Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.

6, 2007

ISSUES AND DIRECTIONS ON INTEGRATED PUBLIC TRANSPORT

IN METROPOLITAN MANILA

Noriel Christopher C. TIGLAO Ildefonso T. PATDU, Jr.

Assistant Professor Director, Planning Service
National College of Public Administration Department of Transportation and
and Governance Communications
University of the Philippines, Diliman Columbia Tower, Ortigas Avenue
1101 Quezon City, PHILIPPINES 1555 Mandaluyong City, PHILIPPINES
Telefax: +63-2-928-3861 Telefax: +63-2-727-7960
Email: nctiglao@up.edu.ph Email:dirpatdu@yahoo.com

Abstract: The urban population of Metro Manila continues to expand along with high rates of
suburbanization at adjoining municipalities. This greater metropolitan region is now referred
to as 'Mega Manila'. The resulting urban pattern is one where an increasing number of people
live at the fringes of the metropolitan area but still need to travel to the city centers to work or
study. In order to sustain economic growth and development and to protect the environment in
the region, there is a need to increase mobility through the provision of an integrated public
transport system. This paper reviews the various sustainable development and management
issues and policies impinging on the public transport system of Metro Manila. The paper also
reviews and evaluates existing policy directions in relation to the development of an
integrated public transport system for the metropolis.

Key Words: integrated public transport, sustainable development, mega-city

1. INTRODUCTION

The urban population of Metro Manila continues to expand along with high rates of
suburbanization at adjoining municipalities. This greater metropolitan region is now referred
to as 'Mega Manila'. The resulting urban pattern is one where an increasing number of people
live at the fringes of the metropolitan area but still need to travel to the city centers to work or
study. This development trend puts tremendous pressure on the limited transport infrastructure
and public transport system. In order to sustain economic growth and development and to
protect the environment, there is a need to increase mobility through the provision of an
integrated public transport system.

The public transportation system of Mega Manila is complicated with the sheer number of
players in the public transport industry. For road-based public transport, the system consists of
more than 600 public utility bus (PUB) operators maintaining about 5,000 units plying some
70 routes and around 58,000 units of public utility jeepney (PUJ) plying some 600 routes. The
rail-based public transport system consists of the network of LRT 1, LRT 2, MRT 3 and the
PNR Commuter Line. However, the existing system is far from optimal and adequate. The
need for additional capacity and higher-level public transport service is reflected by the high
demand for emerging modes, particularly AUV Express of FX (AUV). Presently, there are
about 90,000 such units plying Mega Manila.

The last extensive study on public transport system for Metro Manila was done in 1981
through the Metro Manila Urban Transport Improvement Project (MMUTIP), which was
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

conducted by the then Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MOTC). The most
recent comprehensive study, the Metro Manila Urban Transport Integration Study (MMUTIS),
conducted in 1996 proposed several major improvements in road infrastructure and rail
network system as part of its Master Plan for 2015. However, the situation regarding supply
and demand of public transportation has changed dramatically in 10 years due to the rapid
increase of population and the number of registered vehicles in Mega Manila. There is now a
need to review existing public transport policies and management practices with the view of
promoting better integration.

This paper reviews the various sustainable development and management issues and policies
impinging on the public transport system of Metro Manila. The paper also reviews and
evaluates existing policy directions in relation to the development of an integrated public
transport system for the metropolis.

2. PROFILE OF MEGA MANILA

The Mega Manila Region (MMR) is a region which contains areas that are within 100 kms
from the administrative center of the City of Manila. The region covers the administrative
jurisdiction of the National Capital Region (NCR) which consists of 17 cities and
municipalities, as well as, cities and municipalities in Region III and Region IV-A. This
conceptual administrative area accounts for about 36% of the total national population and
21.9 % of total land area of the Philippines. Figure 1 shows the map of the Mega Manila
Region.

Figure 1 Map of Mega Manila Region

 Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

2.1 Geography
2.1.1 National Capital Region
The National Capital Region (NCR) or Metropolitan Manila is composed of 17 cities and
municipalities. It is the smallest administrative region in the country with a land area of about
636 sq. kms. but is the most densely populated. Because of the problems associated with a
suddenly booming population and urban growth, the NCR was set up in 1976 through
Presidential Decree 824, in order to have a unified planning. The region is bounded by several
municipalities in the adjacent provinces of Region III (Central Luzon) and Region IV
(Southern Tagalog). Adjacent to its west is a body of water (Manila Bay).

