |
r r r r r r
Only if u and v have the same direction it holds: |u + v |=| u |+| v |
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TOPIC 4: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r
♦ MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR: ku
r r r
Instead of u +u we can write 2u .
r
u r
2u
r
In general, if k is any positive scalar (k ∈ R + ) the product ku is
r
defined as a new vector of the same direction and magnitude k| u |.
r
u r
ku
r
For k<0 the vector ku simply has the opposite direction.
r r
Thus for two vectors u and v
r r r r
u // v ⇔ u =k v for some k∈R
NOTICE:
It is easy to verify that
r r r r
k(u + v ) = k v +ku (distributive law)
r r r
(k+m) u = ku +m u (distributive law)
r r
k(m u ) = (km) u
r r
1u = u
r
0u = 0
k0 = 0
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TOPIC 4: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following cube
E H
F G
D C
A B
r r r
Let a =AB, b =AD c =AF.
r r r
Any other edge can be corresponded to a , b , c .
Namely,
r
a =AB=DC=FG=EH.
r
b =AD=BC=FE=GH
r
c =AF=BG=DE=CH
r r r
Can you express FC in terms of a , b and c ?
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TOPIC 4: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
If we can consider the Cartesian Plane, any vector on the plane can
be moved so as to start from the origin O.
B
A
Thus any vector on the plane can be written in the form OA.
b r A
u
O a
r a
We agree to denote the vector u =OA by
b
r a
We say that u =OA= is the position vector of the point A(a,b).
b
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TOPIC 4: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
r
Consider the following vector u and its equivalent vector OA.
r
4 A u
x
O
3
r 3
In practice, by a vector u = we imply that we are moving
4
3 units in the x-direction and
4 units in the y-direction
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ 2- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
r a
A vector u is a pair of numbers in column form: .
b
r a
A vector u = is represented on the Cartesian plane as an arrow
b
r
from the origin O to the point P(a,b). We say that u =OP is the
position vector of the point P.
b r P
u
O a
r r
The magnitude of a vector u is defined by |u |= a 2 + b 2
EXAMPLE 1
r 3 r - 3 r 1 r 0
Consider the vectors u = , v = , w = , r =
4 4 1 0
The corresponding magnitudes are
r r
|u |= 3 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5 | v |= (-3) 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5
r r
| w |= 1 2 + 1 2 = 2 |r |= 0 2 + 0 2 = 0
r r
♦ ADDITION OF VECTORS: u + v
r a1 r a2 r r a1 + a 2
If u = and v = then u + v =
b1 b2 b1 + b 2
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r
♦ THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
r a r - a
If u = then -u =
b - b
r a r ka
If k ∈ R (scalar) and u = then ku =
b kb
r r
If k>0, we say that u and ku have the same direction
r r
If k<0, we say that u and ku have the opposite direction
EXAMPLE 2
r 3 r 2
Consider the vectors u = , v = . Then
4 5
r r 3 2 5 r r 3 2 1 r r 2 3 -1
u + v = + = , u - v = + = , v -u = - =
4 5 9 4 5 -1 5 4 1
r 3 6 r 15 r - 9 r r - 3
2u =2 = , 5u = , -3u = , -1u =-u =
4
8 20 - 12 - 4
r r 3 2 6 6 12
2u +3 v =2 +3 = + =
4 5 8 15 23
NOTICE
r 3 r r 6 r
For u = , it is | u |=5. For 2 u = , |2u |= 6 2 + 82 = 100 =10.
4 8
r 1 r
Similarly, the magnitude of 10u is 50, the magnitude of u is 1.
