Compilation of Reports (Matsci)

NATURE OF MATERIALS
1.1 TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1.2 ENGINEERING MATERIALS COMPOSITION
1.3 CHEMICAL BONDING
Reporters :
Cruz, Lenard Marcus
Mangahas, Paul Christian M.
1.1 TYPES OF
ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
WHAT IS REFER TO A GROUP OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS USED IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF MAN-
MATERIALS? MADE STRUCTURES AND
COMPONENTS
METALS
METALS ARE VERY GOOD
CONDUCTORS OF
ELECTRICITY AND HEAT.
THEY ARE OPAQUE TO
VISIBLE LIGHT. THE
POLISHED METAL SURFACE
HAS A GLOSSY
APPEARANCE.
FERROUS
ALLOYS
FERROUS ALLOYS HAVE
IRON AS THE BASE
ELEMENT. THESE ALLOYS
AND INCLUDE STEELS AND
CAST IRONS
CARBON
STEELS
CARBON STEELS ARE BASICALLY
JUST MIXTURES OF IRON AND
CARBON. THEY MAY CONTAIN
SMALL AMOUNTS OF OTHER
ELEMENTS, BUT CARBON IS THE
PRIMARY ALLOYING
INGREDIENT.
TOOL STEEL
TOOL STEELS ARE
PRIMARILY USED TO MAKE
TOOLING FOR USE IN
MANUFACTURING, FOR
EXAMPLE CUTTING TOOLS,
DRILL BITS, PUNCHES,
DIES, AND CHISELS.
STAINLESS
STEEL
STAINLESS STEELS HAVE
GOOD CORROSION
RESISTANCE, MOSTLY DUE
TO THE ADDITION OF
CHROMIUM AS AN
ALLOYING INGREDIENT.
ALUMINUM
ALLOYS
PURE ALUMINUM IS SOFT AND
WEAK, BUT IT CAN BE ALLOYED
TO INCREASE STRENGTH. PURE
ALUMINUM HAS GOOD
CORROSION RESISTANCE DUE
TO AN OXIDE COATING THAT
FORMS OVER THE MATERIAL AND
PREVENTS OXIDATION.
NICKEL ALLOYS
NICKEL ALLOYS HAVE HIGH
TEMPERATURE AND CORROSION
RESISTANCE. COMMON
ALLOYING INGREDIENTS
INCLUDE COPPER, CHROMIUM,
AND IRON
COPPER ALLOYS
COPPER ALLOYS ARE GENERALLY
CHARACTERIZED AS BEING
ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE,
HAVING GOOD CORROSION
RESISTANCE, AND BEING
RELATIVELY EASY TO FORM AND
CAST.
TITANIUM ALLOYS
TITANIUM ALLOYS ARE LIGHT,
STRONG, AND HAVE HIGH
CORROSION RESISTANCE. THEIR
DENSITY IS MUCH LOWER THAN
STEEL, AND THEIR STRENGTH-
TO-WEIGHT RATIO IS
EXCELLENT.
Polymers
Polymers are materials that consist of molecules
formed by long chains of repeating units. They may
be natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering
materials are polymers, such as plastics, rubbers,
fibers, adhesives, and coatings.
Thermoplastic Polymers
The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their
response to heat. If heat is applied to a thermoplastic, it will soften and
melt. Once it is cooled, it will return to solid form.
Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing, after which they become
permanently hard. Thermosets will not melt upon reheating. If the applied heat
becomes extreme however, the thermoset will degrade due to breaking of the
molecular bonds.
Elastomers
Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with mechanical properties similar

to rubber. Elastomers are commonly used for seals, adhesives, hoses,
belts, and other flexible parts.
Ceramics
Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or nonmetallic elements. The
primary classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay products, refractories,
and abrasives.
Glass
Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications including windows, lenses,
and containers. Glasses are amorphous, whereas the other ceramics are mainly
crystalline.
Cements
Cements are materials that, after mixing with water, form a paste that then hardens.
Because of this characteristic, cements can be formed into useful shapes while in paste
form before they harden into rigid structures.
Clay Products
Clay is a very common ceramic material. It can be mixed with water, shaped, and then
hardened through firing at high temperature. The two primary classifications of clay
products include structural clay products and whitewares.
Refractories
Refractory ceramics can withstand high temperatures and extreme environments. They
can also provide thermal insulation. Brick is the most common refractory ceramic.
Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are hard materials that are used to cut, grind, and wear away other
softer materials. Typical properties of abrasives include high hardness, wear resistance,
and temperature resistance.
Biomaterials
Biomaterials are used for components that are implanted in the human body to replace
diseased or damaged body parts.
Advanced Engineering Materials

Materials used in high-tech (or hi-tech) applications are called as advanced materials.
Advanced technology means devices or products that operate or function according to
relatively complex and sophisticated principles.
1.2
ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
COMPOSITION
COMPOSITES
A composite material is a material in which one
or more mutually insoluble materials are mixed
or bonded together. The primary classes of
composites are particulate composites, fibrous
composites, and laminated composites.
PARTICULATE COMPOSITES
Particulate composites are created by adding particles
of one material to a matrix (the filler material). The
particles will typically account for less than 15% of the
total material volume. The particles are added to
improve upon some short coming of the matrix
material.
FIBROUS COMPOSITES
A fibrous composite is a material in which fibers of one
material are embedded within a matrix. The fibers
carry most of the stress, and the matrix serves to hold
the fibers in place and to transmit stress between the
fibers. The fibers can be short and randomly oriented,
or they can be long and continuous.
LAMINATED COMPOSITES
Laminated composites are created by combining layers
of composite materials. The layers will typically differ in
the orientation of the fibers, or they will differ in the
material itself. Sandwich materials are common, in
which a lightweight material (such as foam or a
honeycomb) will be placed in between layers of a
strong, stiff material.
REFERS TO THE ATTRACTIVE FORCES
THAT HOLD ATOMS TOGETHER IN
COMPOUNDS. ATOMS FORM BONDS
1.3 CHEMICAL WITH EACH OTHER TO ACHIEVE A
MORE STABLE AND LOWER ENERGY
BONDING STATE. THERE ARE THREE MAIN TYPES
OF CHEMICAL BONDS.
Involves the transfer of electrons
IONIC from one atom to another.
Typically occurs between a metal and
BONDING a non-metal.
The metal loses electrons to become
a positively charged ion (cation), and
the non-metal gains those electrons
to become a negatively charged ion
(anion).
The oppositely charged ions attract
each other, forming an ionic bond.
Involves the sharing of electrons
COVELANT between two atoms.
BOND Typically occurs between non-
metals.
Atoms share electrons to achieve a
more stable electron configuration.
There can be single, double, or
triple covalent bonds, depending on
the number of shared electrons.
Occurs between metal atoms.
METTALIC Involves a "sea of electrons" that
BOND are free to move throughout the
metal lattice.
Metals lose electrons to form
positive ions, and these electrons
are delocalized, creating a bond
between the positive metal ions
and the mobile electrons.
HYDROGEN Hydrogen bonding influences
various properties such as
BOND boiling points, melting points,
and solubilities. For example,
substances with hydrogen
bonding tend to have higher
boiling points compared to
similar substances without
hydrogen bonding.
QUIZ
1-5.) What are the main types of Engineering materials?
6-7.) What are the two types of metal?
8-10.) Give the 3 classified polymers
11-13.) Identify the Composite Materials
14.) What is the most important element of all ferrous material?
15.) What is the biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys?
16. What type of bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between two nonmetals?
a) Ionic bond
b) Covalent bond
c) Metallic bond
d) Polar bond
17. Which of the following elements is least likely to form an ionic bond?
a) Sodium (Na)
b) Chlorine (Cl)
c) Oxygen (O)
d) Carbon (C)
18. In an ionic bond, electrons are:
a) Shared
b) Transferred
c) Repelled
d) Attracted
19. What is the charge on the sodium ion in NaCl?
a) +1
b) -1
c) +2
d) -2
20. Which of the following molecules has a polar covalent bond?
a) H2
b) O2
c) CO2
d) HCl
21. What is the shape of a molecule with a tetrahedral molecular geometry?
a) Linear
b) Trigonal planar
c) Tetrahedral
d) Octahedral
22. What is the force that holds the atoms in a metallic bond?
a) Covalent force
b) Ionic force
c) Metallic force
d) Van der Waals force
23. Which type of bond is present in a water molecule (H2O)?
a) Ionic bond
b) Covalent bond
c) Hydrogen bond
d) Metallic bond
24.What is the bond angle in a molecule with a trigonal planar molecular geometry?
a) 90 degrees
b) 109.5 degrees
c) 120 degrees
d) 180 degrees
25. What is the primary force responsible for holding molecules together in a solid covalent network crystal?
a) Ionic force
b) Covalent force
c) Metallic force
d) Van der Waals force
26. Which of the following diatomic molecules is held together by a triple covalent bond?
a) H2
b) O2
c) N2
d) F2
27. What is the electron geometry of a molecule with a linear molecular shape?
a) Linear
b) Trigonal planar
c) Tetrahedral
d) Octahedral
28. Which element is commonly found in hydrogen bonding?
a) Carbon (C)
b) Oxygen (O)
c) Sodium (Na)
d) Fluorine (F)
29. In a polar covalent bond, the shared electrons are pulled closer to the atom with:
a) Lower electronegativity
b) Higher electronegativity
c) Larger atomic radius
d) Smaller atomic radius
30. What type of bond is formed between a metal and a nonmetal?

a) Covalent bond
b) Metallic bond
c) Ionic bond
d) Polar bond
QUIZ
ANSWERS
What are the main types of Engineering materials? (No. 1-5) 16. B
Answer: 17. D
1. Metals
18. B
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers 19. A
4. Composites 20. D
5. Elastomers 21. C
6-7. What are the two types of metal? Answer: Ferrous and Non-Ferrous 22. C
8-10. Give the 3 classified polymers Answer: thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting polymers
23. B
(thermosets), and elastomers.
11-13. Input the Composite Materials 24. C
Answer: 25. B
Fibrous Composites 26. C
Particulate Composites
27. A
Laminated Composites
28. B
14. What is the most important element of all ferrous material? Answer: Carbon 29. B
15. What is the biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys? Answer: low corrosion resistance. 30. C
THERMAL
PROPERTIES
Dela Cruz, Marvic Aeie F.
THERMAL
PROPERTIES
Engineering materials are important in everyday life because of their
versatile structural properties. Other than these properties, they do
play an important role because of their physical properties. Prime
physical properties of materials include electrical properties; thermal
properties; magnetic properties; and optical properties.
HEAT
CAPACITY
A temperature increase, or heat energy absorption,
occurs in many engineered solids when they are
subjected to heat.
HEAT
CAPACITY
Heat energy absorption of a (solid, liquid or gaseous) material exists in
mode of thermal energy vibrations of constituent atoms or molecules,
apart from other mechanisms of heat absorption such as electronic
contribution.
THERMAL
EXPANSION
The majority of solid materials compress when cold and expand when
heated. For a solid material, the length change with temperature can
be written as follows
THERMAL
EXPANSION
Heating or cooling affects all the dimensions of a body, with a resultant
change in volume. Volume changes with temperature may be
computed as:
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
A material's capacity to transfer heat energy from an area with high
temperatures to one with low temperatures is defined similar to heat
conductivity. Thermal conductivity is a microstructure-sensitive characteristic,
much like diffusion coefficient.
THERMAL
STRESS
In addition to thermal shock, thermal expansion of a material in the absence of
dimensional changes presents another type of issue. Thus, materials may
undergo thermal stresses (σ thermal) as a result of temperature fluctuations.
THERMAL
INSULATION MATERIALS
The majority of popular insulation materials can be thought of as combinations
of air-filled cellular, granular, or fibrous structures organized in such a way as to
severely hinder heat transfer. The low heat conductivity of thermal insulation
materials is their primary characteristic. Heat can move between grains or via
pores that are filled with air when a porous material is used.
ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES
Dela Cruz, Marvic Aeie F.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Materials are categorized as conductors, semiconductors,
insulators, or superconductors according to their electrical
characteristics. This chapter's main goal is to investigate a
material's electrical characteristics, or how it reacts to an
applied electric field.
ELECTRONIC AND IONIC
CONDUCTION
A current of electricity is produced by the motion of charged
particles in response to forces from an externally applied
electric field acting on them. Particles with positive charges
accelerate in the direction of the field, whereas those with
negative charges accelerate in the opposite direction.
OHM’S LAW
The ease with which a solid substance transfers an electric current is one of its
most crucial electrical properties. According to Ohm's law, the electrical
resistance, R (measured in ohms, or Ω (V/A)), the electrical current, I (measured
in amp or A (C/s)), and the potential difference, V (measured in volts (J/C)) are
related. as follows:
OHM’S LAW
Most materials are subject to this law, but not all of them are. The substance
that the current is flowing through has a resistance of R. The specimen
configuration (size, shape), the material's characteristics, and, in many cases, the
current are all factors that affect the value of R.
APPARATUS USED TO MEASURE
ELECTRICAL
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Electrical conductivity can occasionally be used to define a material's electrical
properties. It is merely the resistivity's reciprocal, or
ENERGY BOND STRUCTURES
IN SOLID
Only electronic conduction occurs in all conductors,
semiconductors, and a large number of insulating materials. The
amount of electrical conductivity is highly correlated with the
quantity of electrons that are available to take part in the
conduction process.
CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF BAND AND
ATOMIC BONDING MODELS
At this point in the discussion, it is vital that another concept be
understood—namely, that only electrons with energies greater than
the Fermi energy may be acted on and accelerated in the presence
of an electric field.
METALS
Electrons become free by being excited or promoted into empty
energy states above Ef. Metals with band structures have vacant
energy states near the highest filled state, requiring minimal energy
to promote electrons into these empty states. An electric field can
excite large numbers of electrons into these conducting states.
Valence electrons form an electron gas uniformly distributed
throughout ion cores, resulting in a large number of free electrons
and high conductivity.
INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTORS
Insulators and semiconductors have a narrow band gap, allowing