2.1.2 Region III

Located at the north of Metro Manila, Region III or Central Luzon has a total area of 18,330
sq. kms. and consists of seven provinces and twelve cities. Region III also sits on the largest
plain in the country and has a significantly large agricultural space. San Fernando City in
Pampanga Province, is the regional capital. The region’s southernmost province, Bulacan
shares a common boundary with 5 other cities in the northern part of Metro Manila: Navotas,
Malabon, Caloocan, Quezon and Valenzuela.

2.1.3 Region IV-A

Region IV-A, intuitively was once part of a larger administrative subdivision known as
Region IV, located in the South of NCR. However in 2002, Region IV was separated into 2
independent sections: Regions IV-A and IV-B . The provinces that are situated in the Luzon
mainland became part of IV-A or most commonly known as CALABARZON (an acronym for
the provinces that comprise the region). Region IV-A covers 19,578 sq. kms. of land and
consists of 5 provinces. Calamba City in Laguna Province is the regional capital. NCR is
bounded by 3 provinces from this region: Cavite and Laguna in the south, and Rizal in the
west.

2.2 Population
The population of NCR and adjoining municipalities in Regions III and IV-A has been
continuously increasing as presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1 Population of regions in Mega Manila

Region 1980 1990 2000
Population % No. of HH's Population % No. of HH's Population % No. of HH's
Share Share Share
NCR 5,925,884 38.4 1,103,563 7,948,392 38.5 1,569,588 9,932,560 36.2 2,132,989
III 4,802,793 31.1 838,045 6,199,017 30.0 1,163,205 8,030,945 29.3 1,632,047
IV-A 4,710,580 30.5 850,214 6,489,065 31.4 1,244,688 9,494,426 34.6 1,953,103
Total 15,439,257 100.0 2,791,822 20,636,474 100.0 3,977,481 27,457,931 100.0 5,718,139
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

Table 2. Population growth rates

Region Average annual growth rate (%)
1980-1990 1990-2000 1980-2000
NCR 2.98 2.25 2.62
III 2.58 2.62 2.60
IV-A 3.25 3.91 3.58

Figure 2 shows the population trend for the Mega Manila Region. Sometime after 1990, NCR
has breached the 8 million mark, making the metropolis a megalopolis. The growth rate
however for NCR is lower compared to the previous decade. Relative to the other two
regions, the population growth for Region IV-A is the highest, during the past two decades.

30,000

25,000
Population (Thousands)

20,000
NCR
Regio n 3
15,000
Regio n 4-A
To tal
10,000 Series4

5,000

0
1939 1948 1960 1970 1975 1980 1990 19952000

Year

Figure 2 Population trend in Mega Manila

2.3 Migration
Table 3 shows the migration rates of the Mega Manila region. There have been very large
movements of people from all other regions of the country to Metro Manila and this has
resulted to large increases in the population. NCR along with the adjacent regions exhibit
mutual migrant propensities. Region IV has the highest migration rate to Metro Manila and
this effect is reciprocated, although in a lower rate. This condition of mutual exchange of
migrants between regions, termed as “circular migration” is evident even in the early sixties
and seventies. It is argued that because of circular migrants, the actual population of Metro
Manila might have reached 8 million even during in the late 80’s. Table 4 shows the net
migration flows in the Mega Manila Region. In a span of 20 years, official statistics suggest
that NCR has received more than 300,000 migrants.
 Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

Table 3 Migration rates in Mega Manila by region (Thousands)

Origin Destination and Period
NCR Region III Region IV
1975-1980 1985-1990 1975-1980 1985-1990 1975-1980 1985-1990
NCR 0 0 8.5 8.2 14.5 18.1
Region I 2.5 2.3 4.0 3.5 0.7 0.8
Region II 1.0 0.9 2.0 3.2 0.4 0.5
Region III 8.5 8.2 0.0 0.0 2.6 5.7
Region IV 18.3 25.2 2.6 5.7 0.0 0.0
Region V 3.2 2.6 2.7 3.9 1.9 1.9
Region VI 2.2 2.8 1.1 1.2 0.6 0.8
Region VII 1.2 1.7 1.0 1.0 0.3 0.4
Region VIII 1.9 2.3 3.1 2.8 0.3 0.5
Region IX 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.1
Region X 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.2
Region XI 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2
Region XII 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.1

Table 4 Net migration flows in Mega Manila by region

Region Period
1975-1980 1985-1990
NCR 174,000 125,228
III 9,589 77,939
IV 68,412 87,120
Total 252,001 290,287

2.4 Employment and Education

Table 5 shows the number of employed residents in Mega Manila. As the country’s economic
center, large percentage of the population in NCR are employed in business, transportation
and services, followed by the utilities sector. Meanwhile, majority of workers in Regions III
and IV are into agriculture, fishing and mineral extraction.

