Globally, a persistent gap in mathematics self-concept favoring males has been offered

as a central explanation for differences in gendered STEM participation and, importantly, self-

concept rather than ability appears to comprise the critical filter in career choice (Schoon, 2015).

Mathematics self-concept has also differed by student ethnicity and has declined as student age

increases (Watson et al 2019). Socialization processes and interactions with significant others

(e.g., teachers) have been posited as central to shaping students’ gendered expectations of

success and the value they attribute to specific fields (Schoon, 2015). Further, a self-concept

that embraces male mathematics superiority has originated from cultural beliefs and

expectations. Notably, self-concept may be especially vulnerable to the influence of teachers in

the early years of schooling (Petersen and Hyde, 2014).

However, Sansone (2016) suggested that a detrimental self-fulfilling prophecy caused by

gender beliefs about mathematics could be disrupted by an improvement in teacher-student

relationships and an enhanced climate of safety at school. It merely suggests that academic

self–concept maybe a solution to unlock these trends happened in school due to

disengagement. Learners’ success is determined by three factors namely: self-concept,

regulation and efficacy one’s self (Kirmizi, 2015). Higher levels of self-confidence, regulation,

and evaluation students got a high achievement. A high correlation was obtained through the

variables with academic achievement (Ozkan, 2015). Igbo et al. (2015) indicated that gender

stereotype as one of the predictors of learners’ self–concept and achievement. Social

stratification (Priest, 2015) is due to racial/ethnic and gender discrimination showed

unsuccessful in eliminating achievement gaps.

The academic self-concept and math achievement associated commonly using the

cognitive strategy. As noted, math achievement was not associated with epistemological beliefs

and self–regulation but it was significantly predicted by academic self-concept (Dursun, et al.,

2017). Moreover, Kirmizi (2015) pointed that self-efficacy posted a statistically significant result

which predict the academic success. He additionally said that high achievers possessed a
higher self-regulation level, self-efficacy and self-concept.

Psychological adjustment and social protection showed an expressive correlation

through self- concept and female high school achievement (Kobra, et al., 2016). Meanwhile,

Rubie-Davies et al (2015) pedagogical approaches associated with high expectation practices

were targeted with the aim of supporting all participant teachers to develop these practices.

They further noted that diverse skill grouping for learning activities fostering a warmer

socioemotional climate in the classroom, promotion of positivity toward and between students,

the development of mastery goals, enhancing collaborative classrooms, and facilitation of

student autonomy.

Martin et al. (2015) stressed that developmental education has no adverse impact on the

academic self–concept of university students. They argued however that university enrolled in

several courses manifested lower academic self–concept than their peers. Due to the transition,

the effect of the academic grades on self–concept in both Math (Gniewosz, 2010) and English

(Trazo and Abocejo, 2019; Cuñado and Abocejo, 2018) on the students decreases while there

is an increase due to maternal competence perceptions (Rodriquez and Abocejo, 2018). Later

on the transition, the impact of academic grades increases but due to maternal perceptions

decreases. They continuously said that students have lost their self–evaluations due to the

change of references during and after the transition.

Recently, Gu and Cheung (2016) found out that language self–concept affect the

students’ cultural modification process where it was correlated to students’ levels in intercultural

communicative competence. The ideal language self is referred to as language specific element

of individual ideal self (Arzu, 2016). It represents specific hopes, aspirations, and desires of

language learners (Dornyei, 2014, Trazo and Abocejo, 2019). Since the language self is

associated with an individual’s mastery of language, it could be the decisive motivator of the

learner’s language learning process (Ryan and Dörnyei, 2013). Hence, recent researches done
by Lanvers (2016) and Huang, Hsu and Chen (2015) stressed out the direct effect of ideal

language self on the learners’ eminence.