5
r r
In general, the magnitude of k u is |k| times the magnitude of u ,
that is
r r
|ku |= |k|| u |
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
r 3 r 2
Consider the vectors u = , v = . Then
4 5
r r
|u |= 3 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5 | v |= 2 2 + 5 2 = 29
r r r
Since |u |= 5 , the vector a =4u has magnitude 20
r r
Since | v |= 29 , it is less obvious to find b . The general method is
to find the unit vector v̂ first (which has magnitude 1) and then
r
we multiply by the required legnth: b =20 v̂ = 20 v
r
29
r r r
♦ THE NOTATION u =a i +b j
r a r r r
A vector u = may also be written in the form u =a i +b j
b
r 1 r 0
where i = , j =
0 1
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r r r
♦ EXPLANATION FOR u =a i +b j
a
Notice that any vector on the x-axis has the form
0
0
any vector on the y-axis has the form
b
r 1
Especially, the unit vector on the x-axis is i =
0
r 0
the unit vector on the y-axis is j =
1
r 3 r 0
Consider for example the vectors u 1= , u 2=
0 4
r
r u
u2
r
j
r r
O i u1
r 3 r r r 3 3 0
Then u = can be written as u = u 1+u 2 [indeed, = + ]
4 4 0 4
r r r r r
But u 1=3 i and u 2=4 j , thus the vector u can be expressed as
r r r
u =3 i +4 j
In general,
a r r
= a i +b j
b
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r r
• For u + v
r 3 r 5 r r 8
Let u = and v = . Then u + v =
4 - 2 2
r r
Geometrically, let us draw u and v , starting from the origin, so
r r
that u and v are consecutive:
r
for u we are moving 3 units horizontally, 4 units vertically
r
for v we are moving 5 units horizontally, -2 units vertically
then we observe that
r r
for u + v we are moving 8 units horizontally 2 units vertically
r
v
r
u
r r
u+ v
O
r r
Hence, the geometric description of u + v that we have seen in
paragraph 4.1 keeps up with the algebraic description in this
paragraph.
r
• For ku
r a
If u = is a vector of magnitude m
b
r 2a
then clearly 2u = is a vector in
2b
the same direction with magnitude 2m
r
Again, the geometric and the algebraic definitions of 2u (and
r
ku in general) coincide!
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ 3- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
a
r r r r r
u = b or equivalently u =a i +b j +c k
c
r 1 r 0 r 0
where i = 0 , j = 1 , k = 0
0 0 1
z
r
u
y
c
r r b
k j
O
x
r a
i
r r
The magnitude of u is defined by |u |= a 2 + b 2 + c 2
r r r
All the other notions (eg u + v , k u , unit vector) are defined in an
analogue way!
EXAMPLE 4
1 2
r r
Consider the vectors u = 2 , v = 5 . Then
3 - 4
1 2 3 4 7
r r
• 3u +2 v =3 2 +2 5 = 6 + 10 = 16
3 - 4 9 - 8 1
r
• |u |= 1 2 + 2 2 + 32 = 14
1/ 14
r 1 r
• The unit vector corresponding to u is û= u = 2/ 14
|u|
3/ 14
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
2D 3D
Points A(a1,a2) and B(b1,b2) A(a1,a2,a3) and B(b1,b2,b3)
a 1 + b1 a 2 + b 2 a 1 + b 1 a 2 + b 2 a 3 + b3
Mid-point M( , ) M( , , )
2 2 2 2 2
a1 b1
position vectors a1 b1
OA= , OB= OA= a 2 , OB= b 2
of A and B a2 b2 a
3 b3
b 1 a 1 b1 − a 1
b 1 a 1 b1 − a 1
vector AB - = b2 - a 2 = b2 − a 2
b a b − a
2 2 2 2
b 3 a 3 b3 − a 3
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the (b1 − a 1 ) 2 + (b 2 − a 2 ) 2 (b1 − a1 ) 2 + (b 2 − a 2 ) 2 + (b3 − a3 ) 2
magnitude |AB|
EXAMPLE 5
2D 3D
Points A(1,2) and B(3,4) A(1,2,3) and B(4,5,6)
5 7 9
Mid-point M(2,3) M( , , )
2 2 2
1 4
position vectors 1 3
OA= , OB= OA= 2 , OB= 5
of A and B 2 4 3 6
4 1 3
3 1 2
vector AB - = 5 - 2 = 3
4 2 2 6 3 3
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the 22 + 22 = 8 3 2 + 3 2 + 3 2 = 27
magnitude |AB|
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
θ r
u
r r
The dot product (or scalar product) of u and v is defined to be a
number given by
r r r r
u . v =|u || v |cosθ
r r
For example, if u and v are vectors of magnitudes 5 and 4
respectively and the angle between them is θ=600 then
r r r r
u . v =|u || v |cosθ=(5).(4).(0.5) = 10
Thus, the dot product can take any value between the minimum
r r r r
value -|u || v | and the maximum value |u || v |
r r r
In particular, the product u . u is denoted by u 2. Since the angle
r r r r
between u and itself is 0, u 2 is equal to |u ||u |, hence
r r
u 2=|u |2
1 0
Notice that for the unit vectors i= and j= it holds
0 1
i2= 1 , j2=1, i.j= 0 and j.i=0
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r 2 r 5 r r
For example, if u = and v = then u. v =2.5+3.4=22
3 4
♦ BASIC PROPERTIES
It can be shown that the dot product satisfies the following basic
rules:
r r r r
o u. v = v .u (commutative law)
r r r r r r r
o u .( v 1 + v 2 )= u . v 1 + u . v 2 (distributive law)
r r r r r r
o k(u . v )=(ku ). v = u . (k v )
r r
Hence, if we are given two vectors u and v , we can easily calculate
r r r r
| u | , | v | and the dot product u. v by using the “pretty” definition
and the formula above gives the angle θ.