In 2000, the number of gainful workers in Metro Manila is reached over 3.5 million,
excluding those workers who are living outside. Ten years ago, if the number of non-NCR
residents is included, the total number of workers increases by as much as 16%, from 3.1
million to 3.7 million as shown in Table 6. In effect, there were about 600 thousand additional
non-resident workers.

Table 5 Employment at residence in Mega Manila (000)

Industry NCR Region III Region IV
Sector 1 1980 1990 1995 2000 1980 1990 1995 2000 19802 1990 1995 2000
Primary 129 38 50 37 412 760 707 689 199 1,029 1,227 1,071
Secondary 621 744 832 870 164 417 392 628 149 621 819 978
Tertiary 1,347 1,749 2,234 2,636 378 904 823 1,413 260 1,136 1,473 2,035
Total 2,096 2,531 3,116 3,543 954 2,081 1,922 2,730 608 2,786 3,519 4,084
1 Primary class – agricultural, fishing and basic resource extraction

Secondary class – manufacturing, electricity, gas and water; and construction

Tertiary class – wholesale and retail, transportation and communication, financing and business,
community services
2 Region IV-A only.
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

It is also worth noting that due to the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 in Central Luzon, the
number of workers in the area decreased as reported during 1995.

Table 6 Employment at workplace Metro Manila (000)

Industry Sector 1971 1980 1995
Primary 13 13 39
Secondary 220 312 836
Tertiary 654 999 2,854
Total 887 1,324 3,729

For the year 2004, the number of enrollees in primary and secondary levels reached over 2
million in NCR as shown is Table 7. Comparing the years 2004 and 1990 for NCR, the
number of secondary students almost doubled. From Figure 3, it is observed that the trend for
school attendance in NCR and Region III are similar. Region IV on the other hand,
experienced a sudden increase during 1990.

Table 7 School attendance at residence Mega Manila (000)

Level Region 1980 1990 20041
NCR 792 1,133 1,146
III 859 1,057 1,321
Primary
IV 1,036 1,419 1,551b
Subtotal 2,687 3,609 4,018
NCR 573 561 1,020
III 303 426 664
Secondary
IV 365 587 621 2
Subtotal 1,241 1,574 2,305
Total 3,928 5,183 6,323
1 Data for private schools is in year 2002; public schools is in year 2004.
2 Region IV-A only

2500
Number of students (000)

2000

NCR
1500 Regio n III
Regio n IV
date
1000

500

0
1980 1990 2004
Year

Figure 3 School attendance in Mega Manila

In terms of classroom supply, the NCR has been unable to meet the growing demands of
students, most especially in public schools. Table 8 shows the enrollment in public elementary
schools. For academic year 1999 to 2000, enrollment averages 86 students per classroom in
public elementary schools, compared to the ideal ratio which is 35 to 45:1.
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

Table 8 Enrollment in public elementary schools in Mega Manila (2000)

Region No. of Enrollment
classrooms per
classroom
NCR 12,408 86
III 30,473 38
IV-A 29,788 43

The urbanized area of the administrative coverage of NCR has been constantly expanding.
During 1966, the urbanized area was only 221 sq. kms and by 1970, Metro Manila became
entirely urbanized as shown in Table 9. In 1996, the current urbanized area has exceeded the
administrative boundary of Metro Manila, covering as much as 788 sq. kms. as depicted in
Figure 3. Influence of urbanization of NCR to nearby provinces is evident. Region III is
expected to be 70% urbanized at present.

Table 9 Levels of urbanization in Mega Manila

Year NCR Region III Region IV
% Rate % Rate % Rate
1960 98.1 -- 26.5 -- 26.8 --
1970 100.0 0.19 30.2 1.31 30.6 1.34
1980 100.0 0.0 41.8 3.26 37.1 1.91
1990 100.0 0.0 60.3 3.66 51.1 3.20

The process cycle of expansion and growth in NCR is characterized by initial densification of
population, followed by commercialization and the outward movement of the population into
the suburbs. Land use in Metro Manila has been constantly changing. Evident is the increase
in percentage of residential, commercial and industrial lands as shown in Table 10.