Helm, Mueller, Nagy and Moller (2016) revealed that an individual’s perception of his

abilities to strive academically will depend on their experiences with the environment. In relation

to the academic achievement, specialised subject self–concept such as Math and English can

be compared contrastively thru dimensional comparisons between mathematics and verbal

subjects. The contrast effect of dimensional comparisons showed that students would manifest

a lower mathematics self–concept when they excel in English as compared to those with lower

English performance (Lanvers, 2016). Marsh et al. (2015) articulated a difference between–

domain and within–domain comparison. They revealed important changes for comparisons

between subjects belonging to verbal or mathematical continuum that has small assimilation or

contrast effects for comparison since they belong to the same domain. They further noted that

five subjects using dimensional comparison effect math, physics, and chemistry have a contrast

effects while a small assimilation effects were found between the three subjects.

Learned Self-Concept

Self-concept theory, as discussed by Sincero (2012, cited by Peteros et al 2020), which

mentioned three aspects of self-concept. First, Self-concept is learned. Individuals develop the

self-concept and can be changed, which the surrounding environment affects (Zimmerman,

2013, cited by Peteros et al 2020). This is a result of the contacts with different individuals

through socialization. Likewise, when students observed from the societal stereotype that boys

are better than girls in Math, they tend to develop the concept based on what is perceived by

society to be true to them.

On a related study conducted by Peteros et al (2020) reveled that respondents had a

moderate level of learned self-concept, signify that the respondents had low self-concept on the

perception that they understand Mathematics even the most difficult ones and that every
question in Mathematics is answerable. This low level of the respondents’ self-concept could be

based on their experiences that they were not able to solve severe problems in Mathematics

and that they think that not all these problems have answers. On the other hand, students still

believe that they can learn Mathematics quickly based on the same way that they think that

learning Mathematics gives meaning to their activities. Students find the meaning of their task in

the subject, which helps them realize the need to learn the subject.

Positive learned self-concept has been demonstrated “to impact on a wide range of

critical wellbeing outcomes and serve as an influential platform for enabling full human potential”

(Craven and Marsh, 2008, cited by Han, F. (2019). Interventions specifically addressing domain-

specific self-concept have been shown to result in domain-specific gains in a range of

achievement outcomes. Numerous studies have identified strong relations between self-concept

and outcomes such as well-being, coursework selection, rate of school completion, adaptive

academic behaviors, coping mechanisms, enhanced academic achievement, and reduced

mental health problems. Self-concept and achievement are also known to be reciprocally

related whereby they share a dynamic causal relation.

Organized Self-Concept

One may look at him in different ways, but there is one perception that will help the

individual organize these perceptions. When beliefs of individuals are consistent with what he is,

there is a tendency that this belief would stay on the person and thus it would be tough to

change this perception though it is possible to change this. Students who think that they are

useful in Math and perform well in the subject would likely develop a positive self-concept

towards the subject (Han, F. (2019). However, when one finds Math a problematic subject and

results of exams and performances are weak, they would likely to think that they could not

perform well in the subject. The stereotyping on the skills of the students could reinforce this

thinking.
 Peteros et al (2020) revealed the organized self-concept in the performance of students

obtained lowest means scores. The implication states that the respondents’ experiences

difficulty in solving-problem related to Math. Moreover, respondents believe that the subject can

help them find a new way of finding things, which can be related to their experiences when

solving Math problems using their way. However, the respondents do not perceive mathematics

as an easy subject to pass.

Dynamic Self-Concept

The Self-Concept Theory proposed that the self-concept of the individual is dynamic,

which means that this could change over time based on the experiences of the individual

(Peteros et al 2020). Based on the finding of their study, the data show that the respondents

had a moderate self-concept based on the component of self-concept as dynamic. Additionally,

the respondents perceived that mathematics is essential in their future, which means that they

value the subject in their life because it would be useful in the future. They believe that they can

use what they have learned in the subject in their daily living. Respondents also believe that

they can almost do all the Math work if they are persistent enough in doing their tasks. Though

the respondents have a moderate self-concept, they believe that their knowledge in the subject

is not yet enough.