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
r 3 r 1
Consider the vectors u = , v = .
4 - 2
Find
a) their magnitudes
r r
b) their dot product u. v
c) the angle θ between them
We have
r r
a) | u | = 5, | v | = 5
r r
b) u. v = 3.1+4.(-2)=-5
r r
u⋅v −5 1
c) cosθ = r r = =− , and the GDC gives θ=116.560
| u || v | 5 5 5
The dot product is a nice tool to verify whether two vectors are
perpendicular or not:
r r r r (perpendicular vectors)
u ⊥ v ⇔ u. v =0
r r r r
u// v ⇔ u=k v for some k∈R (parallel vectors)
EXAMPLE 2
r 3 r 4
a) Show that u = , v = are perpendicular
4 - 3
r 2
b) Find some perpendicular vectors to the vector u =
5
Solution
r r r r
a) u. v =3.4+4.(-3)= 0, hence u ⊥ v . Indeed, look at the following
diagram
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r 3
u =
4
r 4
v =
- 3
b - b r a
b) In general both and are perpendicular to u = since
-a a b
the dot product for both pairs is a.b-ab=0.
r 2
Thus, some perpendicular vectors to u = are the following
5
5 10 15 − 5 - 10 - 15
, , and , ,
- 2 - 4 - 6 2 4 6
EXAMPLE 3
r 3 r x
Let u = . Find the value of x if v = is
4 - 6
r r
a) perpendicular to u b) parallel to u
Solution
r r r r
a) u ⊥ v ⇔ u. v = 0 ⇔ 3x+4(-6)=0 ⇔ 3x=24 ⇔ x=8
r r 3 x
b) u// v ⇔ =λ for some λ.
4 - 6
But it is more practical to say that the ratios of the corresponding
coordinates are equal:
x −6
=
3 4
9
Therefore, x=-
2
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r r
♦ THE PROPERTY |u |2= u 2
EXAMPLE 4
r r r r r r
For two non-zero vectors u and v it holds | u+ v |=| u- v |. Show
r r
that u and v are perpendicular.
r r r r r r r r
| u+ v |=| u- v | ⇒ | u+ v |2=| u- v |2 [just squaring]
r r 2 r r 2 r r
⇒ ( u+ v ) =( u- v ) [property |u |2=u 2]
r r r r r r r r
⇒ u2+2 u. v + v 2= u2-2 u. v + v 2
r r r r r r
⇒ 4 u. v =0 ⇒ u. v =0 ⇒ u ⊥ v
♦ 3D VECTORS
a a2
r 1 r
For two vectors u = b1 and v = b 2 the dot product is given by
c
1 c2
r r
u. v =a1a2+b1b2+c1c2
EXAMPLE 5
4 5
r r
Show that u = 2 , v = - 3 are perpendicular. Indeed
- 1 14
r r r r
u. v = 4.5+2(-3)+(-1)(14) = 0, thus u ⊥ v
EXAMPLE 6
1 1
r r
Find the angle between u = 1 and v = 2 . We have
1 3
r r
u⋅v 6
cosθ = r r = =0.926, hence θ=cos-1(0.926)= 22.20
| u || v | 3 ⋅ 14
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ VECTOR EQUATION
r a1
Let A(a1,a2) be a point with position vector a =
a2
r b
1
b = be a vector
b2
r
There is a unique line passing through A which is parallel to b .
A(a1,a2)
r b
1
b =
b2
r x
The position vector r = of the random point P(x,y) in this line is
y
given by
r r r
or x a 1 b1
r = a +λ b = +λ
y a 2 b2
where λ is a parameter.