Table 10 Agricultural land use in adjoining regions

Location Area (sq. m.)
1960 1971 1980 1991
Region III 546,555 538,946 495,521 594,266
Region IV 974,525 1,068,454 1,251,203 1,311,296

3. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

3.1 Road-Based Public Transport

Buses, jeepneys, taxis and tricycles comprise the road-based public transport in Metro Manila.
In 2005, public transport accounts for no more than 13% of all registered vehicles in NCR.
There is a sudden increase in private vehicle ownership for the year 1990, whilst the public
transport fleet more or less remained steady as shown in Table 12 and further depicted in
Figure 4.
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

Table 12 Motor vehicle registration (NCR)

Year
Vehicle Type
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Private 378,324 402,291 623,498 928,381 1,103,495 1,367,469
Public
Taxis 10,125 5,406 1,715 21,702 54,054 31,636
Cars 1,461 13 8,150 5,601 0 0
Utility vehicles 27,202 31,235 27,659 53,362 56,484 55,067
Trucks 5,554 2,651 2,532 3,639 6,657 6,270
Buses 3,578 3,718 4,329 7,824 11,287 6,205
Motorcycles 4,801 123 16,418 34,478 54,058 67,098
Trailers 3,243 413 477 705 1,141 1,514
Subtotal 55,964 43,559 61,280 127,311 183,681 167,790
Total 434,288 445,850 684,778 1,055,692 1,255,140 1,535,259

1600

1400
No. of registered vehicles (000)

1200

1000
Public
800
Private
600

400

200

0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Figure 4 Number of private and public registered vehicles in Metro Manila

From Table 13, due to rationalization, the number of routes for both buses and jeepneys
decreased since 1983. However, the estimated number of operating units increased
significantly, including significant increase in the number of tricycles is also observed.

Table 13 Supply characteristics of road-based transportation (Metro Manila)

Mode Item 1983 1996 1983/1996
No. of routes 149 89 1.67
Bus No. of terminals 121 61 1.98
Estimated No. of operating units 4,400 9,600 0.46
No. of routes 640 486 1.32
Jeepney No. of terminals 184 210 0.88
Estimated No. of operating units 29,300 57,400 0.51
No. of terminals 276 640 0.43
Tricycle
Estimated No. of operating units 17,000 60,700 0.28

For buses, the current number of operators, number of units classified by type is shown in
Table 14. Surprisingly, the reported number of bus units is smaller from what is shown in
Table 13.
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

Table 14 Number of bus operators, number of vehicles and vehicle type (2005)
Route # of Bus Total Vehicle type
Operators No. of Aircon Non-Aircon
units
EDSA Route 87 2,660 459 2,201
Non-EDSA Route 32 764 233 531

The number of passengers using these transport modes increased. Likewise, the average
occupancy for all modes is also observed to be higher than previous (Table 26).

Table 15 Number of passengers and average occupancy of road-based public transportation

Mode Item 1983 1996 1983/1996
Passengers per day (000) 1,424 2,584 0.55
Bus
Ave. occupancy (000/day) 38.7 50.0 0.77
Passengers per day (000) 7,420 12,078 0.61
Jeepney
Ave. occupancy (000/day) 10.3 15.0 0.69
Passengers per day (000) -- 5,340 --
Tricycle
Ave. occupancy (000/day) 1.3 2.6 0.50
Passengers per day (000) -- 1,251 --
Taxi
Ave. occupancy (000/day) 2.1 2.2 0.95

3.2 Rail-Based Public Transport

There are currently 4 railways in Metro Manila. Three of these operates within the metropolis
namely LRT1, LRT2 and MRT3, while the last operates in an inter-provincial route, that is the
Philippine National Railway Commuter Line (PNR).

3.2.1 LRT Line 1

LRT Line 1 runs 14 km through Metro Manila from north to south. Starting from the northern
terminal of Monumento, passing through Rizal and Taft Avenues, and finishing at the southern
terminal of Baclaran, this line was constructed as an electrified, double track line elevated
above roads. Construction of Line 1 was started in 1981 with support from Belgium; it was
partially opened in December 1984 and services were commended over the whole line from
May 1985. Line 1 intersects with Line 3 at EDSA and again with Line 3 (Phase 2) at
Monumento. The line intersects with PNR near Blumentritt.