As individuals experience different situations in life, his beliefs may change depending

upon what kind of situation he experiences and how they respond to these experiences. The

reactions of an individual are dependent on how they perceive themselves in a given situation

wherein there is the tendency to let go of things that are not consistent to them and hold on to

the things that would reflect oneself and helpful in developing a more favorable personal being.

The students’ experience in school is significant in molding their self-concept towards any

academic subject, especially in subjects wherein most students find this subject challenging.
Allowing the students to have a pleasant experience in Math would help eliminate the gender

gap between the students’ performance in Math. This could also assist in promoting a positive

self-concept towards the subject regardless of gender. Teaching strategies that eliminate

students’ gap in performance could help improve students’ performance in school.

Mathematics Performance

A positive self-concept is a desirable outcome in many educational settings and is

frequently posited as a mediating variable that facilitates other desired outcomes, such as

academic achievement (Marsh et al., 2005, cited by Lee & Kung 2018). Recently, however,

researchers have emphasized the need to separate the academic components (e.g., the

mathematics or English self-concept) from non-academic components of self-concept. Marsh

(1993, cited by Lee & Kung 2018) mentioned a considerable number of studies showing that

although academic achievement is substantially related to academic self-concept, it is almost

unrelated to the global and non-academic components of self-concept for people at elementary

and middle-school age levels (Byrne, 1996, cited by Lee & Kung 2018). Hence, it is necessary

to accurately measure the self-concept construct from a multidimensional perspective to identify

the academic components that are most important for increasing academic achievement.

Researchers have consistently reported a positive relationship between academic self-

concept and academic achievement (Sarouphim & Chartouny, 2017). For example, Ercikan et

al. (2005, cited by Lee & Kung 2018) indicated that students’ mathematics confidence was the

strongest predictor of achievement, and students’ attitudes toward mathematics were the

strongest predictors of participation in advanced mathematics courses. In addition, Marsh et al.

(2005, cited by Lee & Kung 2018) argued in support of a reciprocal effects model in which prior

self-concepts influence subsequent achievements, known as the self-enhancement model, and

prior achievements affect subsequent self-concepts, known as the skill development model.
 Past research only focuses on the effect of early numeracy activities on cognitive

outcomes, mainly mathematics achievement or skills (Dunst et al., 2017). There appears to be

no research to date addressing the issue of the effect of early numeracy activities on affective

outcomes. Children may perceive early numeracy activities as both a learning experience and a

playful one (Cohrssen, Tayler, & Cloney, 2015), which in turn may impact their mathematics

achievement and affect.

Early numeracy activities can be a playful experience for children and parents, but they

can also have a meaningful influence on the young learners (Cohrssen et al., 2015). The early

numeracy activities link to children’s development of both cognitive and social-emotional skills.

Mathematics related games such as chess, block building, and online games have been shown

to have positive relationships with children’s mathematics achievement with a larger effect for

unhappy children in chess play (Rosholm, Mikkelsen, & Gumede, 2017) and for block-building

tasks combined with storytelling (Casey et al., 2008, cited by Chiu, M. S. (2018). Child

playfulness comprises factors such as physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, cognitive

spontaneity, manifestation of joy, and sense of humor (Bundy, Nelson, Metzger, & Bingaman,

2001, cited by Chiu, M. S. (2018). Playfulness is positively related to happiness, including the

sense of having a pleasurable, meaningful, and engaged life (Proyer, 2014).

Related Studies:

The researcher conducted a review of articles from foreign and local studies

relevant to the present study. This is presented in the paragraphs that follow.

Foreign Studies

Lee and Kung (2018) explored the relationship between Math self-concept and Math

achievement of the Junior High School Taiwanese students using structural equation modeling.

They found that there was a considerable gender contrast concerning the student’s Math self-

concept and Math achievement. Boys showed a higher self-concept than girls, but girls had
higher Math achievement than boys. Similarly, Ajogbeje (2010) investigated the relationship

between self-concept and academic achievement of the 450 secondary students in Ekiti State

using multiple regression analysis. Results uncovered that there was a critical connection

between self-concept and Math achievement. It also revealed that moderate self-concept could

predict Math achievement.

