00_Pre-Class 1 - Preparation_Introduction to Materials Science

Alloyed steels = Legierungen

What is Materials Science?

“Materials science and engineering”
an interdisciplinary field
environment and climate change
biotechnology
healthcare
aerospace and transportation
materials efficiency
fundamental to all other science and engineering disciplines
studies and manipulates the composition and structure of materials across length scales to control materials properties through
processing:

Materials Science

Investigating the relationship among processing, structure, properties and performance of materials
What things are made of and why they behave the way they do

Materials Engineering
Designing/engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties
Shows us how to apply knowledge how to make better things and how to make things better

P rocessing → Structure → P roperties → P erf ormance

Example
The beverage container fabricated from three different material types:

1. aluminum (metal) cans,

2. glass (ceramic) bottles, and
3. plastic (polymer) bottles

Why study materials?

1. What is the right materials?
2. Is there any deterioration of material properties that may occur?
3. What will the finished product cost?

Classification of Materials
Natural materials
Advanced materials (more info)
high-performance materials
Composite materials

Materials
Classification of Materials
Metals and alloys (Metalle und Legierungen)
Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements
and often also nonmetallic elements
carbon,
nitrogen,
oxygen
Classification of metal alloys
ferrous alloys
 Ferrous is simply the Latin name for iron, so ferrous alloys are simply iron alloys (which means that it is mostly
iron mixed with lesser amounts of other metals or nonmetals)
nonferrous alloys
nonferrous alloys are non-iron alloys.
Characteristics of metals
resistant to fracture
good conductors (Leiter)
some have magnetic properties (Fe, Co, and Ni)
Polymers
consist of chains of joined individual molecules or monomers
all plastics are polymers, but not all polymers are plastics
Ceramics
inorganic non-metallic solid
made up of compounds (metal or non-metal)
have been shaped and hardened by heating to high tmeperatures
Traditional ceramics are clay-based
high-performance or advanced ceramics are being developed from a far wider range of inorganic non-metal materials.
Porcelain
Production process:
Quartz, Clay, Feldspar
Mix them + add water,
form it, then dry
fire! → Porcelain
Characteristics of Ceramics
stiff and strong
very hard
extreme brittleness
highly susceptible to fracture (leicht brechbar)
Newer ceramics have improve resistance to fracture
insulative to the passage of heat and electricity
more resistant to high temperature and harsh environments than metals and polymers
Color
transparent
translucent
opaque
Some oxide ceramics (F e 3 O4 ) exhibit magnetic behavior
Polymers
organic compounds
based on
carbon
hydrogen
other non-metallic elements (O, N, Si)
very large molecular structures
chainlike in nature
backbone of carbon atoms
Most common polymers
polyethylene (PE),
nylon,
poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC),
polystyrene (PS)
and silicone rubber.
Characteristics of Polymers
low densities
not as stiff or strong as metallics or ceramics
 Many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (plastic)
relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments
major drawback tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures
low electrical conductivities
nonmagnetic
Composites
multiphase material
metal
ceramic
polymer
artificially made
combination of two materials with different physical/chemical properties
improves properties of base material
Example: modern ski 🎿
Natural Materials
comes from plants, animals, ground
some minerals and metals also count as naturals
Classification
Biotic
wood (rattan, bamboo, bark, etc.)
natural fiber (silk, wool, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, kapok, kenaf)
Inorganic
stone (flint, granite, obsidian, sandstone, sand, gems, etc.)
native metal (copper, iron, gold, silver, etc.)
composites (clay, plasticine, etc.)
Other
soil
Advanced Materials
Definition: Materials utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed advanced materials.
Advanced materials are typically traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced and also newly developed, high-
performance materials.
Semiconductors
Biomaterials
Smart Materials
Shape-memory alloys
Piezoelectric ceramics
Magnetostrictive materials
Nanomaterials
Nanocarbons
Nanocomposites

Structure of Materials

Interatomic Bonding
A chemical bond is the physical phenomenon of chemical substances being held together by attraction of atoms to each other
through sharing, as well as exchanging, of electrons -or electrostatic forces.
They are acting like little springs between the atoms.
The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably.
There are primary and secondary bonds.
Primary Bonds: These are generally stronger and more fundamental types of bonds that play a central role in holding atoms
and molecules together
Covalent Bonds
Structure: giant covalent
Example: diamond
 Structure: simple molecular
Example: water
Ionic Bonds
Structure: Giant Ionic
Example: Sodium Chloride (Tafelsalz)
Metallic Bonds
Structure: Giant Metallic
Example: Iron
These primary bonds are typically responsible for the formation of stable compounds and structures.
Secondary Bonds: These are relatively weaker interactions that are important for various types of molecular interactions, but
they are not as strong or as fundamental as primary bonds.
Hydrogen Bonds
Van der Waals Forces (including dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonding)
Dative Bonds (Coordinate Covalent Bonds)
Pi Bonds (In the context of double and triple bonds)
Peptide Bonds (In the context of biological molecules like proteins)
Glycosidic Bonds (In the context of biological molecules like carbohydrates)
Secondary bonds are often critical in determining the physical properties, shapes, and behaviors of molecules, and they play
essential roles in biological systems, molecular interactions, and more.