Line 1 is owned and managed by LRTA, a government agency which was established by E.O
No. 603 in 1980. In addition to the operation of Line 1, LRTA managed the Line 2
construction project. Running control and maintenance of Line 1 is carried out by METRO
Co. which is totally financed by LRTA. LRTA has a work force of around 50, while METRO
Co. employs roughly 1,300 workers.

Concerning the operating balance of Line 1, roughly 350,000 passengers use the line everyday
and the commercial account shows a profit (350 million pesos in 1998), however, due to the
large depreciation and repayment of loans, the ordinary account shows a deficit (minus 530
million person in 1998).

Due to unexpectedly high number of passengers using Line 1 following the start of operations
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

in 1984, a heavy load was placed on facilities and rolling stock, and it was necessary to carry
out large scale repair works from the fifth year of operation.

In order to increase transport capacity on the line, capacity expansion is being carried out in
two phases. Phase 1, which aims to increase capacity by 50% (18,000 people/hour to 27,000
people/hour) between September 1996 and December 2000, mainly entailed transforming the
2-car trains to 3-car trains and assigning extra rolling stock (i.e. seven 4-car air-conditioned
trains). Phase 2 aimed to increase capacity from 27,000 people/hour to 40,000 people/hour
from 2000 onwards. Capacity will be increased by introducing 12 4-car new rolling stock to
allow the running of 4-car trains and by shortening the interval between trains, it is planned
to improve platforms, signals, communications and power facilities, and renovate depots, etc.
in order to make this possible.

3.2.2 LRT Line 2

The Megatren system was built at a cost of P31 billion in soft loans mainly from the Japan
Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC).

The Asia Europe MRT Consortium, led by the Marubeni Corporation, has delivered 18 new
four (4) - car trains. Each train is 92.6 meters long and consists of four motorized cars. One
train can seat 232 passengers. It can accommodate 1,396 more standing passengers along its
spacious coaches.

Compared with the previous light rail projects, LRT 2 was more difficult to build because of
highly technical problems. Several international companies participated in the project, which
consists of four (4) contract packages:
• Package 1 is the depot in Santolan, Pasig where the 18 trains are stabled, and where
the employees’ quarters, and offices are based;
• Package 2 consists of the substructures, mainly the railway’s foundations including the
columns and pilings that support the guideways;
• Package 3 forms the superstructure composed of the girders, or beams that support the
train rails, the viaduct, and the train stations; and
• Package 4 includes the electro-mechanical systems, the rolling stocks, the track works,
including the network of cables and poles that transmit power to the trains.

A special method called the pre-casting segmental method (PSM), was used in building the
viaduct or the long stretch of suspension bridges resting on the concrete towers. The method
is of European technology and is widely used worldwide. In the Philippines, the Megatren
Line 2 project pioneered the use of the PSM technology or the pre-casting of the girders into
smaller segments so that each span connected between two columns is weighing not more
than 58 tons.

The Megatren is the latest of its kind in the world today. It is a fully automatic (i.e., driver-
less) system which is at par in terms of facilities and technology with those in other parts of
the world. It is equipped with a CCTV system that enables the railway operator to monitor
activities of passengers and employees at the stations and inside the trains.

LRT 2 is commuter friendly and has facilities especially designed for the elderly and the
differently-abled. It has Braille tactiles along the lanes and elevators which enable blind
passengers to be guided on their way to the trains.
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3.2.3 EDSA MRT 3

Line 3 is a semi-circular line which was constructed utilizing the central reserve of EDSA –
the main arterial road in Metro Manila. Line 3 runs 22.0 km from Monumento to Taft. Phase 1
(North Avenue – Taft) runs 16.9 km, while Phase 2 is planned for construction over 5 km from
North Avenue to Monumento.
The EDSA-MRT3 Phase 1 started operation in December 1999 with tracks consisting of 52%
elevated, 40% at-grade level and 8% below ground level portions.

Line 3 was constructed by the private company, Metro Rail Transit Corporation (MRTC). In
this BLT (build-lease-transfer) project, the railway facilities will be leased to DOTC for 25
years following construction, and they will then be transferred to DOTC.