Chiu, M. S. (2018) conducted a study proposed models were examined using structural

equation modeling with data from Taiwanese parental reports and child grade-4 tests. Three

major results go beyond those previous research findings and may provide recommendations

for educational practices. (1) Early numeracy activities have effects on mathematics confidence

and interest in addition to achievement. (2) SES mediates the effects of early numeracy

activities on achievement and confidence but not on interest. The mediating effect of SES

suggests that high-quality educational provision should be provided during early numeracy

activities. (3) Parents provide fewer numeracy activities for girls, which suggests that parents

should provide more early numeracy activities to girls.

Timmerman et al. (2017) examined the relationship between the Math self-concept and

Math achievement of the 108 twelve to 14-year-old students from a secondary school in the

Netherlands. They found that there is a significant positive correlation between Math self-

concept and achievement of the students in all four domains of Math, such as measurement,

relations, numbers, and scale. Furthermore, the regression analysis showed that Math self-

concept was significantly accounted for in the variance of Math scores of the students.

Kamoru and Ramon (2017) investigated the relationship between self-concept and Math

achievement of 200 senior secondary school students from Ibadan Metropolis using random

sampling. Students were asked to answer the 20-item Math Self Concept Questionnaire and

took a 30-item multiple choice Math Achievement Test. Results uncovered that there was no

noteworthy distinction in gender for Math self-concept. Furthermore, there was a significant

positive correlation between the self-concept and the Math achievement of the students. Thus,
they suggested that teachers should develop a positive self-concept of the students towards

Mathematics and provide a pleasant teaching experience in order to enhance higher self-

concept and better performance of the students in Mathematics.

Han, F. (2019). investigate effects of gender, culture (Indigenous vs. non-Indigenous),

and the interaction of the two on students’ self-concept of competence and affect in math, as

well as math achievement among Australian primary school students. Based on the result of the

study, it revealed the effect not only on students’ self-perceptions of their competence in math

but also their actual math performance reflected in their math achievement scores in a standard

math test. Boys had higher ratings on math competence and scored more highly on math test

than girls. However, the gender stereotype was not found for self-concept of affect. Instead,

culture was significantly impacted on self-concept of math affect, indicating that Indigenous

students had less enjoyment toward learning math compared with their non-Indigenous peers.

Furthermore, significant interaction effects between gender and culture were observed on both

self-concept of math competence and math affect. In practice, to enhance Indigenous students’

interest and enjoyment in math learning, educators are suggested to incorporate Indigenous

students’ values, beliefs, and traditions when delivering new math knowledge.

Cvencek, D, Kapur. M. and Meltzoff, N. (2017). Singaporean elementary-school students

(N ¼ 299) completed Child Implicit Association Tests (Child IAT) as well as explicit measures of

gender identity, math gender stereotypes, and math self-concepts. Students also completed a

standardized math achievement test. Three new findings emerged. First, implicit, but not

explicit, math self-concepts (math ¼ me) were positively related to math achievement on a

standardized test. Second, as expected, stronger math gender stereotypes (math ¼ boys)

significantly correlated with stronger math self-concepts for boys and weaker math self-concepts

for girls, on both implicit and explicit measures. Third, implicit math gender stereotypes were

significantly related to math achievement. These findings show that non-academic factors such

as implicit math self-concepts and stereotypes are linked to students' actual math achievement.
The findings suggest that measuring individual differences in non-academic factors may be a

useful tool for educators in assessing students' academic outcomes.

Cvencek, Kapur and Meltzoff (2015) noted that Singaporean elementary students, given

a standard test, exhibited directly related self–concept and achievement in mathematics.

Additionally, math (boys) stereotype were significantly correlated with boys who has stronger

and with girls who has weaker math self–concept for both explicit and implicit degrees. Their

study also showed that implicit mathematics self–concepts (unrelated to school factors) were

correlated with students’ mathematics achievement. Their study suggested that individual

differences may be used assess students’ academic outcomes.