♦ SHORT EXPLANATION
r x
r =
r a1 y
a = P
a2
A r b
1
b =
b2
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
x a 1 b1 x=a1+λb1
= +λ gives
y a 2 b2 y=a2+λb2
♦ CARTESIAN EQUATION
x − a1 y − a2
If we solve both equations for λ we get λ= and λ= .
b1 b2
Therefore, the relation between the parameters x,y is
x − a1 y − a 2
=
b1 b2
EXAMPLE 1
r 3
Let A(1,2) be the given point and b = be the direction vector.
4
r
Then the line passing through A, parallel to b is
r 1 3 x 1 3
Vector equation: r = +λ or = +λ
2 4 y 2 4
Parametric equations: x=1+3λ
y=2+4λ
Now solve for λ and get
x −1 y−2
Cartesian equation: =
3 4
ax+by=c or y=mx+c
4 2
If we solve for y we obtain the traditional form: y= x+
3 3
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
x 1 3
Let us consider again the equation = +λ
y 2 4
r 3
It is the line which is parallel to b = and passes through A(1,2).
4
1 3
(the given one) (the given one)
2 4
4 6
(for λ=1)
6 8
7 9 3
(for λ=2) multiples of
10 12 4
- 2 - 3
(for λ=-1)
- 2 - 4
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Find the line which passes through A(1,2) and B(4,7)
r 1 r 4- 1 3
We consider a = and b =AB= =
2 7 - 2 5
Hence, the line is
r 1 3
r = +λ
2 5
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the line y=3x+2. Find a vector equation of the line.
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r
L1 b2
P
θ
r
b1
L2
Methodology:
r r
• set r1 = r2 ,
• find λ (or µ),
Substitute to L1 (or L2) to find the point.
EXAMPLE 5
Find the intersection point of the lines
r 1 3 r 2 1
r1 = +λ and r2 = +µ
2 4 - 2 4
r r 1 + 3λ 2 + µ 3λ − µ = 1 3λ − µ = 1
r1 = r2 ⇔ =
- 2 + 4µ ⇔ ⇔
2 + 4λ 4λ − 4µ = −4 λ − µ = −1
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 6
Find the angle between the lines
r 1 3 r 2 1
r1 = +λ and r2 = +µ
2 4 - 2 4
r 3 r 1
It suffices to find the angle between u= , and v =
4 4
We have
r r
a) | u | = 5, | v | = 17
r r
b) u. v = 3.1+4.4=19
r r
u⋅v 19
c) cosθ = r r = =0.922, and the GDC gives θ=22.80
| u || v | 5 17
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
Suppose that a body is moving according to the equation
r 1 3
r = +t
2 4
where time is measured in seconds and distance in meters.
r 3
The velocity vector is v =
4
r
The speed is | v |= 3 2 + 4 2 =5 m/sec
NOTICE
r r r r
If r = a +λ b is an equation of line, the direction vector b can be
r
substituted by any multiple of b .
r r r r
If r = a +t b is an equation of motion, the velocity vector b CANNOT
r
be substituted by a multiple of b .
This is because the velocity vector corresponds to one unit of time t.
To explain the difference, consider the following situations:
• Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 1
second at position B(5,8). Then
r 4 r 1 4
velocity vector: v =AB= , equation of motion: r = +t
6 2 6
• Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 2
r 4
seconds at position B(5,8). Then the direction vector b =AB=
6
corresponds to 2 seconds, hence
r 1 r 2 r 1 2
Velocity vector: v = b = , equation of motion: r = +t
2 3 2 3
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
x=1+4λ
parametric equations:
y=2+5λ
z=3+6λ
x −1 y−2 z −3
Cartesian equations*: = =
4 5 6
The rest analysis is similar! Let us find for example the line which
passes through two given points:
EXAMPLE 1
Find the line which passes through A(1,2,3) and B(5,2,-1)
Does the point C(21,2,-17) lie on the line?