MRTC has been granted commercial development rights enabling it to utilize land rights with
Line 3 station and rolling stock depots. Operation of Line 3 is currently carried out by DOTC,
while maintenance of facilities and rolling stock is conducted by a subcontractor of MRTC.

It was estimated that the number of passengers using Line 3 at the time of Phase 1 completion
is 450,000 per day, and there are currently 60,000-70,000 passengers using the partially
opened section.

In Phase 1, the minimum operating interval is 150 seconds and the standard train formation is
3 cars, however by the time of completion of Phase 2, it is planned to depot a system where it
is possible to operate 4-car trains over a minimum interval of 120 seconds.

3.2.4 PNR Commuter Line

Railways in the Philippines started with the opening of services over the 195 km section
between Tutuban and Dagupan (part of the existing PNR north line). In 1909, construction of
the existing PNR south line was started, and PNR owned approximately 1,300 km of line
during its heyday. Following this, circumstances such as the advance of motorization,
deterioration of railway facilities and occurrence of natural disasters, etc. made it necessary to
abandon or suspend railway services. The PNR network has been reduced to 446 km
consisting of part of the PNR north line and south line.

Section which can be considered as targets for commuter transport in Metro Manila are 6 km
of the PNR north line between Tutuban and Caloocan and 56 km of south line between
Tutuban and Calamba, however, due to low frequency of train operation on commuter lines,
low running speeds, presence of many squatters on track reserves in the inner city, and so on,
there sections are not fulfilling their functions as commuter lines. For this reason, it was
planned to radically improve the PNR north line and south line and revitalize them as
commuter lines. ONR links with Line 1 near San Lazaro, with Line 2 and the proposed Line 4
near the area from España to Santa Mesa, and with Line 3 nead EDSA.

The capital stock of PNR when it was first established stood at 250 million pesos, but this had
increased to 1.5 billion pesos by 1975. Even following the nationalization of railways in the
Philippines, there has been a shift of passengers away from rail transport due to the advance
of motorization, and the transport volume of railways has gone down every year. Whereas the
number of long distance passengers on PNR was 1,651,000 in 1981, this had fallen to 578,000
by 1998, while freight transport volume fell from 116,000 tons in 1981 to 14,000 tons in
1995.
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4. PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

On several occasions, the DOTC embarked on “public transport rationalization projects” to

improve the efficiency and quality of buses and jeepneys – two modes catering to the poorer
segments of Philippine society. Majority of these efforts were focused on Metro Manila which
suffers the most severe congestion in the country. Invariably, these involved buses – their
service coverage, quantity, quality and pricing.

More often than not, government efforts were stymied by lack of empirical and updated data
about bus operations and service characteristics. The profitability and structure of the bus
industry was the subject of the Metro Manila Urban Transport Improvement Project
(MMUTIP), conducted in 1981 by the then Ministry of Transportation and Communications,
with assistance from the World Bank. This was followed in 1984-85 by a JICA-funded study
called “The Metro Manila Transportation Planning Study (JUMSUT) Phase II. The latter
conducted Household Interview Surveys (HIS) to determine and forecast demand for public
transport, proposed a number of changes in routes, and estimated bus fleet requirements for
the period 1985-1990 with allocations by major transport corridors.

The Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study (MMUTIS) has identified the
following key issues:

4.1 Short and Long Term Problems

Reviewing the last 25 years of public transport in Metro Manila, one would discern a periodic
bout with quantity or supply of rolling stocks—of railcars, bus, and taxis. The only constant is
the jeepney; the general opinion seems to be that there exist too many of them, and yet their
population continues to grow.

The PNR commuter service experienced momentary improvements in 1981 and 1990. On the
other hand, the LRT 1 suffered reductions in train availability in 1989 and 1995. The peaks
and valleys of the rail mode is due to its characteristic negative financial streams and the
corollary absence of a government policy for subsidizing the system coupled with reluctance
to adjust fares. Hence, both PNR and LRTA substituted annual maintenance costs with capital
outlays for rehabilitation every decade years or so. This situation is likely to repeat itself on a
larger scale in the future, unless a radical re-structuring of the rail sector is made.