Primary bonding

Ionic Bonds (metal + non-metal)

Made between metal and non-metal atoms.

Electrons are transferred from the metal atom to the non-metal atom.
Metal atoms lose electrons and form positive ions (cations).
Non-metal atoms gain electrons from negative ions (anions).
A structure is typically held together by ionic bonds when it involves the interaction between atoms of significantly different
electronegativities.
Difference of 1.7 on the Pauling Scale

Covalent Bonding (non-metal)

Formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons.

They are formed between atoms of non-metals (with exceptions).
Covalent bonding is directional and very strong.

Metallic Bonding (metals)

Is the attraction of a metallic cation for delocalized (valence) electrons.

The electrons are floating in a sea above the nuclei and can move freely from one atom to the next (Electron Sea Model).
Attractions between positive cations and the negative “Sea of electrons” hold the metal atoms together in a lattice.

Secondary bonding
Secondary bonds are weak in comparison to primary bonds.
They are found in most materials.

1. Van der Waals

Arises from the atomic/molecular dipoles (asymetric molecules)

Bonding is weak and directional

2. Hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen bonding is a weak secondary bond, which occurs from interaction and delocalisation of hydrogen electrons

Atomic bonding - Summary

Bonding in Materials

Crystal Structure
Why do matters show a different behavior?
What determines the mechanical and physical properties of a metal?

Atom Packing

Almost all metals and ceramics are made up entirely of small crystals (or grains-microstructure) in which atoms are packed in
regular, repeating, three-dimensional patterns.

In metals, the grains are formed during the solidification process when the material transitions from a molten state to a solid state.
Each grain is essentially a crystal with a specific arrangement of atoms held together by metallic bonds. The boundaries between
these grains are known as grain boundaries. The overall mechanical behavior of a metal depends on factors such as the size of the
grains, their orientation, and the distribution of defects within them.
2 different sequences for close packed stacking of atoms:

HCP: Hexagonal-Closed-Packed structure

FCC: Face-Centred-Cubic structure

Materials choose the crystal structure that gives minimum energy.

→ materials choose their crystal crib to be energy-efficient, just like you choose the coziest couch in the room.

Might be different depending on the temperature!

Crystal Structure

All metallic elements (except Cs, Ga, and Hg) are crystals/crystalline solids at room temperature.
Their atoms are arranged in a highly ordered periodic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.
The lattice is an ordered array of points describing the arrangement of particles that form a crystal.

Crystal Structure

A unit cell is the smallest portion of a crystal lattice.

It shows the three-dimensional pattern of the entire crystal.
A crystal can be thought of as the same unit cell repeated over and over in three dimensions.

The unit cell is described by the lattice constants:

a, b, c describe the lengths

α, β, γ describe the angles between the edges of the unit cell.

Crystal Systems

The structures of all crystals can be classified according to the symmetry of the unit cells (7 systems):
1. orthomorhobic
2. hexagonal
3. tetragonal
4. simply cubic
5. rhomohedral
6. monoclinic
7. triclinic
The symmetry of each group is described by the lattice parameters.

Bravais Lattices

Unit cells occur in many different varieties.

Crystalline materials fit into one of 14 recognized lattice arrangements (Bravais lattices) –grouped in *7 crystal systems
There are three Bravais lattices with a cubic symmetry:
primitive
body centered
face centered

Miller Indices

A shorth and notation to describe certain crystallographic directions and planes in a material.

Berechnung:

1. Zuerst die Längen der Vektoren

1. α = 3
2. β = 1
3. γ = 2
2. Dann die Kehrwerte
1. α = 1/3
2. β = 1/1
3. γ = 1/2
3. Dann auf gleichen Nenner bringen
 1. α = 1/3 * 6
2. β = 1/1 * 6
3. γ = 1/2 * 6
4. Das ergibt also:
1. α = 2
2. β = 6
3. γ = 3
5. Daraus folgt: hkl (263)

In the cubic system, a plane (hkl) and a direction [hkl] with the same indices are orthogonal.