1 5 - 1 4
r r
We consider a = 2 and b =AB= 2 - 2 = 0
3 - 1- 3 - 4
* We just solve the parametric equations for λ and equate the results
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
Methodology:
r r
• If b1 // b 2 the lines are parallel (moreover, if they have a
common point they coincide); otherwise
r r
• Set r1 = r2 . We obtain a system of 3 equations for λ and µ
• Consider the first two equations and find λ and µ,
• If λ and µ satisfy the third equation the lines intersect;
substitute λ to L1 (or µ to L2) to find the point
• If λ and µ do not satisfy the third equation the lines are skew
(nether parallel nor intersecting)
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Find the intersection point of the lines:
1 3 1 6
r r
a) r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 1 +µ 8
3 5 1 10
1 3 7 6
r r
b) r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 10 +µ 8
3 5 13 10
1 3 1 2
r r
c) r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 4 +µ 2
3 5 4 3
1 3 1 2
r r
d) r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 4 +µ 2
3 5 4 2
We have
6 3
a) the lines are parallel since 8 =2 4 . Since (1,2,3) does not
10 5
lie on the second line (it does not satisfy the equation) the
lines are not identical.
6 3
b) the lines are parallel since 8 =2 4 . Since (1,2,3) lies on
10 5
the second line (it satisfies the equation for µ=-1) the lines
coincide.
1 + 3λ 1 + 2µ 3λ − 2µ = 0
r r
c) r1 = r2 ⇔ 2 + 4λ = 4 + 2µ ⇔ 4λ − 2µ = 2
5λ − 3µ = 1
3 + 5λ 4 + 3µ
The first two equations give λ=2, µ=3. These values satisfy the
third equation 5λ-3µ=1, so the lines intersect. For λ=2 the first
7
r
equation line gives r1 = 10 . Thus the point is (7,10,13).
13
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
1 + 3λ 1 + 2µ 3λ − 2µ = 0
r r
d) r1 = r2 ⇔ 2 + 4λ = 4 + 2µ ⇔ 4λ − 2µ = 2
5λ − 2µ = 1
3 + 5λ 4 + 2µ
The first two equations give λ=2, µ=3. These values do not
satisfy the third equation 5λ-2µ=1, so the lines are skew.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the angle between the lines
1 3 1 2
r r
r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 4 +µ 2
3 5 4 3
We have seen that the lines intersect (exercise 2c above). It suffices
3 2
r r
to find the angle between u= 4 , and v = 2
5 3
We have
r r r r
a) u. v = 3.2+4.2+5.3=29 b) | u | = 50 5, | v | = 17
r r
u⋅v 29
c) cosθ = r r = = 0.995, and the GDC gives θ=5.730
| u || v | 50 17
EXAMPLE 4
Show that the following lines are perpendicular
1 3 1 - 4
r r
r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 4 +µ 3
3 5 4 0
The dot product of the direction vectors is 3(-4)+4.3+5.0 = 0.
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
ONLY FOR
HL
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r r
u v
r
n
r r r r
That is, u × v is a new vector perpendicular to both u and v (and
r r r r
so to the plane determined by u and v ) with magnitude |u || v |sinθ
r
and direction n .
r
r r u
u× v
r r
v v
r
u r r
u× v
r r r r
u × v = -v × u
r r
†
If we place a screw at the common starting point of u and v and rotate it
r r r
form u to v , then the screw will move in the direction of n .
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
a1 a2
r r
Let u = b1 and v = b 2 be two vectors. The cross product (or
c
1 c2
r r
vector product) of u and v is given by
b1 c 2 − b 2 c 1
r r
u × v = c1 a 2 − c 2 a 1
a b − a b
1 2 2 1
a 1 a 2 b1 c 2 − b 2 c 1
b1 × b 2 =
c
1 c2
Then you carry on in a similar way for the 2nd and the 3rd row.
Mind though the order of the operations for the three rows:
NOTICE
For those who know determinants, the definition can be given in
the form
r r r
i j k
r r
u × v = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
r r b c1 r a 1 c1 r a 1 b1 r
u× v = 1 i − j+ k
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
1 4
r r
Let u = 2 and v = 5 . Then
3 6
r. r
a) find u v ,
r r r r
b) find u × v and v × u (by using the “pretty” definition)
r r r r
c) verify that u × v is perpendicular to both u and v
r r
a) u . v = 4+10+18=32
1 4 12 - 15 - 3
r r
b) u × v = 2 × 5 = 12 - 6 = 6
3 6 5 - 8 - 3
4 1 15 - 12 3
r r r r r r
v × u = 5 × 2 = 6- 12 = - 6 . That is v × u = -u × v
6 3 8- 5 3
r r r r r r
c) u × v ⊥ u and u× v ⊥ v
-3 1 -3 4
since 6 ⋅ 2 =-3+12-9 = 0, 6 ⋅ 5 =-12 +30-18 = 0
-3 3 -3 6
EXAMPLE 2
3 1
r r
Let u = 2 and v = 4 . Then
0 0
r r
a) find u × v by using the “pretty” definition
r r
b) find the angle θ between u and v
r
c) find the unit vector n .