electrons to be promoted across it to empty states at the bottom of
the conduction band. This process is facilitated by supplying the
difference in energy between these two states, which is
approximately equal to the band gap energy.
ELECTRON MOBILITY
When an electric field is applied, free electrons experience

acceleration in a direction opposite to the field due to their negative
charge. In a perfect crystal lattice, there is no interaction between
accelerating electrons and atoms, leading to an increasing electric
current.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
COMMERCIAL ALLOYS
Copper is the most widely used metallic conductor due to its
electrical properties. Oxygen-free high-conductivity (OFHC) copper
is produced for many electrical applications, while aluminum has a
conductivity about half that of copper. Silver has higher
conductivity but is restricted due to cost.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC
CERAMICS ANG IN POLYMERS
Polymers and ionic ceramics are insulating materials with electron
energy band structures, resulting in small conductivity values at
room temperature. High electrical resistivity is desirable for
insulation, and as temperatures rise, insulating materials experience
an increase in electrical conductivity, potentially surpassing
semiconductors.
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
(University of the City of Manila)
Intramuros, Manila
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MEC 0325-1 – MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (LECTURE).
Written Report – Material Testing.
GROUP 8:
Presenter 3
Members:
MAGISTRADO, Fides P.
MIGUEL, Daniel M.
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
Engr. Arnel Q. Lucas

Professor
MATERIAL TESTING
· Material testing is defined as an established technique, which is used for

the measurement of the characteristics and behaviors of a substance under
different conditions, and the result obtained is used in determining the
suitability of the materials for various applications.
Major Reason for Material Testing:
o Quality Assurance.
o Performance Evaluation.
o Safety Compliance.
o Material Selection.
o Cost Optimization.
TWO TYPES OF MATERIAL TESTING
1. Destructive Testing
- The specimen is broken down to determine the mechanical properties
such as strength, toughness, and hardness.
Examples:
o Tension Testing
o Compression Testing
o Bending Testing
o Hardness Testing
o Impact Testing
o Fatigue Testing
o Fracture Toughness Testing
2. Non-Destructive Testing
- A method of evaluating a material’s integrity for both surface and
internal flaws without destroying the specimen.
Examples:
o Ultrasonic Testing (UT),

o Radiographic Testing (RT),
o Magnetic Particle Testing (MT),
o Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT),
o Visual Inspection (VT),
o Acoustic Emission Testing(RT),
o Eddy Current Testing (ET), and Thermal/Infrared testing (TT).
TENSILE TESTING
· One of the most common mechanical stress–strain tests is performed in

tension.
· The test involves gradually increasing the tensile load on a specimen
along its long axis until it fractures while measuring the force and
displacement.
· This test can be performed on machines such as Hounsfield Tensometer,
Universal Testing Machine, Instron and other Material Testing System (MTS).
MACHINE USED FOR TENSILE TESTING
Universal Testing Machine.
· A machine that applies a tensile force to the specimen and then

measures that force and also the elongation. This machine usually uses a
hydraulic cylinder to create force. The term "universal" reflects the machine's
ability to conduct multiple types of tests, including tension (tensile),
compression, bending, and shear tests, among others.
Overview of the Universal Testing Machine.
1. Load Frame - The main structural component of the UTM.
2. Control System - An electronic control unit that regulates the testing

parameters.
3. Crosshead -The movable part of the UTM that applies the tensile force to
the specimen through grips or fixtures.
4. Load Cell - A transducer located within the load frame that measures the
applied force during testing.
5. Strain Measurement Device / Extensometer - A device attached to the

specimen to measure its deformation or strain during testing.
Test Procedure
1. Test Method Selection.

2. Preparing Specimen.
3. Inserting Specimens in the Grips.
4. Strain Measurement Devices.
5. Loading and Starting the Test.
6. Data Collection and Analysis.
Concepts of Stress and Strain.
· Stress is defined as the average uniaxial tensile force P on the bar divided
by the original cross-sectional area A of the bar.
· Strain is the ratio of the change in length of the sample in the direction of
the force divided by the original length of the sample considered.
· The stress-strain curve provides valuable information about the material's

behavior under tensile loading, including its elastic and plastic deformation
characteristics, ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation at
fracture.
Properties determined by Tensile Testing.
1. Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus) –this is a measure of a material's

stiffness or resistance to deformation under tensile loading within the elastic
region. It represents the slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain curve.
2. Yield Strength - this is the stress at which a material begins to deform

plastically (permanently) under tensile loading. It marks the transition from
elastic deformation to plastic deformation.
3. Ultimate Tensile Strength - this is the maximum stress that a material can
withstand before it fractures or fails under tensile loading. It is a critical
property for materials used in structural applications and engineering design.
3. Percent Elongation - this is the percentage increase in the length of the

material at the point of fracture during tensile testing. It indicates the
material's ductility or ability to deform plastically before failure.
4. Strain at Failure - this is the amount of strain or deformation a material

undergoes before failure occurs under tensile loading. It indicates the
material's ability to deform before fracture.
5. Toughness - this is a measure of a material's ability to absorb energy

and deform plastically before fracture under tensile loading. It is often
represented by the area under the stress-strain
Tensile Testing Specimen
· Tensile specimens are commonly machined or die-cast in a cylindrical or

rectangular shape.
· The dimensions of these shoulders, the gauge length between them, and
the length and width of the entire specimen are all prescribed by the testing
standard of ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) or ISO
(International Organization for Standardization).
Tensile Test Result
· The appearance of the fractured surface of a ductile material after a

tensile test exhibits a cup-and-cone fracture surface morphology.
· In contrast to ductile materials, brittle materials typically exhibit a flat and

smooth fracture surface during tensile testing. The flat surface of a fractured
brittle material indicates that the fracture occurred with minimal plastic
deformation.
COMPRESSION TESTING
· A compression test is a method for determining the behavior of materials

under a compressive load. Compression tests are conducted by loading the
test specimen between two plates and then applying a force to the
specimen by moving the cross heads together.
Overview of the Compression Testing Machine.
1. Load Frame - The load frame is the main structure of the machine and supports
the components responsible for applying and measuring the compressive force. It
can be hydraulic, pneumatic, or servo-electric, depending on the type and
capacity of the machine.
2. Control System - The control system regulates the operation of the machine,
including applying the load, measuring the force, and controlling the test
parameters such as loading rate and test duration.
3. Load Cell - The load cell is a transducer that converts the applied force into an
electrical signal, which is then measured and displayed by the machine's control
system.
3. Compressive Platens - The platens are a flat, rigid surface that contacts the
specimen during compression. It helps distribute the load evenly across the
specimen's surface.
Properties Determined by Compression Testing.
1. Compressive Strength - This is the maximum compressive stress that a

material can withstand before failure.
2. Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus) - This is a measure of a material's

stiffness or resistance to deformation under compression.
3. Compressive Yield Strength - For materials that exhibit plastic deformation

under compression, compressive yield strength is the stress at which the
material begins to deform plastically.
4. Compressive Toughness - This is a measure of a material's ability to absorb

energy and deform plastically before failure under compression.
5. Compressive Modulus - This is similar to the modulus of elasticity but

specifically refers to the material's response to compression.
6. Compressive Strain at Failure - This is the amount of strain or deformation a

material undergoes before failure under compression.
Conditions Under Compression Testing.
1. Specimen Preparation - Before conducting a compressive test, specimens

need to be prepared according to standardized procedures or specific
requirements.
2. Loading Rate - The loading rate may be specified by testing standards or

protocols and can influence the material's response, particularly in terms of
deformation behavior and failure modes.
3. Alignment and Fixturing - Fixturing or specialized grips may be used to

secure the specimen in place and prevent any unwanted movement or
misalignment during testing.
4. Data Acquisition and Recording - These systems may include load

cells, displacement sensors, and data acquisition software to capture and
analyze the test data accurately.
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
· Thermal Expansion is an event where an object or body expands in

reaction to being heated.
· When the body is heating, it accepts and stores energy in its atoms in the
form of kinetic energy.
· This increase in vibration pushes against the intermolecular forces,

allowing the atoms or molecules to become further apart and the body to
grow larger.
· This coefficient is called the coefficient of thermal expansion and is used

to predict the growth of material in response to a known temperature
change. The larger the coefficient is for a material, the more it will expand per
degree temperature increase.
How to test the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:
· Using a Thermomechanical analyzer - The specimen is heated at a

specific rate. Often ten degrees a minute, over the desired temperature
range, a graph is produced.
· Using Dilatometer - The specimen is placed in a dilatometer at room

temperature and the height gauge is positioned and zeroed. The apparatus
is placed in a temperature bath and the movement of the sample is
measured from 30 degrees Celsius to + 30 degrees Celsius.
Properties Determined in Testing the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:
1. Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient (α): The linear thermal expansion

coefficient (α) represents the fractional change in length per unit change in
temperature. It is expressed in units of length per temperature (e.g., m/m°C or
in/in°F). Linear thermal expansion is typically measured along a specific axis of
the material (e.g., length, width, or height).
· The change in temperature causes bodies to expand or contrast, the

amount of linear deformation,, being expressed by the relation:
Where:
(α) is the coefficient of thermal expansion
L is the length, and
delta T is the temperature change.
FUTURE REFERENCE
Six Key Words:
● Stiff
● Strong
● Ductile
● Brittle
● Tough
● Hard
Is it Possible for a Material to go from being Ductile to being Brittle?
- Ductility can be dependent on temperature
Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature - This transition temperature is an important

design consideration, because ductile failure is normally more preferred to brittle
failure
This was actually a massive problem during world war two with the liberty ship.
Several of these ships literally broke in half with no warning, including the SS John P.
Gaines. Another infamous example of brittle failure is the Titanic
BEAM DEFLECTION TEST
BEAM DEFLECTION
Beam deflection means the state of deformation of a beam from its original
shape under the work of a force or load or weight.
What is a BEAM?
Beams support the weight of a building's floors, ceilings and roofs and to
move the load to the framework of a vertical load bearing element.
Types of Beam
● Continuous Beams - A continuous beam is one that has two or more supports
that reinforce the beam.
● Simply supported beams - Simply supported beams are those that have
supports at both ends of the beam.
● Fixed Ended beams - A fixed beam is one that is fixed on both ends of the
beam with supports.
● Overhanging beams - An overhanging beam is one that is supported at two
different areas, typically at one end and in the middle of the beam, but does
not have a support at the other end of the beam, leaving it hanging.
● Cantilever beam - A cantilever beam is one that is free-hanging at one end
of the beam and fixed at the other.
What is DEFLECTION ?
Deflection is a crucial consideration in the design of a structure and failure to
apply due attention to it can be catastrophic.
BEAM DEFLECTION MACHINE
BEAM APPARATUS
A bench top frame with load cells and cantilevers for the study of deflection
and forces on different types of beams for a wide range of supports and loads
SHEAR TEST
SHEAR TESTING
A shear test is designed to apply stress to a test sample so that it experiences
a sliding failure along a plane that is parallel to the forces applied. Shear testing
applies a lateral shear force to the specimen until failure results.
Purpose of Shear Testing

to determine the shear strength (maximum shear stress that the material can
withstand before failure occurs, of a material)
Types Of Materials Tested In Shear
❖ Rigid substrates - composed of metals, plastics, ceramics, composites or

woods
❖ Adhesives - used to bond two materials together
❖ Layered composites - similar manner to adhesives as the shear forces are
applied to the glue or laminate
TYPES OF SHEAR TESTING
A single shear testing fixture uses two blades with centrally located transverse
holes. One blade is kept stationary with the fastener in place while the second blade
is moved in a parallel plane, which shears the fastener. Double shear testing uses a
second stationary blade support behind the shearing blade.
Lap shear testing is performed to determine the shear strength of an adhesive

that is applied to two metal plates and pulled to failure. It can be used to compare
between adhesive types or different lots within the same adhesive.
TORSION TEST
TORSION TESTING
Torsion testing is a type of mechanical testing that evaluates the properties of
materials or devices while under stress from angular displacement. The most
common mechanical properties measured by torsion testing are modulus of
elasticity in shear, yield shear strength, ultimate shear strength, modulus of rupture in
shear, and ductility.
What are the Different Types of Torsion Testing Materials?

These materials may be composed of metals, plastics, woods, polymers,
composites, or ceramics among others and commonly take the forms of fasteners,
rods, beams, tubes and wires.
Why Perform a Torsion Test ?