Why Miller Indices?

Deformation under loading occurs on certain crystalline planes and in certain crystallographic directions.
Other properties of materials (electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, elastic modules) can vary in a crystal with orientation.

Slip Systems

Plastic deformation of a single crystal under a tensile stress occurs by slip on well-defined parallel crystal planes
Describes the set of symmetrically identical slip planes and associates family of slip directions for which dislocation motion can
easily occur and lead to plastic deformation.
Depending on the type of lattice, different slip systems are present in the
Slip (dislocation) occurs:
on close-packed planes (slip planes)
in slip directions
slip plane + slip direction = slip system

More info on slip systems:

One set of slip systems dominates the plastic deformation of a given material
Other slip systems might operate at high T or under high applied stress
Crystal structure and the interatomic bonding determine the slip systems

Crystal Defects

Crystallographic defects are interruptions of regular patterns in crystalline solids.

They are common because a crystal structure is usually imperfect.
The existence of a crystallographic defect affects the material properties.

Point defects

Point defects (0-dimensional defects) are localized disruptions at a single lattice point in the atomic arrangements in a crystal
structure.

Introduced by:

heating,
processing,
introduction of impurities

By manipulating factors such as temperature, cooling rate, and processing techniques, engineers can tailor the microstructure to
achieve desired properties for specific applications.

Types of point defects:

Vacancies
Substitutional defect
Interstitial defect

Vacancy Defects

A defect in which an atom is missing from one of the lattice sites is known as a "vacancy" defect.
 In a perfect crystal lattice, all lattice sites are occupied by atoms, and the arrangement is uniform and ordered. However, due to
various factors such as thermal energy, impurities, or external influences, atoms can occasionally move from their positions, leaving
behind a vacant site. This vacancy creates an imbalance in the structure and can affect properties like electrical conductivity,
diffusion rates, and mechanical properties.

Interstitial Defects

An interstitial defect is formed when a foreign (solute) atom is positioned in the crystal structure at a point that is normally
unoccupied.
In many cases, the solute atoms are less than half as small as the base metal.

Substitutional Defects

Substitutional defect occurs when the original atom in the lattice site of a crystalline solid is replaced by a different type of atom.
It can also have different size

Dislocations

Dislocations are line imperfections (1 dimensional defects) in an otherwise perfect crystal.

Introduced by: solidification or plastic deformation

useful in explaining deformation and strengthening in metallic materials

Substitutional Defects

The Burgers vector is a vector →b that represents the magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion resulting from a dislocation in a
crystal lattice.
The Burgers vector is determined by doing a loop around the dislocation line. Then an interatomic spacing is left (Burgers vector)
Large shear stress acting parallel to the Burgers vector is applied to a crystal containing a dislocation
Dislocation movement on a slip until it produces a step on the exterior of the crystal in the slip direction → plastic deformation of the
crystal

Grain boundaries

The microstructure of many materials consists of many grains.

A grain is a portion of the material within which the arrangement of the atoms is nearly identical;
but the orientation of the atom arrangement (crystal structure) is different for each adjoining grain.
A grain boundary is the surface that separates the individual grains, in which the atoms are not properly spaced.

1. Points: In the context of crystal lattices, "points" typically refer to the individual positions within the lattice that describe the locations
of particles or atoms that compose the crystal. These points are organized in a regular, repeating pattern to form the lattice
structure. Each point represents a specific position within the crystal lattice where an atom or particle is situated.
2. Unit Cell: A unit cell is a three-dimensional arrangement of multiple atoms or ions that repeats in a crystal lattice. It's essentially a
pattern that repeats throughout the crystal structure. The unit cell contains the information about the arrangement of atoms, their
spacing, and their orientations, which collectively define the crystal's overall properties and characteristics. A "unit cell" is the
smallest repeating structural unit within a crystal lattice that, when stacked together in three dimensions, forms the entire crystal
lattice. It's like a building block that, when repeated, generates the overall crystal structure. The properties of the unit cell dictate the
properties of the crystal. Crystal structures are often described in terms of their unit cells, which provide a simplified representation
of the repeating pattern of the crystal lattice.
3. Crystal lattice orientation: The crystal lattice is formed by the repetition of a unit cell in three dimensions. Each unit cell contains a
certain number of atoms or ions, and the way these unit cells are stacked or arranged determines the crystal lattice orientation.
4. Grain: A crystal is typically composed of multiple grains. Each grain is a distinct crystalline region with a consistent atomic
arrangement or crystal lattice orientation. These grains can have slightly different orientations, resulting in variations in properties
within the crystal.
5. Grain boundary: The boundaries between grains are known as grain boundaries. When a material undergoes solidification or
experiences changes in conditions during its formation, different grains with different lattice orientations can form. This is why you
might observe variations in material properties across different grains within the same material. Grain boundaries can have different
structures and properties compared to the interior of the grains, and they can influence how the material responds to mechanical,
 thermal, and electrical conditions. The overall behavior of a crystal is influenced by the arrangement, size, and distribution of these
individual grains and their boundaries.