The fleet of bus units dwindled in 1975, 1981, and 1988. These were primarily caused by
regulatory failure to adjust fares on time. Although there were more frequent revisions in the
last seven years, the fact remains that the current tariff is only 2/3 of their value after the
January 1996 adjustment. As can be concluded from the results of the Vehicle Operating Cost
Model (VOCM), traffic congestion is pushing upward the operating costs per kilometer run of
buses and jeepneys. Only reconditioned buses (with their lower break-even point) and
airconditioned buses (with their higher marginal revenue) appear to be viable.

Transport regulatory authorities have always focused on fares. Modernization of the transport
fleet has been evaded, except for two instances in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when
upgraded specifications for new buses were imposed. The jeepney design, on the other hand,
has remained virtually unchanged in the last 40 years. With worsening urban pollution, and
the growing concern for sustainability, the next 20 years would call for low emission and
energy-efficient vehicles than what currently prevail in Metro Manila.
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

4.2 Prospect of Diminishing Market Share

Public transport still accounts for a large (70%) share of the total daily person trips in Metro
Manila. However, this is likely to go down in the future. Car ownership is increasing rapidly
while the level of service of public transport is declining.

Expansion of the road network will continue to fall behind due to budget constraints, land
acquisition difficulties, and relocation obstacles. The challenge is not only to maintain, but
also improve the attraction of public transit as a mode of urban commuting. The central
element to maintaining the edge, and thus avoid future reduction of market share, is to achieve
better integration of service across rail, bus and jeepney through seamless transfers.

5. REVIEW OF INTEGRATED PUBLIC TRANSPORT CONCEPTS

The term 'integrated public transport' (or simply 'integrated transport') is generally defined as
a system that provides door-to-door public transport services for passengers (Janic and
Reggiani, 2001). On the other hand, the term 'intermodal transport' is commonly used for the
transport of goods. There are still no standard definitions of these terms. However, the
objective of integrated public transport is clear, that is, to achieve a high transit modal share
with a seamless service using two or more modes.

Measures for integrating transport services include the following five broad categories as
follows:

1. Physical integration - the close proximity and ease of access at mode interchanges will
greatly enhance public transport services. Walkways should be carefully designed for
passengers to change mode. Passengers should be within a short walking distance
from their residences to a transit stop.

2. Network integration - bus and rail systems should be an integrated network in their
own right and these separate networks should further complement one another. Feeder
services using buses, trams or light rail should be designed to maximise the patronage
of the trunk routes. Network integration is closely linked to physical integration and
both contribute towards the integration of infrastructure.

3. Fare integration - a single fare card for multiple transit services will facilitate the
transfer between modes. Rebates can be implemented as an inducement for those who
transfer from one mode to another.

4. Information integration - a comprehensive, easy-to-use passenger travel guide is

critical to successful multi-modal travel. The signage at rail and bus stations should be
properly designed to convey effective information to travellers. Information
Technologies (IT) and Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) can play important roles in
integrated transport in general and information integration in particular.

5. Institutional integration - a common institutional framework is better able to undertake

land-use planning, travel demand management and integrated public transport
services. In the absence of such common framework, cooperation and coordination
amongst government agencies, and between the private and public sectors, become
vitally important.
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

6. STRATEGIC POLICY DIRECTIONS FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT

6.1 Development of Planning Tools

The transport and urban structure GIS database currently being held by transport-related
agencies like DOTC and MMDA is an important element in the efficient conduct of spatial
analysis for integrated land use and transport studies.

Updated information is very crucial for spatially-based planning applications, and a GIS
provides an excellent tool for analyzing this information for both urban and transport planning
tasks. Planners and policy researchers are currently limited to using the MMUTIS database
that has been partially updated. There is a need to consolidate these efforts for independent
updating. While the MMUTIS database can be partially updated using recent survey results,
there is a need for a more comprehensive studies on the following issues:
• Uncertainty in the improvement in accuracy of the model results – the extent by which
all transit lines have been changed since 1996 is not known;
• Modal choices and requirements of daily commuters have changed dramatically,
noting new traffic generator in 24-hour IT parks and buildings within the metropolis;
and
• Calibration process of the MMUTIS model can only be completed following a
comprehensive survey undertaking

6.2 Updating of Public Transport Database

The conditions of public transportation operations, vis-à-vis operational, organization,
economic-financial and service demand characteristics vary among modes and among routes.
In this regard, the consideration of the route structure of public transport modes in Mega
Manila and updated statistics and indicators would support initiatives to expand capacities,
introduce higher carrying capacity systems, rationalize the franchising and management of
public transport services, and undertake policy and regulatory measures to address emerging
and current issues and concerns.