Many products and components are subjected to torsional forces during their
operation. Torsion testing is necessary when engineers wish to change or update the
materials used in these products. Torsional testing can help the engineer identify an
appropriate material that will possess the required torsional strength while also
contributing to the goal of light weighting.
Many finished products are also subjected to torsional forces during their
operation. By testing their products in torsion, manufacturers are able to simulate
real life service conditions, check product quality, verify designs, and ensure proper
manufacturing techniques.
TYPES OF TORSION TEST
➢ Failure Testing: Twisting the product, component, or specimen until failure.

Failure can be classified as either a physical break or a kink/defect in the
specimen.
➢ Proof Testing: Applying a torsional load and holding this torque load for a fixed
amount of time.
➢ Functional Testing: Testing complete assemblies or products such as bottle
caps, switches, dial pens, or steering columns to verify that the product
performs as expected under torsion loads.
QUIZ # 3
PART I. For each question, select the best answer choice. Only one answer is correct
for each question.
1. A device that measures the thermal and mechanical properties of a specimen as

it undergoes controlled heating at a specified area.
A. Universal Testing Machine
B. Thermomechanical Analyzer.
C. Extensometer.
D. Dilatometer.
2. For most metals, the change from _______ to _______ occurs gradually; curvature
occurs at the starting point of plastic deformation and grows faster with increasing
stress.
A. Elongation to Plasticity.
B. Stress to Strain.
C. Elastic to Plastic.
D. None of the above.
3. What device is often used to precisely measure the elongation of a material

specimen under an applied load?
A. Deflectometer.
B. Extensometer.
C. Tensometer.
D. Hydraulic Cylinder.
4. A material with a positive coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) undergoes

_______ in its dimensions as the temperature rises.
A. Expansion.
B. Contraction.
C. Elongation.
D. Minimal Change.
5. _______________are conducted by loading the test specimen between two plates

and then applying a force to the specimen by moving the cross heads together.
A. Compression Testing.
B. Tensile Testing.
C. Destructive Testing.
D. Material Testing.
6. Can a material transition from being ductile to brittle?
A. Yes
B. No
7. What is the Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature important for?
A. Design considerations
B. Culinary experiments
C. Agricultural development
D. Leisure and amusement
8. Which ship faced a brittle failure during World War II?
A. Titanic
B. SS John P. Gaines
C. Liberty Bell
D. Santa Maria
9. What is the characteristic of a simply supported beam?
A. Fixed at both ends
B. Free-hanging at one end
C. Supported at both ends
D. Unsupported in the middle
10. What does shear testing determine?

A. Maximum tensile strength
B. Shear strength
C. Compression strength
D. Flexural strength
PART II. Examine and evaluate the given procedures below. Assign numbers to each
item in accordance with the proper method for configuring a Universal Testing
Machine.
____ 11. Prepare a sample of the material to be tested. The sample should be
machined or prepared according to relevant standards to ensure consistency and
accuracy.
____ 12. To carry out a test, you must choose the correct method and enter the
necessary parameters into the software.
____ 13. Data collection of the measurement and records of various parameters
related to the behavior of the material as it undergoes deformation under an
applied load. Typically, a stress-strain curve provides the valuable information
needed for these types of testing.
____ 14. Mount the specimen securely in the grips of the tensile testing machine. The
grips should be appropriate for the specimen size and shape to ensure uniform stress
distribution.
_____ 15. Align the extensometer with the longitudinal axis of the specimen to ensure
accurate measurement of elongation. Ensure that the extensometer is positioned
centrally and symmetrically along the length of the specimen to minimize
measurement errors.
_____ 16. Upon initiating the machine, it will apply the instructed tensile force to your
specimen and record its reaction to the stress.
Part III. Enumerate the appropriate answers to each question.
17-19) Give 3 major reasons why materials are being tested.
20-21) Give at least 2 major components of a Universal Testing Machine.
22-23) Name the 2 types of results obtained by Tensile Testing.
24-25) Write down the equations used for determining Stress and Strain.
26-27) List two types of beam supports.
28-30) Provide three examples of materials that may undergo shear testing.
31-32) Name two types of shear testing fixtures.
33-35) Enumerate three types of torsion tests.
Part IV. Read the statements carefully and tell whether the statement is TRUE or
FALSE.
36. Shear testing is not applicable to adhesive materials.
37. Ductility is dependent on temperature.
38. Torsion testing is only applicable to fasteners and tubes.
39. Torsion testing is irrelevant for finished products.
40. Torsion testing can help identify an appropriate material that will possess the
required tensile strength.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
PART I.
1. B. Thermomechanical Analyzer.
2. C. Elastic to Plastic.
3. B. Extensometer.
4. A. Expansion.
5. A. Compression Testing.
6. A. Yes
7. A. Design considerations
8. B. SS John P. Gaines
9. C. Supported at both ends
10. B. Shear strength
PART II.
11. 2
12. 1
13. 6
14. 3
15. 4
16. 5
Part III.
17-19)
· Quality Assurance.
· Performance Evaluation.
· Safety and Legal Compliance.
· Material Selection.
· Cost Optimization.
20-21)
· Load Frame
· Control System
· Crosshead
· Load Cell
· Strain Measurement Device
22-23)
· Ductile Material
· Brittle Material
24-25)
Stress:
Strain:
26-27)
· Simply supported beams
· fixed-ended beams
28-30)
· metals
· plastics
· ceramics
· composites
· woods
31-32)
· Single shear testing fixture
· double shear testing fixture
33-35)
· Failure testing
· proof testing
· functional testing
Part IV.
36. False
37. True
38. False
39. False
40. False
References
Callister, W. (2000). Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering.

https://engineeringdocu.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/fundamentals-of-materials-sci
ence-and-engineering-5th-edition.pdf
Lecture Notes: Materials Science and Engineering [PDF document]. Scribd. Retrieved
from
https://www.scribd.com/document/401197807/Lecture-Notes-Materials-Science-an
d-Engineering-9282018-3-pdf
Material Testing [PowerPoint slides]. Scribd. Retrieved from

https://www.scribd.com/presentation/604757561/MATERIAL-TESTING
Green Mechanic. (2016, September). Torsional Testing of Materials. Green Mechanic.

Retrieved from
https://www.green-mechanic.com/2016/09/torsional-testing-of-materials.html
P. A. Hilton. (n.d.). Torsion and Deflection Testing Apparatus. P.A. Hilton Limited.
Retrieved from
https://www.p-a-hilton.co.uk/products/strength-materials-hsm/torsion-and-deflectio
n-testing-apparatus
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
General Luna corner Muralla Street, Intramuros, Manila
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Material Science & Engineering For ME (Lecture)
MEC 0325-1
Topic 4: Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering Materials
(Written Report)
Submitted by:
Group 10
David, John Paul C.
Duquiatan, Nathaniel Louis C.
Submitted to:

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS:
Fracture:
● The separation of a material into two or more pieces under the action of stress
● Usually occurs due to the development of displacement discontinuity within the solid
● Can be classified into two major types: Ductile & Brittle
Ductile:
● Materials that experience plastic deformation before fracturing
● Deformation allows the material to resist fracture by stretching itself
● Usually show extensive plastic deformation, resulting in a cup-and-cone fracture
Brittle:
● Materials that break with minimal elastic deformation before fracturing
● Fractures that occur suddenly and catastrophically without warning
● Involve rapid crack propagation without significant warning signs

Fracture Toughness:
● Measure of a material's ability to resist the propagation of cracks under stress
● Helps predict if material will fail catastrophically or will absorb energy before failing
● Prevent sudden and potentially dangerous failures
● Is represented by K_(IC)
● σ = stress applied
● a = crack size
● Y - geometry factor
Strength:
● Material's ability to resist deformation under an applied load
● Resistance to plastic flow (σy)
● Stress is generated inside and increases accordingly with the external force.
● Is not the same with toughness

DESTRUCTIVE TESTING:
Destructive Testing:
● Evaluates strength, durability, and performance of materials by subjecting them to
extreme conditions that cause failure
● Can gather detailed information about the material's behaviour under various loads
● Essential for design optimization, quality assurance, and failure analysis
● Common methods are: tensile testing, hardness testing, creep testing, impact testing,
and fatigue testing
Hardness Testing:
● Used to measure a material's resistance to permanent deformation at its surface
● Involves applying constant load, rounded/ pointed object under controlled conditions
● Size of the indentation is then measured to determine the hardness of the material
Procedure:
1. Prepare the sample
2. Place the test sample on the anvil
3. Apply a preliminary test force (preload)
4. Apply a major load
5. Measure the indentation depth
6. Convert to a hardness number

Creep Testing:
● Used to determine the long-term strength and heat resistance of a material.
● Is designed to simulate the long-term behaviour of materials under constant stress
● Time-dependent deformation of materials under applied stress at elevated
temperatures.
Procedure:
1. Material Preparation
2. Install the Specimen
3. Apply Pre-load
4. Set the Desired Temperature
5. Apply the Desired Stress
6. Start Data Acquisition
7. Monitor Progress
8. Stop the Test
9. Remove the Specimen
10. Generate a Creep Curve
11. Data Analysis

Impact Testing
Impact or Impact Force
● In mechanics, an impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period
when two or more bodies collide.
● Such a force or acceleration usually has a greater effect than a lower force applied
over a proportionally longer period.
● At normal speeds, during a perfectly inelastic collision, an object struck by a projectile
will deform, and this deformation will absorb most or all of the force of the collision.
Impact Test
● Test used for observing the mechanics that a material will exhibit when it experiences
a shock loading that causes the specimen to immediately deform, fracture, or
rupture completely.
Importance of Impact Test
● To measure impact energy
- the energy required to break a standard sized sample with a sudden, sharp
load.
- Joule is the unit used for measuring the impact energy.

● Find toughness
- Used to find the material’s toughness, its ability to absorb energy without
breaking or the material’s resistance to fracture when stressed.
● Determine the tendency of a material in a brittle manner
- It detects differences between materials which are not in a tension test.
Types of Material for Impact Testing
● Nearly all materials may benefit from impact testing, but the most common types
used are metals, plastics, woods, composites, ceramics and polymers.
● These materials take the form of sheets of varying thicknesses or short rods
depending on the test.
● However, most materials will experience either ductile or brittle failure depending on
the type of test, the rate of loading, and the temperature of the sample.
Impact Test Methods and Standard Specimen
1. Charpy Test Method
2. Izod Test method

➢ Charpy Test Method
- Also known as Charpy V-notch test, is a standardized high strain-rate test which
determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture.This
absorbed energy is a measure of a given material’s notch toughness and acts as a
tool to study.
- It is widely applied in industry, since it is easy to prepare and conduct and results can
be obtained quickly and cheaply.
- Charpy test specimens normally measure (55 x 10 x 10) mm with 2mm deep notch
at the middle of a specified surface.
- The notches may be:
- A V- shaped notch, 2mm deep, with 45° angle and 0.25mm radius along the base.
- A U-shaped notch, 5mm deep with 1mm radius at the base of the notch.
- The specimen is set like a simply supported beam.

Charpy Test Setup
Sample Video:
Charpy Impact Test
➢ Izod Test Method

- Izod impact is defined as the kinetic energy needed to initiate fracture and continue
the fracture until the specimen is broken.
- This test can be used as a quick and easy quality control check to determine if a
material meets specific impact properties or to compare materials for general
toughness.
- The standard size of the Izod impact test specimen is (75 x 10 x 10) mm.
- A V-shaped notch shaped bar is also used.
- The Izod specimen is held rigidly in a vice type fixture with the notched side facing
the direction of impact.
- The centerline of the notch must be in the plane of the vice top.
- Once the specimen is in place, the hammer is released from a preset height and
allowed to strike the specimen thus fracturing it at the V-notch.
- The specimen is set like a Cantilever beam.
Izod Test Setup
Sample Video:
Izod Impact Testing Instructional Video

Difference between Charpy and Izod Impact Test Methods
Specimen Point of Direction Type of Type of Specimen

position strike of notch notch hammer dimensions
Charpy Horizontal Opposite Away from V-notch Pendulum

to the striker and hammer
point of U-notch (55x10x10)
notch
mm
Izod Vertical Upper tip Facing the V-notch Farming (75x10x10)

of striker hammer
specimen mm
Fatigue Testing
Fatigue
● In material science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by cyclic loading
that results in progressive and localized structural damage and the growth of cracks.
● It is due to the repeated loading and unloading.
● When a material is subjected to a force acting in different directions at different times,
it can cause cracking. In time, this causes the material to fail at a load that is much
less than its tensile strength; this is known as fatigue failure.
Three Stages of Fatigue Failure

● Stage 1 - Crack Formation
- This usually occurs in free surfaces and at stress concentrations.
● Stage 2 - Crack Growth
- The crack grows in size.
● Stage 3 - Fracture
- After the crack has grown to a critical size, fracture occurs.
S-N Curve for Fatigue
● Allows to calculate the number of cycles until a component is likely to fail for a given
stress range.
Endurance Limit
● A horizontal line; theoretically, the component could be cycled at a stress range
below this level forever, and it will never fail due to fatigue.
High-cycle and Low-cycle Fatigue
● High-cycle - occurs when the applied cyclical stresses are low and failure occurs
after a very large number of cycles, typically more than 10,000 cycles. Stresses are
low, so only elastic deformation will occur.
● Low-cycle - involves higher applied cyclical stresses and failure occurs after fewer
cycles. Because the stresses involved are above the material’s yield stress, both
elastic and plastic deformation occur.