r r
d) find u × v by using the “ugly” definition
r r r r
e) verify that u × v is perpendicular to both u and v
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
3 1 0
r r
a) u × v = 2 × 4 = 0
0 0 10
r r
u⋅v 11
b) cosθ= r r = = 0.74, hence θ = 42.27ο
| u || v | 13 17
r r r
c) both vectors u and v are on the plane Oxy so the unit vector n
r r r
is parallel to axis Oz (if we draw u and v we will realize n is in
the positive direction so
0
r
n =0
1
0
r r r r r r r
d) u × v = (| u || v |sinθ) n = ( 13 17 sin42.3ο ) n = 10 n = 0
10
r r r r
e) clearly u × v is parallel to n and thus perpendicular to both u
r
and v .
r r
♦ THE MAGNITUDE | u × v |
r r r r r
Notice that the ugly definition u × v = (|u || v |sinθ) n implies
r r r r
|u × v | = | u || v |sinθ
r
since n is a unit vector.
r r
But, if we consider the triangle determined by u and v
r
v
θ r
u
1 r r
we know that its area is given by |u || v |sinθ.
2
Therefore, the area of this triangle is given by
1 r r
Area of triangle = |u × v |
2
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r r
In other words, the magnitude of the cross product u × v gives
r r
directly the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v
r
v
r
u
r r
Area of parallelogram = |u × v |
EXAMPLE 3
1 4 - 3
r r r r
For u = 2 and v = 5 , we have seen that u × v = 6
3 6 - 3
r r
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v is
given by
r r
Area = |u × v | = 9 + 36 + 9 = 7.35
1
Also, the area of the corresponding triangle is (7.35)=3.67
2
EXAMPLE 4
Find the area of the triangle determined by the three points
A(1,1,1), B(1,3,1) and (-3,3,4)
A C
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ VECTOR EQUATION
a1
r
Given: Point A(a1,a2,a3) (the position vector is a = a 2 )
a
3
b c1
r 1 r
Two vectors b = b 2 , c = c 2 (which are non-parallel)
c
b3 3
r r
There is a unique plane passing through A, parallel to both b and c
P(x,y,z)
A
r
c
r
b
x
r
The position vector r = y of any point P(x,y,z) of this plane is
z
given by
r r r r
r = a +λ b +µ c
or
a 1 b1 c1
r
r = a 2 +λ b 2 +µ c 2
a c
3 b3 3
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ SHORT EXPLANATION
If P(x,y,z) is any point on the plane then AP lies in fact on the
r r
plane determined by b and c : ‡
r
c P
A r
b
Hence
r r
AP = λ b +µ c (for some λ,µ).