SUMMARY:

In a crystalline material, atoms are arranged in a repeating pattern within unit cells, which collectively form grains with distinct structural
arrangements and contribute to the material's properties through interactions at specific points.

Precipitates

= phase transformations induced by heat treatments

Impurities can cluster together to form small regions of a different phase. These are often called precipitates.
Precipitation hardening (done in 2 stages) is a method that makes use of heat application to a pliable material, like metal alloy, to
make it tougher. This technique gives strength to alloys by hardening them and adding fine, solid impurities known as precipitates.
1. Solution heat treatment
2. Precipitation heat treatment
Material is reheated to allow transformation of materials
Precipitates are solid materials that form within a liquid or gas phase of a material, often in the form of small particles or crystals,
due to chemical reactions or phase separation.

Plastic deformation

Plastic deformation of metals is primarily the result of movement of dislocations…

What if we interfere this movement/hinder their motion?
→ the material can be strengthened!

Strengthening of a metal

By the controlled creation of internal defects and boundaries a material can be strengthened, as dislocation movement is
hindered.

How to hinder the motion of dislocation?

Processing (plastic deformation)

Heat treatments
Alloying

To hinder the motion of dislocations and thus strengthen a material, several methods and techniques can be employed:

Vacancy loops
Big precipitates(~30nm)
Grain boundaries
Dislocation entanglement during plastic deformation
Impurity/alloying atoms
The ability of a metal to deform plastically depends on the ability of dislocations to move.
The strength of a metal is related to how easily a metal plastically deforms, so, by reducing dislocation movement, the mechanical
strength can be improved.

Most important strengthening mechanisms in metals:

Grain boundary strengthening (Hall–Petch strengthening)

Precipitation hardening
Vacancy agglomeration hardening
Work hardening (strain hardening)
Solid solution strengthening and alloying

Recovery, recrystallization and grain growth

Recovery

Softening of the metal through removal of dislocations and internal stresses

 Occurs at the lower T stage
No change of grain size and shape

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Effect-of-annealing-temperature-on-recovery-recrystallization-and-grain-growth-of-
a_fig36_331497160

Recrystallization

New strain-free grains nucleate and grow to replace those deformed

Graingrowth

Micro structure starts to coarsen

Grain growth in material science refers to the process by which the individual grains within a polycrystalline material increase in size
over time.
This phenomenon typically occurs under certain conditions, and it has important implications for the material's properties.

Precipitation hardening

Strengthening a metal by introducing small particles of another phase which barriers dislocation motion is called precipitation
hardening.

2 main types of mechanisms:

1. Kelly-Fine mechanism: Cutting through when the precipitates are too small < 5nm
2. Orowan mechanism: Bowing and by pass when precipitates are large (>30nm)

Maximum hardness is achieved if the precipitates can resist cutting by dislocations, an are too close to permit by-passing of
dislocations.

Coherent/incoherent precipitates

Particle is coherent → mainly sheared by the dislocation

The crystal structure and atomic arrangement of a coherent precipitate have a continuous relationship with the surrounding
matrix.
 Particle is incoherent → mainly bow-out by the Orowan mechanism
A noncoherent precipitate has no relationship with the crystal structure of the surrounding matrix.

Stages of Precipitation Hardening

Steps in Precipitation Hardening:

1. Solution heat treatment:

all solute atoms form a single-phase solid solution

→ supersaturated solid solution
→ quenching

2. Ageing:
intermediate T
→ forming of finely dispersed particles

Overaging

With increasing time, the strength or hardness increases, reaches a maximum, and finally diminishes (overaging)

Overview
Variety of methods are used in industries to strengthen metal:

Grain-boundary strengthening: Strengthening materials by changing their average grain size.

Solid solution strengthening and Alloying: used to improve the Strength of a pure metal
Heat Treatment: is used to alter the Physical properties of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, precipitation
strengthening, tempering, and quenching.
Strain hardening: strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements
and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material.
Precipitation hardening: is a heat treatment technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials (Al, Mg, Ni, Ti,
etc.).
Vacancy agglomeration hardening: a heat treatment technique used to increase the strength by vacancy loops.
Transformation hardening: This method is mainly used for Steels.