Fatigue can be prevented with good design practice
1. A smooth surface finish reduces the chance of surface cracking.
2. Sharp corners should be avoided.
3. Corrosion should be avoided as this can cause fatigue cracks.

QUIZ 4
TEST I. MULTIPLE CHOICE
Choose the best answer from the given choices. Use CAPITAL LETTERS.
1. Separation of a material into two or more pieces under the action of stress.
A. Fracture
B. Toughness
C. Strength
D. Fatigue
2. Material's ability to resist the propagation of cracks under mechanical stress.
A. Fracture
B. Toughness
C. Strength
D. Fatigue
3. Term that relates to the resistance of plastic flow.
A. Fracture
B. Toughness
C. Strength
D. Fatigue
4. Provides a graphical measurement of the strength and elasticity of the material.
A. Acceleration-Time Diagram
B. Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
C. Temperature-Entropy Diagram
D. Stress-Strain Diagram
5. Evaluates the strength, durability, and performance of materials by subjecting them to
extreme conditions that cause failure.
A. Destructive Testing
B. Tensile Testing
C. Hardness Testing
D. Creep Testing
6. A destructive test process that provides information about the tensile strength, yield
strength, and ductility of the metallic material.
B. Tensile Testing
C. Hardness Testing
D. Creep Testing
7. A method used to measure a material's resistance to permanent deformation at its
surface.
B. Tensile Testing
C. Hardness Testing
D. Creep Testing
8. Is used to determine the long-term strength and heat resistance of a material.
B. Tensile Testing
C. Hardness Testing
D. Creep Testing
9. Materials that experience plastic deformation before fracturing.
A. Ductile Fracture
B. Brittle Fracture
C. Stable Fracture
D. Compound Fracture
10. Materials that break with minimal elastic deformation before fracturing.
A. Ductile Fracture
B. Brittle Fracture
C. Stable Fracture
D. Compound Fracture
11. The energy required to break a standard sized sample with a sudden, sharp load.
A. Impact Energy
B. Fracture Energy
C. Load Energy
D. Rupture Energy
12. Ability of a material to absorb energy without breaking or the material’s resistance to
fracture when stressed.
A. Fatigue
B. Toughness
C. Fracture
D. Rupture
13. In the Charpy Test Method, the specimen is set like a _____________.
A. Overhanging beam
B. Continuous Beam
C. Cantilever Beam
D. Simply Supported Beam
14. In the Izod Test Method, the specimen is set like a _____________.
A. Overhanging beam
B. Continuous Beam
C. Cantilever Beam
D. Simply Supported Beam
15. In the Izod Test Method, the shape of the notch is?
A. U-notch
B. V-notch
C. U and V-notches
D. None of the above

16. What is the point of strike in the Charpy Test Method?
A. Opposite to the point of notch
B. Upper tip of the specimen
C. Directed towards the point of notch
D. Lower tip of the specimen
17. The weakening of a material caused by cyclic loading that results in progressive and
localized structural damage and the growth of cracks.
A. Fatigue
B. Toughness
C. Fracture
D. Rupture
18. Stage in fatigue failure wherein the fracture occurs.
A. Stage 1
B. Stage 2
C. Stage 3
D. Stage 4
19. In this line, the component could be cycled at a stress range below this level forever,
and it will never fail due to fatigue.
A. Fatigue Limit
B.Toughness Limit
C. Fracture Limit
D. Endurance Limit
20. Typically, how many cycles are required for the failure to occur in a high-cycle
fatigue?
A. Less than 10,000 cycles
B. More than 10,000 cycles
C. 1000 cycles
D. None of the above

TEST II. IDENTIFICATION
Answer based on what is asked in the following. Use CAPITAL LETTERS.
21. Give the type of hammer used in the Charpy Test Method
22. Crack ________ usually occurs in free surfaces and at stress concentrations.
23. What is the direction of the notch in the Izod Test Method?
24. What symbolizes the red arrow?
25. It allows the calculation of the number of cycles until a component is likely to fail for a
given stress range.
26. The range on the stress-strain graph from the ultimate stress point to the point of
fracture of the material.
27. In fractures, Mode I is called Opening, Mode II is called In-plane Shear, Mode III is
called?
28. Fractures that occur suddenly and catastrophically without warning.
29. Deformation allows the material to resist fracture by stretching itself.
30. This marks the transition from elastic to plastic behavior in a stress-strain diagram.
ANSWER KEY
TEST I.
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. A
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. A
10. B
11. A
12. B
13. D
14. C
15. B
16. A
17. A
18. C
19. D
20. B
TEST II.
1. PENDULUM HAMMER
2. FORMATION
3. FACING THE STRIKER
4. ENDURANCE LIMIT
5. S-N CURVE FOR FATIGUE

6. NECKING
7. OUT OF PLANE SHEAR
8. BRITTLE FRACTURE
9. DUCTILE FRACTURE
10. YIELD STRESS

Written Report
Corrosion Prevention and Control
Submitted by Zyrone Jomie MIquelle L. Perez and Zaijho Moos
Submitted to Engr. Arnel Lucas
Material Science for ME
I. Introduction
A. Definition of Corrosion
- Corrosion is defined as the destructive and unintentional degradation of a material

caused by its environment. Unfortunately for metals almost all environments can cause
corrosion to some degree, since the corroded state is the more stable state.Corrosion is
a dangerous and extremely costly problem. Because of it, buildings and bridges can
collapse, oil pipelines break, chemical plants leak, and bathrooms flood. Corroded
electrical contacts can cause fires and other problems, corroded medical implants may
lead to blood poisoning, and air pollution has caused corrosion damage to works of art
around the world. Corrosion threatens the safe disposal of radioactive waste that must
be stored in containers for tens of thousands of years.
B. Importance of Corrosion Prevention in Mechanical Engineering

- The discipline of corrosion engineering is important because deterioration and
disintegration of vital structures, pipelines and other productive assets affect the safety of
people and reliability of the industry and the economy worldwide. Corrosion leads to the
loss of purity of the metals. When its purity is lost, the appearance of the metal also gets
compromised as it loses its luster. If it is left unnoticed, the corrosive attacks on the
metals can greatly affect their structure of the metals. It is also dangerous to humans.
Material Selection
Engineers should choose the optimum materials that has corrosion resistance in balance with
the traditional performance requirements including mechanical, thermal, physical, and electrical
properties.
II. Factors Influencing Corrosion

A. Environmental Factors - The environment significantly influences the choice of materials to
resist corrosion. Various environmental aspects such as composition, pH level, humidity, wind or
water currents, and temperature can impact corrosion. These factors are present in
atmospheric, freshwater, saltwater, and soil environments, which will be explored further in this
section.
1. Atmospheric Contaminants - The air we breathe contains substances that can cause
metal to rust faster.
Primary Sources: These contaminants mainly come from two sources:

Chlorides from marine environments (like oceans).
Pollutants from industries and vehicles.
Deposition and Reaction: These substances settle on metal surfaces and react with: Oxygen,
Water, Free electrons on the metal surface.
Resulting Compounds: This reaction produces metal compounds with varying solubility, which
affects corrosion rates:
Chloride salts, especially sodium chloride from the sea, increase corrosion rates significantly.
For ferrous metals like iron, chloride ions combine with iron ions to form iron chloride, which is
more soluble than the benign compounds formed in less corrosive environments.
Other metals like copper and zinc also form chlorides, but they're less soluble than iron chloride,
so they experience increased corrosion rates, though not as much as ferrous metals.
Deicing salts used on roads in winter can create similar corrosive conditions to marine
environments.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and Nitrous Oxides (NOx): These are pollutants from burning fossil fuels in
industrial and urban areas. When they settle on metal surfaces, they react with oxygen and free
electrons to form sulfate ions, which further react with water to complete the corrosion process.
Hydrogen Sulfide and Other Contaminants: Additional contaminants like hydrogen sulfide,
ammonia, sulfur trioxide, and smoke particles, though less common, also contribute to
atmospheric corrosion, especially in specific industrial environments.
2. Humidity and Rainfall

Humidity plays a significant role in determining how quickly metals corrode because moisture
acts as the electrolyte needed for corrosion reactions to happen. Typically, as humidity rises, the
rate of corrosion also increases. A relative humidity of around 60% is often considered critical
for serious corrosion to occur without additional electrolytes. However, this critical level may vary
depending on the impurities in the air. Rainfall can either speed up or slow down corrosion
processes. In areas where water stagnates, localized corrosion is more likely to occur. On the
other hand, rain can wash away corrosive substances from metal surfaces, reducing the
likelihood of corrosion.
3. Temperature
Temperature is significant in allowing corrosion to occur in materials because it influences the
speed and intensity of chemical reactions involved in the corrosion process. Warmer
temperatures generally accelerate chemical reactions, including those responsible for corrosion.
This increased reaction rate means that metal surfaces are more likely to react with
environmental factors such as oxygen, moisture, and pollutants, leading to faster corrosion.
Moreover, temperature affects the moisture content in the air, which is essential for the
formation of electrolytes required for corrosion reactions. Higher temperatures can increase the
amount of water vapor in the air, providing more electrolytes and facilitating corrosion.
4. Water Composition
The primary dissolved gases affecting corrosion in waters are oxygen and sulfurous gases.
Oxygen is by far the biggest concern, as it directly relates to higher corrosion rates for many
metals. The concentration of oxygen is greatest at water surfaces and in the presence of algae.
Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide significantly increase corrosivity and are found in waters as
a result of pollutants and/or microorganisms. Sulfate reducing bacteria converts sulfates to
sulfides. Nitrogen, like in atmospheric environments, is less abundant, but will increase
corrosion rates of metals where present. The ions from dissolved salts mostly responsible for
increased water corrosivity are chlorides and sulfates. These ions react with metal cations to
produce corrosion reactions. A run down of the most common constituents and ions present in
seawater are listed in Table 15. Cations present may reduce corrosion by reacting with available
anions. The measure of calcium and magnesium solid precipitates determines the hardness of
water. Table 16 represents the general characteristics of some natural waters. A measure of the
water’s electrical resistivity gives a general indication of corrosivity.
pH Level
The pH level of both natural and sea waters is usually within 4.5 to 8.5. Copper is one metal in
which the corrosion rate increases in acidic water. Copper from the corrosion process will then
deposit on other materials present producing a greenish stain. The deposition of copper onto
aluminum or galvanized metals sets up pitting corrosion.
5.Mechanical Factors
Micro-Cracking: Mechanical stress can induce the formation of micro-cracks on the surface of
the material. These cracks provide pathways for corrosive agents to penetrate deeper into the
material, accelerating corrosion rates.
Surface Damage: Scratches, abrasions, and other surface imperfections caused by mechanical
actions can compromise the protective oxide layers that naturally form on the surface of metals.
This exposes underlying metal to corrosive attack.
Crevice Corrosion: Mechanical joints, crevices, and areas of localized stress concentration can
create stagnant zones where corrosive agents become trapped. This localized depletion of
oxygen or accumulation of corrosive species can lead to accelerated corrosion in these areas.
B. Material Factors
Chemical Composition: The elemental composition of a material determines its intrinsic
reactivity with various corrosive agents. Some metals, such as stainless steel or aluminum,
naturally form protective oxide layers on their surfaces, which inhibit further corrosion. Others,
like iron, are more prone to corrosion because they readily react with oxygen and moisture to
form rust.
Alloying Elements: Alloying elements are added to base metals to enhance their corrosion
resistance. For example, adding chromium to steel can improve its resistance to oxidation and
corrosion, forming a passive oxide layer that protects the underlying metal from further
degradation.
Chemical Composition: The elemental composition of a material determines its intrinsic
reactivity with various corrosive agents. Some metals, such as stainless steel or aluminum,
naturally form protective oxide layers on their surfaces, which inhibit further corrosion. Others,
like iron, are more prone to corrosion because they readily react with oxygen and moisture to
form rust.
Alloying Elements: Alloying elements are added to base metals to enhance their corrosion
resistance. For example, adding chromium to steel can improve its resistance to oxidation and
corrosion, forming a passive oxide layer that protects the underlying metal from further
degradation.
Surface Finish: Surface finish and treatment methods, such as polishing, passivation, or
coating, can affect a material's corrosion resistance. Smooth surfaces with protective coatings
or passive layers are less susceptible to corrosion than rough, untreated surfaces.
Thermal Treatment: Heat treatment processes can alter a material's microstructure and
mechanical properties, which in turn affect its corrosion resistance. For example, quenching and
tempering can improve the toughness and corrosion resistance of certain steels.
III. Types of Corrosion (Zyrone)