New passenger profiles for rail and EDSA bus riders indicate that predominance of low to
medium-income passengers patronizing the mass transport modes, which indicates the
difficulties ahead in public transport promotion for car users. A firmer urban transport policy
on private transport use need to be develop to forestall further investment in road building to
cater to the demands of private transport users. Travel patterns from the surveys also indicated
the direct competition of AUV services with MRT/LRT, buses and jeepney services.

Surveys on public transport operation revealed the low vehicle productivity of bus and
jeepney modes, resulting partly on from congested roads, but mainly from the presence of
illegal operation in most of the routes. Closer examination of these routes for enforcement
purposes as well as rationalizing the demand-supply situation needs to be pursued.

6.3 Public Transport Policy

The power to prescribe routes for public transport rests with the LTFRB. In practice, the
LTFRB rarely prescribes the routes that are opened to applications. In fact, the public
transport network in the study area has developed through route additions and withdrawals at
the instance of both the government (i.e. DOTC) and a number of operators. This practice of
network development does not lead to an optimal network for the entire study area. It fails to
take into account the interaction and interrelationships among routes. More importantly, no
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

formal mechanism for consultation with local government units have been established,
leading to some conflicting views on approve route structure.

The partial computerization of franchise records and route structures, including changes and
route modifications, leads to inefficient response to changes in the urban land use and
transport situation. In a number of occasions, the responses are not pro-active because of poor
linkages of data and their management within DOTC, LTFRB and LTO. Recent efforts in this
direction involve the BIR-LTO-LTFRB Emerge Project3. The AIM, Hills Governance
Program has been awarded a $120,000 grant from the U.S. Agency for International
Development-EMERGE Project. The Hills Program project is entitled “Towards an Integrated
System of Motor Vehicle Registration, Land Public Transport Franchising and Transport
Sector Taxation” and scheduled to be started in 2006. The project will attempt to improve and
integrate the processes involved in motor vehicle registration, land public transport
franchising, and transport sector taxation. These processes thread through the LTO, LTFRB,
Bureau of Internal Revenue, and Insurance Commission.

The Government has introduced a formula on Route Measured Capacity (RMC) to establish
the right balance between supply and demand. Unfortunately, it does not appear to be working
as shown by the existence of many routes with excess units based on the route surveys
undertaken in MMPTS.

Since the RMC is for fixed routes only, the DOTC should come up with a separate formula or
evidentiary framework for determining the required capacity in other modes that do not have
fixed routes. This ensures compliance with the legal requirement that public necessity be
proved by the applicant, and provides a level playing field to all modes of transport. There is
inequity in subjecting those applying fixed routes to a rigorous process of proving public
necessity while virtually exempting others from the requirement.

There appears to be no other viable solution in the short-term, except to tighten the
franchising system and its enforcement to ensure that a desirable balance of supply and
demand is attained. The existing regulatory regime must be strictly implemented which puts
the burden of proving the need for a service on the applicant. Of course, strict enforcement is
a must to minimize, if not eliminate, the existence of colorum vehicles.

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Rapid population growth and urbanization in Metro Manila and adjoining areas has brought
about pressure on the existing public transport system. This greater metropolitan region is
now referred to as 'Mega Manila'. The resulting urban pattern for the region is one where an
increasing number of people live at the fringes of the metropolitan area but still need to travel
to the city centers to work or study. In order to sustain economic growth and development and
to protect the environment in the region, there is a need to increase mobility through the
provision of an integrated public transport system. Strategic actions are necessitated in the
areas model development, public transport database updating and policy reviews and updates.
Finally, there is a need to operationalize various aspects of integration for better public
transport development and management in Mega Manila.
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.6, 2007

REFERENCES

Janic, M. and A. Reggiani (2001) ‘Integrated transport systems in the European Union: an
overview of some recent developments’, Transport Reviews, 21(4), pp. 469-497.
JICA (2006) EDSA Bus Route Revalidation Study.
JICA (2007) Metro Manila Public Transport Study.
MMUTIS (1999) Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study Final Report.
ALMEC Corporation, Pacific Consultants International and Yachiyo Engineering Co.,
Ltd.
MMUTIS (1999) Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Technical Report No. 9 –
Public Transportation’, ALMEC Corporation, Pacific Consultants International and
Yachiyo Engineering Co., Ltd.