Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition

Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.;

and Bruce E. Bursten

Chapter 12
Modern Materials
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
St. Peters, MO Modern
Materials
 2006, Prentice Hall, Inc.
Types of Materials

Recall that atomic

orbitals mix to give
rise to molecular
orbitals.

Modern
Materials
 Types of Materials

As the number of
atoms grows, so
does the number of
molecular orbitals.

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Materials
 Types of Materials

In such compounds,
the energy gap
between molecular
orbitals essentially
disappears, and
continuous bands of
energy states result.

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Materials
Types of Materials
Rather than molecular orbitals
separated by an energy gap,
these substances have energy
bands.

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Materials
Types of Materials
The gap between bands
determines whether a
substance is a metal, a
semiconductor, or an insulator.

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Materials
Types of Materials

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Materials
 Metals

Valence electrons
are in a partially
filled band.

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Materials
 Metals

• There is virtually no
energy needed for
an electron to go
from the lower,
occupied part of the
band to the higher,
unoccupied part.
• This is how a metal
conducts electricity.
Modern
Materials
Semiconductors

Semiconductors have a
gap between the valence
band and conduction
band of ~50 to 300 J/mol

Modern
Materials
Semiconductors
• Among elements, only silicon,
germanium, and graphite
(carbon), all of which have 4
valence electrons, are
semiconductors.
• Inorganic semiconductors (like
GaAs) tend to have an
average of 4 valence electrons
(3 for Ga, 5 for As).

Modern
Materials
 Doping

By introducing very
small amounts of
impurities that have
more (n-type) or fewer
(p-type) valence
electrons, one can
increase the
conductivity of a
semiconductor.
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Materials
Insulators

• The energy band

gap in insulating
materials is
generally greater
than ~350 kJ/mol.
• They are not
conductive.

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Materials
 Ceramics
• They are inorganic solids, usually hard and brittle.
• Highly resistant to heat, corrosion, and wear.
 Ceramics do not deform under stress.
 They are much less dense than metals, and so are
used in their place in many high-temperature
applications.

Modern
Materials
 Superconductors

At very low
temperatures, some
substances lose
virtually all
resistance to the
flow of electrons.

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Materials
Superconductors

Much research has

been done recently
into the development
of high-temperature
superconductors.

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Materials
 Superconductors
The development of
higher and higher
temperature
superconductors will have
a tremendous impact on
modern culture.

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Materials
 Polymers

Molecules of high molecular mass made by

sequentially bonding repeating units called
monomers.

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Materials
Some Common Polymers

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Materials
 Addition Polymers

Made by coupling the monomers by

converting -bonds within each monomer to
-bonds between monomers.

Ethylene Polyethylene

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Materials
 Condensation Polymers:

• Made by joining two subunits through a

reaction in which a smaller molecule (often
water) is also formed as a by-product.
• These are also called copolymers.

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Materials
Synthesis of Nylon

Nylon is one
example of a
condensation
polymer.

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Materials
 Properties of Polymers

Interactions
between chains of a
polymer lend
elements of order to
the structure of
polymers.

Modern
Materials
 Properties of Polymers

Stretching the polymer chains as they form

can increase the amount of order, leading to
a degree of crystallinity of the polymer.

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Materials
Properties of Polymers

Such differences in
crystallinity can lead
to polymers of the
same substance
that have very
different physical
properties.

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Materials
 Cross-Linking
Chemically bonding
chains of polymers
to each other can
stiffen and
strengthen the
substance.

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Materials
 Cross-Linking

Naturally occurring rubber is too soft and

pliable for many applications.

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Materials
 Cross-Linking

In vulcanization, chains are cross-linked by

short chains of sulfur atoms, making the
rubber stronger and less susceptible to
degradation.
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Materials
 Ceramics

Made from a
suspension of metal
hydroxides (called a
sol)

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Materials
 Ceramics

These can undergo

condensation to
form a gelatinous
solid (gel), that is
heated to form a
metal oxide, like the
SiO2 shown here.

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Materials
Biomaterials
• Materials must
 Be biocompatible.
 Have certain physical
requirements.
 Have certain chemical
requirements.

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Materials
Biomaterials
• Biocompatibility
 Materials cannot cause
inflammatory
responses.

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Materials
Biomaterials
• Physical
Requirements
 Properties must mimic
the properties of the
“real” body part (e.g.,
flexibility, hardness,
etc.).

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Materials
Biomaterials
• Chemical
Requirements
 Cannot contain even
small amounts of
hazardous impurities.
 Cannot degrade into
harmful substances
over a long period of
time in the body.

Modern
Materials
 Biomaterials

• These substances
are used to make:
 Heart valves

Modern
Materials
 Biomaterials

• These substances
are used to make:
 Heart valves
 Vascular grafts

Modern
Materials
 Biomaterials

• These substances
are used to make:
 Heart valves
 Vascular grafts
 Artificial skin grafts

Modern
Materials
 Biomaterials

• These substances
are used to make:
 Heart valves
 Vascular grafts
 Artificial skin grafts
 “Smart” sutures

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Materials
Electronics

• Silicon is very
abundant, and is a
natural
semiconductor.
• This makes it a
perfect substrate for
transistors,
integrated circuits,
and chips.
Modern
Materials
 Electronics
In 2000, Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid, and
Hideki Shirakawa won a Nobel Prize for the
discovery of “organic semiconductors” like the
polyacetylene below.

H H H H H H H H H

C C C C C C C C C
C C C C C C C C C

H H H H H H H H H Modern
Materials
 Electronics

Noncrystalline
silicon panels can
convert visible light
into electrical
energy.

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Materials
Liquid Crystals
• Some substances do
not go directly from
the solid state to the
liquid state.
• In this intermediate
state, liquid crystals
have some traits of
solids and some of
liquids.

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Materials
 Liquid Crystals

Unlike liquids, molecules in liquid crystals

have some degree of order.

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Materials
 Liquid Crystals

In nematic liquid crystals, molecules are only

ordered in one dimension, along the long
axis.

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Materials
 Liquid Crystals

In smectic liquid crystals, molecules are

ordered in two dimensions, along the long
axis and in layers.

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Materials
 Liquid Crystals
In cholesteric liquid
crystals, nematic-
like crystals are
layered at angles to
each other.

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Materials
Liquid Crystals

These crystals can

exhibit color
changes with
changes in
temperature.

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Materials
Light-Emitting Diodes

In another type of
semiconductor, light
can be caused to be
emitted (LEDs).

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Materials
 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
• Organic light-emitting
diodes (OLEDs) are
lighter and more
flexible, and can be
brighter and more
energy efficient.
• Soon OLEDs may
replace incandescent
lights in some
applications.
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Materials
 Nanoparticles

Different-sized
particles of a
semiconductor (like
Cd3P2) can emit
different wavelengths
of light depending on
the size of the energy
gap between bands.

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Materials
Nanoparticles
Finely divided metals
can have quite different
properties than larger
samples of metals.

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Materials
 Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes
can be made with
metallic or
semiconducting
properties without
doping.

Modern
Materials