A. Uniform Corrosion
- Uniform Corrosion. In general, uniform corrosion is the most common type of corrosion.
It can be defined as the attack of the entire metal surface exposed to the corrosive
environment resulting in uniform loss of metal from the exposed surface. The metal
becomes thinner and eventually fails.
B. Galvanic Corrosion
- Galvanic corrosion, also known as bimetallic corrosion, is an electrochemical process
whereby one metal corrodes in preference to another metal that it is in contact with
through an electrolyte. Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are
immersed in a conductive solution and are electrically connected.
C. Pitting Corrosion
- Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion by which cavities or "holes" are
produced in the material. Pitting is considered to be more dangerous than uniform
corrosion damage because it is more difficult to detect, predict and design against.
Corrosion products often cover the pits.
D. Crevice Corrosion
- Crevice corrosion is a form of localized attack that occurs within occluded regions or
crevices of metallic components. The attack is caused by an alteration of the conditions
within the crevice relative to the bulk solution.
E. Stress Corrosion Cracking
- Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is defined as the growth of cracks due to the
simultaneous action of a stress (nominally static and tensile) and a reactive environment
. SCC is the result of the combined and synergistic interactions of mechanical stress and
corrosion/oxidation reactions.
IV. Corrosion Protection and Control Methods
Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that can be applied to materials or introduced into their
environment to reduce corrosion rates. They work by altering the metal's surface properties,
preventing ion permeation, or increasing surface electrical resistance. For example, they can
shift the metal's corrosion potential towards either the cathodic or anodic end, blocking specific
corrosion reactions. Inhibitors can form protective films or induce precipitates to shield the metal
from corrosive agents. They are used in various applications, such as coatings, recirculating
systems like automobile radiators, and even washing solutions. Inhibitors are categorized into
groups based on their mechanisms, including passivating, cathodic, organic, precipitation, and
vapor phase inhibitors. Each category serves a distinct role in corrosion prevention.
Passivating inhibitors are the most common type of inhibitors, and highly effective at reducing
corrosion rates by promoting the formation of a thin, protective film on metal surfaces. This film,
which is inert, shifts the metal's corrosion potential towards a more noble region, effectively
passivating it against corrosion. Passivating inhibitors can be either oxidizing (e.g., nitrites,
nitrates) or nonoxidizing (e.g., phosphates, molybdates). However, oxidizing inhibitors do not
require the presence of oxygen, while nonoxidizing inhibitors do. Chromates, although highly
effective, are being phased out due to environmental concerns. A drawback of passivating
inhibitors is that they can accelerate localized corrosion if their concentration falls below a
critical level, necessitating periodic reapplication or monitoring.
Cathodic inhibitors target the cathodic region of the metal or electrochemical cell, inhibiting the
rate of cathodic reactions. They achieve this by forming barrier layers or reacting with reagents
to prevent the formation of corrosive products (e.g., hydrogen gas). Examples include calcium
bicarbonate, zinc compounds, and polyphosphates.
Surface Treatments
Conversion coatings are formed in-situ through a chemical reaction between a metal's surface
and its environment. The two main types are phosphate and chromate conversion coatings.
They provide protection or decoration to the metal surface and are discussed separately.
Anodizing is an electrochemical process commonly used on aluminum, but applicable to other

metals like magnesium and titanium alloys. It involves passing an electric current through an
electrolyte (chromic, phosphoric, or sulfuric acid), resulting in the formation of a thicker oxide
film on the metal surface. This oxide film provides enhanced corrosion protection, although
anodized coatings are typically brittle and susceptible to strong acids and bases.
Coating and Sealants
Metallic coatings offer improved protection against corrosion for metals, serving as either barrier
or sacrificial coatings. They are typically robust and straightforward to apply, although they can
occasionally be porous, leading to accelerated corrosion of the underlying metal. Commonly
used metals for coatings include nickel, lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, tin, chromium, and
aluminum. Various methods are employed to apply metallic coatings, such as cladding,
electrodeposition (electroplating), electroless plating, spraying, hot dipping, diffusion, chemical
vapor deposition (CVD), and ion vapor deposition.
Ceramic coatings are inorganic, nonmetallic barriers that shield the base material from corrosive
environments, typically consisting of oxide films formed by chemical reactions. They excel in
high-temperature corrosion protection and include examples like chromate films and phosphate
coatings.
Organic coatings are widely utilized for corrosion protection on both exterior and interior
surfaces. They are the most commonly used method for corrosion protection, offering improved
appearance and functionality. Various types such as paints, varnishes, enamels, and lacquers
are available, providing a range of options for corrosion protection applications.
Electrodeposition, also called electroplating, is a process where a thin metal layer is deposited
on a metal substrate in order to enhance the surface properties, including its corrosion
resistance. The metal substrate is placed in an electrolytic solution containing dissolved metal
ions, which will ultimately become the coating. An electrical current is passed through the
solution, between two electrodes, causing the ions to deposit on the cathode (metal substrate)
resulting in a metallic coating. Characteristics of the coating are dependent on control of the
processing parameters including temperature, current density, residence time and composition
of the solution.12 The physical and mechanical properties of these coatings can be altered by
varying the processing parameters. They can be made to be thick or thin, hard or soft, or have a
layered composition.
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection (CP) is an electrochemical method widely employed to safeguard structures
or vital system components from corrosion. In CP systems, a cathode, an anode, an electrical
connection between them, and an electrolyte are essential components. The principle behind
CP involves supplying electrons to the metal (cathode) to suppress its dissolution, thereby
controlling corrosion. This redirects corrosion to the anode instead of the metal. CP is ineffective
in environments lacking an electrolyte, such as air. There are two main types of CP: active and
passive. Active CP, also known as impressed-current CP, necessitates an external power
supply. It involves connecting the negative terminal of the power supply to the metal to be
protected and the positive terminal to an inert anode. The current flow ensures the metal acts as
the cathode, thus shielding it from corrosion. Proper voltage control is crucial to prevent
hydrogen embrittlement or accelerated corrosion.
Anodic Protection
Anodic protection is a corrosion control method, albeit less commonly used than cathodic
protection. Unlike cathodic protection, which shields the cathodic electrode, anodic protection
focuses on safeguarding the anodic electrode from corrosion. The principle of anodic protection
involves passivating the metal to be protected by forming a passive film on its surface with the
application of an electrical current. This film acts as a barrier, making the metal highly resistant
to dissolution and corrosion. However, anodic protection is applicable only to certain metals in
specific environments where passivation can occur effectively.
Field Experience with Corrosion
Ships and Submarines
Ships and submarines operate in highly corrosive seawater environments, necessitating careful
design, material selection, and maintenance to avoid costly repairs. This section covers
common corrosive challenges, susceptible components, metal choices, corrosion types, and
prevention methods, applicable beyond marine vessels to any system in similar conditions.
Its Corrosive Environment

Corrosion in marine environments is primarily caused by factors such as seawater, sea
aerosols, rain, dew, condensation, and high humidity, with moisture being the main contributor.
Seawater, due to its high chloride ion concentration combined with moisture and oxygen, poses
a particularly severe corrosion risk for watercraft. The corrosivity of seawater is influenced by
factors like chloride and oxygen content, pH, and temperature.
Common Corrosion in Ships and Submarines

In marine environments, various forms of corrosion are observed:
1. Uniform Corrosion:
- Occurs in stagnant or low-flow seawater.
- Rate: Approximately 5-10 mils per year on mild and low-alloy steels.
- Most common form of corrosive attack on ships and submarines.
2. Crevice Corrosion:
- Trapped seawater in crevices leads to rapid corrosion.
- Example: 304 stainless steel exhibited crevice corrosion, penetrating a ¼ inch thick
component within a few months.
- Components prone to crevice corrosion: Gaskets, washers, o-rings, fasteners, and
lap joints.
3. Galvanic Corrosion:
- Occurs when dissimilar metals are electrically coupled in seawater.
- Example: Galvanic corrosion between the steel hull and bronze propeller of a
submarine.
- Localized galvanic corrosion may occur on aluminum alloys due to copper ions from
onboard systems and coatings.
Common Methods of Corrosion Prevention and Control

Nonskid deck coatings serve two main purposes: providing a friction surface for safe movement
of vehicles and personnel on the deck, and protecting the ship's surface from corrosion.
Metal spray coatings, particularly aluminum, are utilized in shipboard or submarine systems
exposed to high heat, humidity, and salt spray to prevent corrosion. Aluminum coatings not only
separate steel from corrosive environments but also act as sacrificial anodes, with an epoxy or
high temperature sealant applied for additional protection. These coatings typically have a
service life exceeding 7 years and are suitable for use on steel or aluminum alloy substrates.
Inorganic zinc coatings are sacrificial coatings containing a high zinc content, which corrodes
preferentially, providing corrosion protection to the substrate. They offer advantages such as
one-coat protection under many service conditions, excellent exterior durability, heat and
abrasion resistance, galvanic protection properties, and resistance to immersion in oils and
organic solvents. Additionally, they can provide permanent primer capability when used with
proper topcoats and maintenance practices.
1. Structures
Typical corrosive environments for structures vary depending on their location and
function. While atmospheric conditions are common, some structures endure extreme
environments like direct pollution exposure or immersion in marine environments. Additionally,
structures involved in processes such as pipelines, storage tanks, and reactors face corrosion
risks from corrosive fluids, chemicals, and high temperatures. Rural structures often experience
slower atmospheric corrosion compared to industrial or marine environments. Structures buried
underground, like storage tanks and pipelines, must withstand soil contaminants and
groundwater, which can create highly corrosive conditions.
Most Common Corrosion Types in Structures

Uniform Corrosion:
- Commonly observed on structures, especially those made of steel, due to large exposed
areas.
- Although it affects appearance, it typically doesn't compromise structural integrity initially but
can lead to failure over time if untreated.
Pitting Corrosion:
- Less common but more severe, it perforates metal rapidly, leading to potential mechanical
failure.
- Occurs in environments with high corrosive agents like hydrogen sulfide or marine
atmospheres, often affecting storage containers and reactors.
Stress Corrosion Cracking:

- Significant concern as structures support loads and can experience cracking in corrosive
environments.
- Material selection critical to avoid catastrophic failure, particularly in storage tanks and reactors
exposed to extreme conditions.
Galvanic Corrosion:
- Less concerning in structures due to similar metal usage and large surface area.
- Can affect smaller components attached to the structure, such as fasteners, requiring similar
metal or protective coatings.
Common Methods of Corrosion Prevention and Control
Organic Coatings - Widely used for carbon steel protection in various environments.
- Alkyd coatings: Effective for dry atmospheric conditions but not suitable for immersion or
highly humid environments.
- Modified with other materials to enhance properties like moisture resistance.
-
Inorganic Coatings - Provide excellent resistance to solvents, commonly used in chemical plants
and refineries.
- Hot-melted coal tar coatings: Used for underground and water-immersed pipelines.
- Zinc and aluminum coatings: Applied via hot-dip galvanizing or electroplating for marine and
industrial environments.
Cathodic Protection:
- Sacrificial Anodes - Placed on vulnerable areas to improve resistance to corrosion.
- Impressed Current Cathodic Protection - Uses external power source to prevent corrosion
reactions, commonly used on pipelines to reduce oxidation rates.
V. Case Studies
A. Real-world Examples of Corrosion Prevention Success
- Techniques for corrosion prevention have evolved significantly since Davy and Beale’s
time in fact, they’re almost incomparable. The method has been perfected in recent
years by introducing a protective coating for steel. Modern phosphate ceramic steel
coatings, like EonCoat, allow for complete corrosion prevention instead of simply
delaying the process.
- As EonCoat is applied to carbon steel, a magnesium iron phosphate alloy layer forms.
This alloy layer is chemically bonded to the steel making it impossible for moisture or
oxygen to ever come in contact with the substrate. Above the steel, 20 mils of inhibitor in
the form of phosphates and silicates are present to continually re-alloy the steel should
someone mechanically damage the coating.
- A lot has changed in the millenniums that have come to pass since the initial discovery
of corrosive defense techniques. But one thing remains the same: the determination of
man to find techniques for making our materials last longer. A metal that can withstand
the elements is invaluable to modern industries.
B. Lessons Learned from Failures

- Corrosion represents a particularly relevant risk to petroleum refineries because
refineries typically have several high risk factors due to the type of substances and
processes involved in its operations. Other local conditions may also contribute to an
acceleration in the corrosion rate, including physical location of equipment and the
climate. Moreover, certain operating conditions in a refinery, both normal and abnormal,
by their nature are particularly likely to present favorable opportunities for a corrosion
failure to initiate a chain of events leading to a major accident.
VI. Maintenance and Monitoring (zaijho)

A. Regular Inspections
- Regular inspections enable early detection of corrosion, preventing extensive damage
and saving costs in the long run. Inspections help identify root causes of corrosion and
implement preventive measures, ensuring the longevity of equipment and infrastructure.
B. Corrosion Monitoring Techniques