Then, the position vector of P is given by
r r r r
r =OP=OA+AP= a +λ b +µ c
♦ PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
x a 1 b1 c1 x=a1+λb1+µc1
y = a 2 +λ b 2 +µ c 2 gives y=a2+λb2+µc2
z a c
3 b3 3 z=a3+λb3+µc3
♦ CARTESIAN EQUATION
If we eliminate λ and µ we will obtain an equation of the form
Ax+By+Cz=D
r r
‡ Since b and c may be moved parallelly and placed on the plane in question
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,2,3) be the given point
4 7
r r
b = 5 and c = 8 be the parallel vectors
6 8
r r
Then the plane passing through A, parallel to b and c is
Vector equation: 1 4 7
r
r = 2 +λ 5 +µ 8
3 6 8
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
r
n
P
A
r
Indeed, if P(x,y,z) is a random point of the plane then AP ⊥ n
r r
But AP =OP-OA=r - a , and so
r r r r r r r r r r r r
AP . n =0 ⇒ (r - a ). n =0 ⇒ r . n - a . n =0 ⇒ r . n = a . n
NOTICE
The equation
r r r r
r .n =a.n
derives the form
Ax+By+Cz=D
x Α
r r
Indeed, r n = y Β = Ax+By+Cz
z C
a1 Α
r r
while a n = a 2 Β is a constant scalar, say D
a C
3
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of the plane passing through A(1,2,3) which is
8
r
perpendicular to n = - 10 (normal vector)
3
r. r r. r
The equation r n = a n implies
x 8 1 8
y - 10 = 2 - 10
z 3 3 3
and so
8x-10y+3z =8-20+9 or finally 8x-10y+3z =-3
NOTICE
In examples 1 and 2 we obtained the same plane: 8x-10y+3z =-3
We had:
1 4
r 7
r r
EXAMPLE 1: Point: a = 2 Parallel vectors: b = 5 and c = 8
3 6 8
1 8
r r
EXAMPLE 2: Point: a = 2 Normal vector: n = - 10
3 3
r r r
Indeed, if we consider as a normal vector the vector n = b × c
r r
(which is ⊥ b , c hence perpendicular to the plane)
we obtain
4 7 8
r
n = 5 × 8 = - 10
6 8 3
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
If we know the Cartesian form Ax+By+Cz=D
Α
r
we also know a normal vector of the equation. It is n = Β
C
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the plane
3x-2y+z = 6
r
a) Find a normal vector n
b) Find three points on the plane
r r
c) Find two vectors b and c parallel to the plane
r r r r
d) Confirm that n ⊥ b and n ⊥ c
e) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
3
r
a) n = - 2
1
b) For y=z=0 it is x=2, thus we obtain the point A(2,0,0).
Similarly we obtain the points B(0,-3,0) and C(0,0,6)
0 2 - 2 0 2 - 2
r r
c) Let b =AB= - 3 - 0 = - 3 and c =AC= 0 - 0 = 0
0 0 0 6 0 6
r.r r .r
d) We can easily see that n b =-6+6 = 0 and n c =-6+6 = 0
2 - 2 - 2
r r r r r
e) Vector form: r = a +λ b +µ c or r = 0 +λ - 3 +µ 0
0 0 6
Parametric form: x=2-2λ-2µ, y=-3λ, z=6µ
r r r r
Normal form: r .n =a.n
Cartesian form: 3x-2y+z = 6
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the plane
3 1 5
r
r = 1 +λ 2 +µ 0
2 3 2
r r
a) Find two parallel vectors b and c
b) Find three points on the plane
r
c) Find a normal vector n
d) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
1 5 4
r r r
c) Let n = b × c = 2 × 0 = 13
3 2 -10
3 1 5
r r r r r
d) Vector form: r = a +λ b +µ c or r = 1 +λ 2 +µ 0
2 3 2
r r r r
Normal form: r .n =a.n
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ TWO LINES
r r r
Given: Lines L1: r1 = a1 +λ b1
r r r
L2: r2 = a 2 +µ b 2
r r
parallel Check if b1 // b 2
r r
Check if b1 // b 2
coincide
+ a common point
r r
Intersect r1 = r2
at some point has a solution
r r
r1 = r2
skew
has no solution
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
Notice: if the line and the plane are given in other forms, we
r r r
transform them into the forms L: r1 = a +λ b and Π: Ax+By+Cz=D
EXAMPLE 1
1 4
r
Consider the line L: r1 = 2 +λ 5 and the plane Π: 2x+5y-3z=18
3 6
Find the the angle between L and Π and the point of intersection.
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
1 4
r
Show that line L: r1 = 2 +λ 5 is parallel to plane Π: 2x+2y-3z=1
3 6
4 2
r r
Method A: If b = 5 and n = 2 , then
6 - 3
r r r r
b ⋅ n =0 ⇒ b ⊥ n ⇒ L //Π
The point (1,2,3) of the line does not satisfy 2x+2y-3z = 1, hence
the line does not lie on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=1:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=1 ⇔ 0λ=4
EXAMPLE 3
1 4
r
Show that line L: r1 = 2 +λ 5 lies on plane Π: 2x+2y-3z = -3
3 6
r r r r
Method A: Again b ⋅ n =0 ⇒ b ⊥ n ⇒ L //Π
But this time, the point (1,2,3) of the line satisfies the equation
2x+2y-3z = -3, hence the line lies on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=-3:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=-3 ⇔ 0λ=0
The last equation is true for any λ, so the line lies on the plane.
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ TWO PLANES
Α
r 1
Given: Planes Π1: A1x+B1y+C1z=D1 so n 1 = Β1
C
1
Α2
r
Π2: A2x+B2y+C2z=D2 so n 2 = Β2
C
2
Planes Look like Method
r Find two common points
n2
r and thus the line
n1
intersecting or
r
into a line one common point a and
r r r r r r
r = a +λ b direction vector b = n 1 × n 2
or
solve simultaneous equations
r r
parallel Check if n 1 // n 2
r r
Check if n 1 // n 2
+
coincide
The equations are
multiple to each other
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the planes
x+2y+3z=6
4x+5y+6z=15
Find the angle between the two planes and the line of intersection.
r r
n1 ⋅ n 2 32
For the angle: cosθ= r r = ⇒ θ=12.93ο
| n 1 || n 2 | 14 77
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
The two points A,B determine the equation of the intersecting line
0 1
r
r = 3 +λ - 2
0 1
Method Β: We find only one common point, say A(0,3,0) and as a
1 4 - 3 1
r r
direction vector we consider n 1 × n 2 = 2 × 5 = 6 which is // - 2
3 6 - 3 1
Method C: We solve the system of the two linear equations (GDC or
Gauss elimination). The general solution is x = λ, y = 3 − 2λ , z = λ .
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10
2x+4y+6z=30
1 2
Their normal vectors 2 and 4 are clearly parallel.
3 6
Moreover, the two planes do not have a common point (since one
equation is not a multiple of the other).
EXAMPLE 6
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10 and 2x+4y+6z=20
The two planes coincide (one is a multiple of the other)
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
♦ THREE PLANES
Given: Planes A1x+B1y+C1z=D1
A2x+B2y+C2z=D2
A3x+B3y+C3z=D3
SYSTEM CONCLUSION
No common point:
No solution The planes form a triangular prism
or 2 of the planes are parallel
EXAMPLE 7
14 16
r
The solution represents the line r = - 5 +λ 7 .
0 1
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
A(1,2,3) B(5,7,9)
A(1,2,3)
b
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
3 4 + 3λ 3
AP ⊥ L ⇔ AP ⊥ 2 ⇔ 5 + 2λ ⊥ 2
1 1
6 + λ
⇔ 3(4+3λ)+2(5+2λ)+(6+λ)=0
⇔ 14λ=-28
⇔ λ=-2
d(A,P)= (1 + 1) 2 + (2 − 3) 2 + (3- 7) 2 = 21
Consider
1 6 5 3
r r
Line L1: r = 2 +µ 4 and line L2: r = 7 +λ 2
3 2 9 1
The lines are clearly parallel.
A(1,2,3)
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
Consider
1 4 5 3
r r
Line L1: r = 2 +µ 5 and line L2: r = 7 +λ 2
3 0 9 1
It is given that the lines are skew
b1 P(1+4µ,2+5µ,3)
b2 Q(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
4 + 3λ - 4µ
We first find foots P and Q. Notice that PQ= 5 + 2λ - 5µ
6 + λ
4 + 3λ - 4µ 4
a) PQ ⊥ L1 ⇔ 5 + 2λ - 5µ ⊥ 5
0
6 + λ
⇔ 4(4+3λ-4µ)+5(5+2λ-5µ)+0(6+λ)=0
⇔ 22λ-41µ=-41
4 + 3λ - 4µ 3
b) PQ ⊥ L2 ⇔ 5 + 2λ - 5µ ⊥ 2
1
6 + λ
⇔ 3(4+3λ-4µ)+2(5+2λ-5µ)+(6+λ)=0
⇔ 14λ-22µ=-28
41 7
The system gives λ= − , and µ= −
15 15
13 1 16 23 94
Hence we find P( − , − ,3) and Q( − , , )
15 3 5 15 15
and hence we can find the distance |PQ|.
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
A(3,4,6)
r
n
P
d(A,P)= (3- 1) 2 + (4 - 1) 2 + (6 - 1) 2 = 38
A(3,4,6)
r
n
P
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TOPIC 5: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
We just find a point of plane Π1: for x=y=0, z=2, hence A(0,0,2)
Then we find the distance of point A from plane Π2
(as in case D above).
d(A,P)= (2 - 0) 2 + (3- 0) 2 + (7 - 2) 2 = 38
55