- Corrosion monitoring is the practice of measuring the corrosivity of process stream
conditions by the use of “probes” which are inserted into the process stream and which
are continuously exposed to the process stream condition. Corrosion monitoring
“probes” can be mechanical, electrical, or electrochemical devices.
C. Maintenance Best Practices
- Choosing the right materials
- Applying protective coatings
- Controlling the environment
- Cleaning and lubricating
- Monitoring and testing
-
VII. Future Trends in Corrosion Prevention
A. Emerging Technologies
1. Nanocoatings
- Nanocoatings are ultra-thin layers or chemical structures that are built upon surfaces by
a variety of methods. Some nanocoatings are polymers, either polymerized in-situ or
prior to application. Technically, a nanocoating is a coating that's measured on the
nanoscale.Nanocoatings are used to impart a particular chemical or physical function to
a surface. For example, they may impart hydrophobic and oleophobic properties to
improve corrosion resistance, enhance insulative or even conductive properties. They
can provide self-cleaning properties, as well as resistance to water, static, oil, scratches,
bacteria, corrosion, fungus, friction, UV rays, and more.
VIII. Conclusion
A. Recap of Key Points
- In conclusion, learning about corrosion prevention and control is having a big role in our
society. It can affect our way of living, for example the bridge we are using and if it is
corroded there will be a huge problem to the people.
B. Importance of Continued Research in Corrosion Prevention
- Corrosion affects all industries, such as oil and gas and resources sectors, and most
aspects of human activities. When corrosion is considered across the entire value chain,
optimal corrosion management practices can maximize efficiency, ensure safe and
environmentally compliant operations, and reduce costs.
Quiz
1.It refers to the deterioration or degradation of materials due to chemical reactions with the
surrounding environment. This typically occurs when metals or other materials come into
contact with substances such as oxygen, water, acids, or salts.Single choice.
a. Oxidation
b. Corrosion
c. Biodegradation
d. Radiation damage
2.A type of corrosion that occurs when two dissimilar metals are immersed in a conductive
solution and are electrically connected, also known as bimetallic corrosion.
a. Galvanic Corrosion
b. Uniform Corrosion
c. Stress Corrosion Cracking
d. Crevice Corrosion
3.Which type of inhibitors is most effective at reducing corrosion rates by promoting the
formation of a protective film on metal surfaces?
a. Corrosion Inhibitors
b. Cathodic Inhibitors
c. Effective Inhibitors
d. Passivating Inhibitors
4.What is the primary function of nanocoatings in corrosion prevention?

a. To increase the thickness of protective coatings
b. To provide insulation against electrical currents
c. To enhance surface properties and improve corrosion resistance
d. To remove existing corrosion from metal surfaces
5.What is the importance of regular inspections in corrosion prevention?

a. To detect corrosion early and prevent extensive damage
b. To increase the lifespan of equipment
c. To ensure proper functioning of machinery
d. All of the above
6.What is the significance of continued research in corrosion prevention?

a. To develop new materials resistant to corrosion
b. To reduce costs associated with corrosion damage
c. To ensure safe and environmentally compliant operations
d. All of the above
7.Which surface treatment method involves passing an electric current through an electrolyte to
form a thicker oxide film on a metal surface?
a. Anodizing
b. Conversion coating
c. Electrodeposition
d. Ceramic coating
8.Which factor significantly influences the rate of corrosion in metals?

a. Humidity
b. Temperature
c. Surface Finish
d. Temperature
9.Which type of corrosion in ships and submarines occurs due to trapped seawater in crevices?
a. Uniform corrosion
b. Pitting corrosion
c. Crevice corrosion
d. Galvanic corrosion
10.Which type of coating is commonly used in shipboard or submarine systems exposed to high
heat, humidity, and salt spray?
a. Ceramic coatings
b. Organic coatings
c. Metallic coatings
d. Anodized coatings
11.A type of corrosion that features the growth of cracks due to the simultaneous action of
stress and a reactive environment.Single line text. (1 Point) Enter your answer
Correct answer:
Stress Corrosion Cracking
12. One of the common corrosion control methods that focuses on safeguarding the anodic
electrode from corrosion by forming a passive film on its surface with the application of an
electrical current.Single line text. (1 Point) Enter your answer
Correct answer:
Anodic Protection
13.A localized form of corrosion by which cavities or "holes" are produced in the material. Pitting
is considered to be more dangerous than uniform corrosion damage because it is more difficult
to detect, predict and design against. Corrosion products often cover the pits.Single line text. (1
Point) Enter your answer
Correct answer:
Pitting Corrosion
14. ____ from the sea, increase corrosion rates significantly.Single line text. (1 Point) Enter your
answer
Correct answer:
Sodium Chloride
15.These are added to base metals to enhance their corrosion resistance. For example, adding
chromium to steel can improve its resistance to oxidation and corrosion, forming a passive oxide
layer that protects the underlying metal from further degradation.Single line text. (1 Point) Enter
your answer
Correct answer:
Alloying Elements
16.It is so called electroplating, is a process where a thin metal layer is deposited on a metal
substrate in order to enhance the surface properties, including its corrosion resistance.Single
line text. (1 Point) Enter your answer
Correct answer:
Electrodeposition
17.It plays a significant role in determining how quickly metals corrode because moisture acts
as the electrolyte needed for corrosion reactions to happen.Single line text. (1 Point) Enter your
answer
Correct answer:
Humidity
18.One of the material factors such as polishing, passivation, or coating, can affect a material's
corrosion resistance. Smooth surfaces with protective coatings or passive layers are less
susceptible to corrosion than rough, untreated surfaces.Single line text. (1 Point)
Correct Answer: Surface Finishing
19.A type of coating that is widely utilized for corrosion protection on both exterior and interior
surfaces. They are the most commonly used method for corrosion protection, offering improved
appearance and functionality. Various types such as paints, varnishes, enamels, and lacquers
are available, providing a range of options for corrosion protection applications. (1 Point)
Correct answer:
Organic Coating
20.A type of corrosion that is commonly observed on structures, especially those made of steel,
due to large exposed areas. Although it affects appearance, it typically doesn't compromise
structural integrity initially but can lead to failure over time if untreated.
Correct answer:
Uniform Corrosion
TRUE OR FALSE
21.Corrosion monitoring involves measuring the corrosivity of process stream conditions by
continuously exposing probes to the environment.
Correct answer: True
22.Corrosion inhibitors work by accelerating the corrosion rate of metals.

Correct answer: False
23.Anodic protection involves forming a passive film on the cathodic electrode to prevent
corrosion.
24.Corrosion affects only industrial structures and does not pose any threat to marine vessels.
25.Regular inspections enable early detection of corrosion, preventing extensive damage and
saving costs in the long run.
26.In the context of corrosion prevention and control, sodium chloride is considered a primary
source of atmospheric contaminants that helps corrosion to occur.
27.Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrous Oxides from burning fossil fuel in industrial areas settle on metal
surfaces, react with oxygen and free electrons to form sulfate ions, which further react with
water to prevent corrosion.
28.Heat treatment processes can alter a material's microstructure and mechanical properties,
which in turn affect its corrosion resistance. For example, quenching and tempering can improve
the toughness and corrosion resistance of certain steels.
29.Pipelines, storage tanks, and reactors are examples of structures that corrode due to
corrosive fluids, chemicals, and high temperature.
30.Choosing the right materials and protective coatings in designing machines and systems will
definitely prevent corrosion; thus making its lifespan longer.
LESSON NO.5: NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
A Written Report Presented to

The Undergraduate Program
College of Engineering and Technology
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Course MEC 0325-1 – Material
Science and Engineering (Lecture)
__________________________________
Reported By
Angelces Maja C. Mallari
Submitted to
19 March 2024
Introduction
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a critical methodology within the realm of

material science, offering a comprehensive means of assessing the integrity and
properties of materials without causing damage or altering their structure. This
approach is essential across various industries, including aerospace, automotive,
manufacturing, and construction, where the quality and reliability of materials are
paramount. By employing a diverse array of techniques such as ultrasonic testing,
radiography, eddy current testing, and magnetic particle inspection, NDT enables
thorough evaluations of materials for flaws, defects, discontinuities, and structural
anomalies. Through these methods, technicians can identify issues ranging from surface
cracks to internal voids, ensuring that materials meet stringent quality standards and
safety regulations. Moreover, NDT plays a pivotal role in predictive maintenance,
allowing for the early detection of potential failures in machinery, infrastructure, and
other vital components. Its non-invasive nature not only reduces costs associated with
traditional destructive testing but also minimizes downtime, making it a cornerstone in
the pursuit of efficiency, reliability, and safety across diverse material science
applications.
⇒ The terms non-destructive examination (NDE), non-destructive inspection (NDI),

and non-destructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this method
of testing.
Differences between Destructive and Non-destructive Testing
Materials such as steels generally have to withstand a wide variety of loads.

The different types of loads can be classified as follows:
1
A particular type of load always has a certain temporal course. In general,

several types of loads occur in combination. This is the case, for example, with a shaft
driven on one side, which is simultaneously subjected to torsion, bending and shearing.
Depending on whether the shaft is driven with constant torque or whether the torque
changes permanently, it is a static or dynamic load. Thus, there are countless
possibilities how components can be stressed.
When dimensioning components, the engineer must be able to refer to specific

values that characterize the different stress limits of the materials used with respect to
their temporal course. The stress limit can be based on either an unacceptable
deformation or a fracture. For this reason, various materials testing methods were
developed to determine the corresponding failure limits depending on the type of load
and its time course.
In principle, material testing methods can be divided into two categories:
• destructive testing
• non-destructive testing
2
With destructive testing, the material is damaged, and the component can
usually no longer be used. In general, specially prepared, and standardized samples are
used for this type of testing. The destructive testing procedures provide important
parameters to determine not only the proper material but also geometry of the
component depending on the applied load.
Due to the complexity and the interaction between the different loads, not all
cases can be recorded in material properties. This is always a problem when human
lives are at risk due to component failure. For this reason, safety-relevant components
must be checked at regular intervals, as is the case with turbine blades of aircraft
engines. It is not economically viable to carry out a destructive material test at this
point in order to subsequently state that everything was in order.
3
That is why non-destructive testing (NDT) was developed. This means that the
component can still be used, provided everything is fine. In this way, for example, the
said turbine blades are inspected non-destructively for cracks by ultrasonic
testing or eddy-current testing. Non-destructive testing also includes the visual
inspection of whether a component is externally damaged or not.
⇒ The following test methods are considered non-destructive testing:
o Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT),
o Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT),
o Ultrasonic Testing (UT),
o Eddy Current Testing (ECT),
Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
The dye penetrant inspection (or liquid penetrate inspection) can be used to
visualize surface defects of components. Since the component to be examined is not
damaged during the inspection, the dye penetrant method is one of the non-destructive
material tests. This method is mainly used to inspect possible cracks, e.g. on turbine
blades.
The surface under inspection is first thoroughly cleaned to remove dirt or other
deposits from the cracks. The very low-viscosity colorant (flaw detection ink) is then
applied. Due to the capillary effect, the flaw detection ink penetrates deeply into the
cracks.
4
After an exposure time of about 10 minutes, the surface can be cleaned with a
special cleaner. However, only the surface is cleaned, while the low-viscosity colorant
remains in the cracks due to the strong capillary effect.
In order to make the ink and thus the cracks ultimately visible, a dye
developer is now applied. The developer sucks the ink liquid out of the cracks and
combines with it. Under visible or ultraviolet light, the cracks appear very clearly and
can be assessed.
The dye penetrant method requires that defects reach to the surface so that they
can be penetrated with the detection ink. Flaws below the surface of the workpiece
cannot be detected with this method.
• Advantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

- This method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.
- Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected
rapidly and at low cost.
- Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and
constitute a visual representation of the flaw.
- Aerosol spray can make penetrant materials very portable.
5
- Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively in
expensive.
• Disadvantages of Dye Penetrant Testing
- Only surface breaking defects can be detected • The inspector must

have direct access to the surface being inspected
- Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity
- Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required
- Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
There are several methods of magnetic particle testing All these methods are used
to detect various kinds of flaws in ferromagnetic components such as welding, casting
and forgings of iron and steel. The component to be inspected for flaws is magnetized
and the inspection medium is applied to the component, or magnetization of be
Component and application of inspection medium can be done simultaneously. In the dry
method of inspection, a special fine ferromagnetic powder is applied on the surface by
means of a handshaker, vibrating screen or by any other suitable method so that the
powder uniformly distributed on the surface of the component. In the wet method of
inspection, a liquid containing fine ferromagnetic particles suspended in some carrier
such as kerosene or petroleum oil is applied by some suitable method such as dipping,
spraying or brushing.
6
• Advantages of Magnetic Particle Testing

- Principally and relatively simple method
- Economical and easy to perform
- Portable for field testing
- Fast for production testing
- Reveal or disclose small surface flaws or cracks which may be tight
• Disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Testing

- Material must be ferromagnetic
- Orientation and strength of magnetic field is critical
- Detects surface and near-to-surface discontinuities only
- Large currents are required
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Ultrasonic testing is a non-destructive testing technique because the workpieces

or components to be tested are not damaged during the test. If there are no complaints
7
after the test, the component can continue to be used. Ultrasonic tests are therefore
often used for weld inspections.
The most common form of ultrasonic testing is based on the pulse-echo method.
Acoustic waves in the ultrasonic range with typical frequencies between 0.2 MHz and
100 MHz are induced pulse-like into the workpiece to be tested by a probe. The pulse
duration is usually a few microseconds. These sound pulses propagate in the workpiece
with characteristic sound velocity (depending on the material). At locations where the
propagation speed of the ultrasonic pulses changes, the sound waves are reflected. This
is then referred to as an echo.
• Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing

- Thickness and lengths up to 30 ft can be tested
- Position, size and type of defect can be determined
- Instant test results
- Portable
- Capable of being fully automated
- Access to only one side necessary
• Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Testing

- The operator can decide whether the test piece is defective or not while
the test is in progress.
- Considerable degree of skill necessary to obtain the fullest information
from the test.
- Very thin sections can prove difficult.
8
Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
Eddy current testing is used to non-destructively inspect components for surface

defects such as cracks.
With eddy current testing, electrically conductive materials can be examined for
pores, inclusions and cracks in the area near the surface. Layer thickness and
microstructure tests are also possible with this method.
Eddy current testing is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. For

this purpose, a constantly changing magnetic field (primary field) is first generated in
an field coil by an alternating current.
Depending on how good or bad the surface to be tested conducts the current, more
or less strong eddy currents are formed. This in turn has a direct effect on the strength of
the secondary field and thus on the overall field. The magnetic properties of the surface to
be tested also influence the secondary field and thus the overall field. At cracks, pores or
other inclusions, the electrical and magnetic properties usually change very strongly, so
9
that the total magnetic field changes there. The change of the magnetic field serves as
proof of defects.
• Advantages of Eddy Current Testing

- Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
- Detect surface and near surface defects
- Inspection gives immediate results
- Equipment is very portable
- Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
- Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials
• Disadvantages of Eddy Current Testing

- Only conductive materials can be inspected
- Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
- Surface finish and roughness may interfere
- Depth of penetration is limited
Conclusion
The study on non-destructive testing (NDT) within the realm of material science
presents an indispensable methodology for ensuring the integrity and reliability of
materials across various industries. NDT techniques such as ultrasonic testing,
radiography, eddy current testing, and magnetic particle inspection offer thorough
evaluations without causing damage or altering the structure of materials, making them
invaluable in industries where the quality of materials is paramount. Through NDT,
technicians can identify flaws, defects, and structural anomalies, ranging from surface
cracks to internal voids, thus ensuring adherence to stringent quality standards and
safety regulations. Moreover, NDT plays a pivotal role in predictive maintenance,
enabling the early detection of potential failures in critical components, thereby
10
enhancing efficiency, reliability, and safety across diverse applications.
Furthermore, the distinction between destructive and non-destructive testing

underscores the significance of NDT in safeguarding against catastrophic failures while
allowing components to remain in service if deemed fit. Destructive testing, while
providing valuable data, damages the material under examination, rendering it unusable
for further applications. This limitation is particularly problematic in safety-critical
components where the risks associated with failure are high. In contrast, NDT
techniques offer a non-invasive means of inspection, allowing components to be
assessed for flaws without compromising their structural integrity. This capability is
essential for components such as turbine blades in aircraft engines, where regular
inspections are necessary to ensure continued airworthiness without compromising
safety or incurring excessive costs.
Moreover, a comprehensive exploration of specific NDT methods, such as dye

penetrant testing, magnetic particle testing, ultrasonic testing, and eddy current testing,
highlights the versatility and efficacy of these techniques in detecting surface and
subsurface defects in a variety of materials. Each method possesses distinct advantages
and limitations, catering to different inspection requirements and material properties.
While these methods offer significant benefits such as high sensitivity, rapid inspection
rates, and portability, they also require skilled technicians and careful consideration of
factors such as material conductivity, surface finish, and inspection environment.
Overall, the in-depth analysis of NDT methods underscores their critical role in
ensuring the reliability, safety, and efficiency of materials across diverse applications,
making them indispensable tools in the field of material science and engineering.
11
Quiz #5
Part I- Multiple Choice Questionnaire [1 point each]
1. What is the primary advantage of non-destructive testing (NDT) over destructive

testing?
- A) NDT provides immediate test results.
- B) NDT is less expensive.
- C) NDT allows for testing without damaging the material.
- D) NDT requires less skill to perform.
2. Which of the following industries benefits from the application of non-destructive

testing (NDT)?
- A) Agriculture
- B) Education
- C) Aerospace
- D) Hospitality
3. Which of the following is NOT considered a non-destructive testing technique?
- A) Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
- B) Radiographic Testing (RT)
- C) Tensile Testing
- D) Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
4. What is the primary purpose of dye penetrant testing (DPT)?
12
- A) To detect internal voids in materials
- B) To identify surface defects such as cracks
- C) To measure material thickness
- D) To determine material conductivity
5. Which non-destructive testing method is primarily used for inspecting ferromagnetic

components?
- B) Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
- C) Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
- D) Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
6. What is the main advantage of magnetic particle testing (MPT)?
- A) It is suitable for testing non-metallic materials.
- B) It is inexpensive and easy to perform.
- C) It can reveal small surface flaws or cracks.
- D) It does not require a magnetic field.
7. Which of the following is a disadvantage of ultrasonic testing (UT)?
- A) It provides instant test results.
- B) It requires the operator to have direct access to the surface being inspected.
- C) It is not suitable for inspecting welds.
- D) It can only detect surface defects.
13
8. What principle is eddy current testing (ECT) based on?
- A) Electromagnetic induction
- B) Sound propagation
- C) Surface tension
- D) Optical reflection
9. Which type of load can result in both static and dynamic stresses on a component?
- A) Shearing
- B) Bending
- C) Torsion
- D) Compression
10. What is the primary purpose of non-destructive testing (NDT)?
- A) To destroy materials for analysis
- B) To assess material integrity without causing damage
- C) To reduce the cost of material testing
- D) To alter material structures for improved performance
11. Which category of material testing involves damaging the material under
examination?
- A) Non-destructive testing
- B) Destructive testing
- C) Predictive maintenance
- D) Visual inspection
14
12. What is the primary advantage of destructive testing?
- A) It provides immediate test results
- B) It is less expensive than non-destructive testing
- C) It does not damage the material under examination
- D) It offers important parameters for determining material properties
13. Which of the following materials is NOT typically inspected using magnetic
particle testing?
- A) Aluminum
- B) Iron
- C) Steel
- D) Cobalt
14. Which NDT method is suitable for inspecting components for surface defects such
as cracks?
- B) Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
- C) Radiographic Testing (RT)
15. What is the primary limitation of ultrasonic testing (UT)?
- A) It requires large currents for inspection
- B) It can only detect surface defects
- C) It does not provide instant test results
15
- D) It cannot be used for weld inspections
16. Which category of material testing allows components to remain in service if no

defects are found?
- A) Non-destructive testing
- B) Destructive testing
- C) Predictive maintenance
- D) Visual inspection
17. Which NDT method relies on the principle of electromagnetic induction?
- B) Radiographic Testing (RT)
- C) Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
- D) Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
18. What type of defects can be detected using dye penetrant testing?
- A) Internal voids
- B) Surface cracks
- C) Thickness variations
- D) Material composition changes
19. Which NDT method is particularly suitable for inspecting welds?
- A) Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
- B) Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
16
- C) Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
20. What is the primary advantage of eddy current testing (ECT)?
- A) It is sensitive to small cracks and defects
- B) It does not require skilled technicians
- C) It can be used for non-conductive materials
- D) It provides instant test results
Part II- Destructive Testing (DT) or Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) [1 point each]
21. Which type of testing is primarily used for finding out defects of materials?
22. In which type of testing is load not applied on the material?
23. Which type of testing is typically expensive?
24. Which type of testing requires more skill?
25. In which type of testing are no load applications, thus no chance for material
damage?
26. Which type of testing does not require special equipment?
27. Which type of testing requires special equipment?
28. Which type of testing is typically non-expensive?
29. Which type of testing requires less skill?
30. Which type of testing is primarily used for finding out the properties of the
material?
31. In which type of testing is load applied on the material?
32. Due to load application, which type of testing results in material damage?
17
Part III- Expansion of Acronyms[2 points each]
33-34. DPT
35-36. UT
37-38. MPT
39-40. ECT
**Key Answers**
Part I
1. C) NDT allows for testing without damaging the material.
2. C) Aerospace
3. C) Tensile Testing
4. B) To identify surface defects such as cracks
5. C) Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
6. C) It can reveal small surface flaws or cracks.
7. B) It requires the operator to have direct access to the surface being inspected.
8. A) Electromagnetic induction
9. C) Torsion
10. B) To assess material integrity without causing damage
11. B) Destructive testing
12. D) It offers important parameters for determining material properties
18
13. A) Aluminum
14. B) Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
15. B) It can only detect surface defects
16. A) Non-destructive testing
17. D) Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
18. B) Surface cracks
19. C) Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
20. A) It is sensitive to small cracks and defects
Part II
21. NDT
22. NDT
23. DT
24. DT
25. NDT
26. NDT
27. DT
28. NDT
29. DT
30. DT
31. NDT
32. DT
Part III
33-34. Dye Penetrant Testing
35-36. Ultrasonic Testing
37-38. Magnetic Particle Testing
39-40. Eddy Current Testing
19
References
Tec Science. (n.d.). Non-destructive Material Testing (NDT). Retrieved from

https://www.tec-science.com/material-science/material-testing/non-destructive-
material-testing-ndt/
Gupta, H. (2017). Non-Destructive Testing. Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/HimanshiGupta26/non-destructive-testing-72696558
Varade, H. (2018). Non-Destructive Testing. Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/HARSHALVARADE/non-destructive-testing-121049353
20
(University of the City of Manila)
General Luna corner Muralla Street, Intramuros, Manila
College of Engineering
MEC 0325-1 – MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING FOR ME (LECTURE)

2nd Semester, S.Y. 2023 – 2024
Topic 7: Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Materials

(Written Report)
Submitted by:
Antonio, Naomi Louisse
Valencia, Kristine Quelie B.
Submitted to:
Topic 7: Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Materials
I. Introduction
a. What is Iron
• Chemical element with the symbol Fe that is part of the metal group 8 in the
periodic table. It has defining properties including hardness, high tensile
strength and malleability.
• Iron became known at around 1200 BC and sparked the Iron Age. It was
due to the fact that iron is abundant, accessible, and versatile as it is the
perfect metal for forging and smelting. And since then, Iron has helped
shaped civilizations and advance our technology
• Iron is abundant as it makes up for 5% of earths’ crust. Due to this, it is
cheap and the most utilized and used metal.
• Often mixed with metals or used to manufacture steel that can be used in
construction. Furthermore, it is also widely used in electronics and in
machinery.
b. Definition Ferrous and Non-Ferrous
• Due to the contribution of iron to the properties of materials and its
commonality, we can group metals on whether they contain Iron or not ,
which are:
o Ferrous materials or materials that contain iron, and
o Non-Ferrous materials or materials that do not contain Iron.
II. Ferrous
A. Properties
• By definition, Ferrous materials are metals that contain a substantial amount
of iron into the mix. Commonly, Ferrous metals contain more than 50% of
iron.
• They exhibit high amounts of tensile strength and durability. Additionally,
they are heavier and denser than Non-ferrous materials
• They are more likely to exhibit magnetism and like most metals, they can
conduct electricity.
• For their appearance, they are prone to rusting so we can say that a material
has iron if it has rust on its surface. It also have silver - like color
• Above Mentioned properties depend on the amount of iron and what kind
of other metals are mixed into the final material.
B. Examples and its Application

1. Carbon Steels
• Carbon steels are metals that contain 90% iron with a major alloying
element of Carbon and a small percentage of other elements.
Characteristics of each type of Carbon steel Varies depending on the
concentration of Carbon into the mix. The higher the Carbon
content, the harder the material and thus, they each have their own
applications and ways of treatment.
• Other elements found in this type of metals are low to have any
significant effect on Carbon steels and its properties.
o Low Carbon steel is a type of Carbon steel containing 0.05 -
2.5% Carbon. They are mostly used for bending operations due
to their malleability. They can be made into nuts and bolts, and
other forgings
o Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.25% - 0.6% Carbon. They can
be made into gears, axles, and shafts. Some can also be made
into nuts and bolts. The increase of Carbon in the material allows
it to be tempered or quenched.
o High Carbon Steel has at least 0.25% Carbon. Due to its
increased strength, ductility, and weldability, This type of
Carbon Steel can be made into various tools. Additionally, it can
be made into washers and fasteners.
2. Stainless Steel
• Stainless steel is a type of steel that is resistant to corrosion.
• It Contains 10% - 30% Chromium. Other alloying elements can be
added to enhance corrosion resistance and achieve other properties.
• Common Types
o Austenitic Steel is a type of stainless steel that contains 16%-
26% Chromium and 35% nickel. Their properties include the
highest corrosion resistance, can’t be hardened via heat
treatment, and are not magnetic. They are used in aircrafts and
in food-processing facilities.
o Ferritic steels contain 10.5% - 2% chromium and 0% nickel.
Their properties include medium corrosion resistance and are
also not able to be hardened through heat treatment. It can be
used for automotive parts like the auto trim, industrial
machinery, and architectural applications.
o Martensitic steels typically contain 11.5% - 18% chromium,
1.2% carbon and nickel sometimes added. They have corrosion
resistance but not much like the first two and are hardenable by
temperature treatment. They can also be applied in automobiles
like door beams and bumpers, and turbines.
3. Other Alloying Elements
• Manganese - enhances ductility, wear resistance, and hardenability
by quenching. It also increases the strength of the material.
• Nickel - As shown in stainless steel, it helps prevent corrosion.
Additionally, it increases ductility.
• Silicon - Increases strength, elasticity, and magnetic properties.
• Titanium - Enhances strength and increases rust resistance. It also
limits austenite grain size which improves ductility.
• Vanadium - Like Titanium, it limits grain size and improves
ductility. Improves strength, hardness, wear and shock impact
resistance
• Molybdenum - Enhances mechanical properties and resistance to
corrosion.
4. Cast Iron
• Alloy of Iron and Carbon that has 1.5% - 4% except for that, it
contains silicon, manganese, sulfur and phosphorus.
• This ferrous material is hard and strong but brittle.
• gears, rods, and pins, and mining equipment are its common uses.
C. Applications and importance

• Generally speaking, different ferrous materials each have their own unique
qualities which we can utilize in various fields of engineering. Their known
toughness, durability, and great tensile strength. Moreover, their low cost and
abundance make them a huge commodity.
III. Non-Ferrous
A. Properties
1. High Corrosion and Rust Resistance: Non-ferrous metals do not have significant
iron content, making them highly resistant to rust and corrosion. This makes them
ideal for making gutters, roofs, and other applications that require exposure to the
elements.
2. Non-Magnetic: This metal type is non-magnetic, making them ideal for wirings and
electronics.
3. Lightweight: These metals are often lighter than ferrous metals. The difference in
weight is due to the disparity in the carbon content of both metal types. However,
you should note that not all non-ferrous metals are lightweight. Some metals like
osmium, lead, and tungsten are heavier and denser than ferrous metals like steel.
4. High Electrical and Thermal Conductivity: Non-ferrous metals such as copper and
silver are known for their excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, making
them the materials of choice for electrical wiring, heat sinks, and other heat transfer
applications.
5. Malleability and Ductility: Many non-ferrous metals, like copper and gold, can be
easily shaped and formed without breaking, allowing for the creation of intricate
designs and components.
B. Examples and its Application

1. Aluminum
a) This is one of the most important non-ferrous metals. Another reason why
aluminum is common is that it is the base metal for many alloys.
Aluminum is also one of the most cost-effective metals for CNC
machining.
b) It is still an excellent conductor, although this metal does not conduct heat
and electricity as much as copper. Other properties of aluminum include
excellent malleability and ductility. On the downside, this metal is
relatively expensive and becomes quite hard after cold working, requiring
annealing.
c) Aluminum alloy has applications in a diverse range of industries. It is
lightweight and ideal for making airplanes, automotive parts, and yachts.
It is also used to make everyday items like drink cans, saucepans, and
bicycle frames.
2. Copper
a) Copper and its alloys, brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin),
have diverse uses in several industries. This is due to its properties of high
electrical conductivity, ductility, thermal conductivity, and corrosion
resistance. When it is not alloyed, it is soft and ductile
b) These properties make copper and its alloys good for manufacturing
heating vessels and heat exchangers. Its high electrical conductivity makes
it ideal for motors and wiring. Furthermore, copper has applications in
producing plumbing fittings, roofing materials, statues, and cooking
utensils.
c) On the downside, copper is quite expensive, and wires made with this
material are usually susceptible to corrosion. It also loses its shape since
the material is soft.
3. Nickel
a) Nickel is another common non-ferrous metal. The properties of this silvery
metal include corrosion resistance, toughness, and temperature tolerance.
Although this metal exists in a pure form, this form has minimal
applications.
b) However, this metal gains excellent mechanical and chemical properties
when alloyed with other elements. This gives it application in the hot-
section of airplanes, automobiles, and marine equipment, as well as in the
production of cryogenic equipment.
c) Besides, nickel can resist corrosion even at high temperatures, making it a
good material for producing nails, pipes, and armor plating.
d) Nickel-based superalloys exhibit exceptional strength and resistance to
high temperatures, making them ideal for components in gas turbines, jet
engines, and power generation turbines. These alloys retain their
mechanical properties even at elevated temperatures, allowing for efficient
operation in extreme conditions.
4. Zinc
a) Zinc used as both a standalone metal and an alloying element has a diverse
range of uses. One of its most popular uses is alloying copper to form brass.
b) Another application of zinc is as a galvanizing element. Metals galvanized
with steel have better corrosion resistance. This gives zinc applications in
producing lampposts, heat exchangers, metal roofs, guardrails, car bodies,
and suspension bridges. It also has use in cathodic protection as the anode
material for batteries.
c) Another use of zinc is its oxide which has application in rubber
manufacturing. It helps disperse heat during rubber manufacturing.
5. Lead
a) This metal has many applications and is the heaviest common non-ferrous
metal. Furthermore, lead is toxic and causes harm to human health. This
metal being corrosion resistant and heavy has application in producing
paint, fuels, and bullets.
b) Lead is a poor conductor of electricity but is ductile, dense, and malleable.
On exposure to air, lead experiences a color change. It also has applications
in producing cable sheathing, lead crystal glass, and weight belts for
diving. Its main uses in today’s world are in the production of acid tanks,
power cables, and batteries. However, lead is chemically inert. This means
it does not react with many chemicals.
6. Silver
a) Silver is a relatively soft metal with a lustrous and shiny appearance. It is
a metal with the best thermal and electrical conductivity, highly malleable,
and resistant to corrosion.
b) Silver has the highest electrical conductivity of all metals, with copper
having the second highest. This makes silver very useful in electronics,
often being used for solder, electrical contacts, and printed circuit boards.
c) Silver is commonly used to create conductive traces on printed circuit
boards (PCBs). These traces form the pathways for electrical signals to
travel between components such as microchips, resistors, and capacitors,
enabling the functionality of electronic devices.
7. Gold
a) Gold is one of the non-ferrous metals with great malleability. It is also
ductile and corrosion-resistant. Gold does not react with other chemicals,
so there is little risk of degradation due to chemical reactions. Furthermore,
this metal has excellent thermal and electrical conduction.
b) It has applications in the production of jewelry, like necklaces, rings, and
bangles. It also serves as a legal tender for finance and investment. Besides,
its electrical conductivity makes it ideal for use in the production of
electronics and computer devices. Gold is also used in manufacturing
colored glass and for tooth restoration in medicine and dentistry.
8. Titanium
a) This metal has an excellent strength-to-density ratio as well as corrosion
resistance. An alloy of this metal with aluminum and iron creates
lightweight yet strong metal.
b) Unalloyed, titanium metals strength is comparable to some steel, although
it is less dense. This metal has applications in several industries, including
the agricultural, medical, sporting, military, aerospace, and automotive
industry.
IV. Differences of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous using Venn Diagram

Ferrous materials contain iron as their primary constituent, while non-ferrous materials do not.
Ferrous metals like steel and cast iron are strong and magnetic, commonly used in structural
and automotive applications. Non-ferrous metals such as aluminum and copper offer benefits
like lightweight and corrosion resistance, making them ideal for aerospace and electrical uses.
The distinction between these materials lies in iron content and resulting properties, each
serving specific applications across various industries.
Quiz No. 7: Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Materials
I. MULTIPLE
Instructions: Choose the letter among the choices, write the letter of your answer in a blank
sheet of paper.
1) The properties of this silvery metal include corrosion resistance, toughness, and
temperature tolerance. Although this metal exists in a pure form, this form has minimal
applications.
a) Nickel
b) Lead
c) Magnesium
d) Aluminum
2) Non-ferrous metals make them highly resistant to __ and __. So, they are ideal for
making gutters, roofs, and other applications that require exposure to the elements.
a) Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
b) Rust and Corrosion
c) Dirt and Stain
d) Metals and Alloys
3) This is one of the most important non-ferrous metals.

a) Nickel
b) Lead
c) Magnesium
d) Aluminum
4) Non-ferrous metals such as copper and silver are known for their excellent ___ and
____, making them the materials of choice for electrical wiring, and heat sinks.
a) Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
b) Rust and Corrosion
c) Dirt and Stain
d) Metals and Alloys
5) It has the highest electrical conductivity of all metals, with copper having the second
highest. This makes silver very useful in electronics, often being used for solder,
electrical contacts, and printed circuit boards.
a) Non-ferrous
b) Ferrous
c) Silver
d) Gold
6) What is the Atomic symbol for Iron?
a) Fe
b) I
c) Ir
d) Ege
7) Iron came from the Latin word__

a) Fera
b) Ferrum
c) Forda
d) Irog
8) What percentage of Iron should be in a material for it to be considered Ferrous?

a) 10%
b) 30%
c) 50%
d) 75%
9) Type of Ferrous steel that contain 90% iron with a major alloying element of Carbon and
a small percentage of other elements
a) Cast Iron
b) Stainless steel
c) Alloy steel
d) Carbon Steel
10) Type of Ferrous Metal that has resistance to corrosion

a) Cast Iron
b) Carbon steel
c) Alloy steel
d) Stainless Steel
II. IDENTIFICATION
Instruction: Identify which metals are indicated, write Ferrous or Non-Ferrous.
1. Lead
2. Cast Iron
3. Aluminum
4. Low-Carbon Steel
5. Titanium
6. High-Carbon Steel
7. Zinc
8. Austenitic Steel
9. Copper
10. Martensitic Steel
III. ENUMERATION
21-25. Write the 5 properties of non-ferrous material.

26-28. Write the 3 types of Carbon steels
29-30. Write at least 2 properties of Iron
ANSWER KEY QUIZ # 7
I. MULTIPLE
1. A
2. B
3. D
4. A
5. C
6. A
7. B
8. C
9. D
10. D
II. IDENTIFICATION
1. Non-Ferrous
2. Ferrous
3. Non-Ferrous
4. Ferrous
5. Non-Ferrous
6. Ferrous
7. Non-Ferrous
8. Ferrous
9. Non-Ferrous
10. Ferrous
III. ENUMERATION
1. High Corrosion And Rust Resistance
2. Non-Magnetic
3. Lightweight
4. High Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
5. Malleability and Ductility
6. Low-Carbon steel
7. Medium - Carbon Steel
8. High Carbon Steel
9-10:
• Malleable
• Cheap
• Abundant
• prone to corrosion
• strong
• hard
• Versatile
• High tensile strength
REFERENCES
AZoM. (2019, May 30). Titanium - Applications. https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1297
Btiernay. (2021, March 25). What is a Ferrous Metal? Metal Supermarkets.
https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/what-is-a-ferrous-metal/
Btiernay. (2024, January 4). The difference between Ferrous and Non-Ferrous metal. Metal
Supermarkets. https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/the-difference-between-ferrous-and-non-
ferrous-metal/
Cathy. (2022, September 12). What are Non-Ferrous metals? - Properties, differences & application.
Rapiddirect. https://www.rapiddirect.com/blog/what-is-non-ferrous-metal/
Creatureworks. (2023, March 16). 5 Non-Ferrous metal applications and what they’re used for.
Patriot Foundry & Castings. https://www.patriotfoundry.com/news/non-ferrous-metal-
applications/
Unveiling the World of Non-Ferrous Metals: A Comprehensive Exploration with Examples. (n.d.).
https://eziil.com/non-ferrous-metals
Velling, A. (2024, March 18). Examples of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous metals. Fractory.
https://fractory.com/ferrous-metals-non-ferrous-metals-with-
examples/#:~:text=Ferrous%20metals%20may%20include%20a,them%20widely%20used%2
0in%20engineering.

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NATURE OF MATERIALS

1.1 TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with mechanical properties similar

Advanced Engineering Materials

30. What type of bond is formed between a metal and a nonmetal?

Insulators and semiconductors have a narrow band gap, allowing

When an electric field is applied, free electrons experience

MEC 0325-1 – MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (LECTURE).

Written Report – Material Testing.

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

Engr. Arnel Q. Lucas

· Material testing is defined as an established technique, which is used for

Major Reason for Material Testing:

TWO TYPES OF MATERIAL TESTING

o Ultrasonic Testing (UT),

· One of the most common mechanical stress–strain tests is performed in

MACHINE USED FOR TENSILE TESTING

Universal Testing Machine.

· A machine that applies a tensile force to the specimen and then

Overview of the Universal Testing Machine.

1. Load Frame - The main structural component of the UTM.

2. Control System - An electronic control unit that regulates the testing

5. Strain Measurement Device / Extensometer - A device attached to the

1. Test Method Selection.

Concepts of Stress and Strain.

· The stress-strain curve provides valuable information about the material's

Properties determined by Tensile Testing.

1. Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus) –this is a measure of a material's

2. Yield Strength - this is the stress at which a material begins to deform

3. Percent Elongation - this is the percentage increase in the length of the

4. Strain at Failure - this is the amount of strain or deformation a material

5. Toughness - this is a measure of a material's ability to absorb energy

Tensile Testing Specimen

· Tensile specimens are commonly machined or die-cast in a cylindrical or

Tensile Test Result

· The appearance of the fractured surface of a ductile material after a

· In contrast to ductile materials, brittle materials typically exhibit a flat and

· A compression test is a method for determining the behavior of materials

Overview of the Compression Testing Machine.

Properties Determined by Compression Testing.

1. Compressive Strength - This is the maximum compressive stress that a

2. Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus) - This is a measure of a material's

3. Compressive Yield Strength - For materials that exhibit plastic deformation

4. Compressive Toughness - This is a measure of a material's ability to absorb

5. Compressive Modulus - This is similar to the modulus of elasticity but

6. Compressive Strain at Failure - This is the amount of strain or deformation a

Conditions Under Compression Testing.

1. Specimen Preparation - Before conducting a compressive test, specimens

2. Loading Rate - The loading rate may be specified by testing standards or

3. Alignment and Fixturing - Fixturing or specialized grips may be used to

4. Data Acquisition and Recording - These systems may include load

COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

· Thermal Expansion is an event where an object or body expands in

· This increase in vibration pushes against the intermolecular forces,

· This coefficient is called the coefficient of thermal expansion and is used

How to test the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

· Using a Thermomechanical analyzer - The specimen is heated at a

· Using Dilatometer - The specimen is placed in a dilatometer at room

Properties Determined in Testing the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

1. Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient (α): The linear thermal expansion

· The change in temperature causes bodies to expand or contrast, the

Six Key Words:

Is it Possible for a Material to go from being Ductile to being Brittle?