Watson et al (2019) investigated whether change in mathematics self-concept occurred

within the context of a longitudinal intervention to raise and sustain teacher expectations of

student achievement. This experimental study was conducted with a large sample of New

Zealand primary school students and their teachers. Data were analyzed using longitudinal

multilevel modeling with mathematics self-concept as the dependent variable and time (which

represents students’ increasing age each year), gender, and ethnicity entered as predictors and

achievement in mathematics included as a control variable. However, a statistically significant

decline in mathematics self-concept occurred for Māori students alone by the end of the study.

The expected age-related reduction over time in student mathematics self-concept appeared to

be mitigated in association with the longitudinal study. Nevertheless, the demonstration of a

comparatively lower mathematics self-concept remained for girls overall and declined for Māori.

Our results reinforce implications for future research into mathematics self-concept as a

possible determinant of female student career choices.

Local Studies

Saligumba and Segumpan (2019) conducted a study to assessed the mathematics

performance and self-efficacy of Grade 9 students at Central Mindanao University Laboratory

High School (CMULHS) in a Differentiated Assessment (DA). The purpose of the study is to

determine the mathematics performance of students exposed to DA and those exposed to non-

DA in terms of pretest, posttest, and retention test. This study used the quasi-experimental

research design. The mathematics performance of the students in the pretest, posttest and

retention test when exposed to DA and non-DA varies from very low to high. The self-efficacy

level of the students varies from moderately low to moderately high. There was a highly

significant difference in the post-test and retention scores of those students exposed to DA

compared to those exposed to non-DA. Moreover, the DA group had a significantly higher self-

efficacy level towards Mathematics compared to the non-DA group.

Capuno et al. (2019) conducted a study on the attitudes of the student in relation to

Mathematics performance in a public national high school in the Mandaue City Division, Cebu,

Philippines. The respondents were the 177 Grade 9 students enrolled in mathematics. These

respondents were selected using probability random sampling. Based on the finding of the

study, it shows a positive attitude towards mathematics in terms of its value while they had a

neutral attitude when it comes to their self-confidence, enjoyment, and motivation in

mathematics. Also, the study shows that there was a negligible positive correlation between the

attitudes and academic performance of the respondents in terms of their self-confidence,

enjoyment, and motivation while there was a weak positive correlation between the value of

math and their academic performance in math. It was concluded that students’ attitudes and

their study habits are significant factors that affect their performance in mathematics. The

researchers strongly recommend the utilization of the enhancement plan in the teaching of

mathematics to junior high school student.

Peteros et al 2020) assessed the self-concept and academic performance in Math of the

Grade 10 students of a public national high school, Cebu, Philippines. The study employed

descriptive correlational research. One hundred eighty-three respondents were asked to answer

a survey questionnaire in order to measure their self-concept. Their academic performances

were assessed using their grades in Math. Results revealed that they had a moderate level of

self-concept towards learning Mathematics. No gender difference was found on the self-concept

of the respondents, but there was a significant relationship between self-concept and the

respondents’ academic performance in Mathematics. Hence, a Math performance enhancement

plan is highly recommended for adoption and evaluation.

Tan (2019) investigated the level of academic self–concept of sophomore university

students, assessed their extent of use of learning strategies as moderating variables on their

math achievement specifically in problem solving. It also examined the association between the

level of academic self-concept and problem–solving achievement in mathematics of the

students’ respondents. A partial correlation was used to measures academic self-concept effect

to students’ accomplishment. Findings revealed that academic self–concept of students in

mathematics is moderate. This suggests that higher self–concept in academics and extent of

utilization of learning strategies in solving mathematical problems would result to a high

problem–solving achievement. In addition, problem solving achievement was partially

moderated through learning strategies. As the students extensively used the learning approach,

the more that they were confident in dealing word problems in mathematics. The higher the

extent of use of the strategies, the higher the problem-solving achievement will be incurred by

the students.

Morada, M. (2015) conduct a study on Correlation of Mathematics Performance and

Anxiety of third- and fourth-year students for school year 2012-2013 across the different

programs. This study determined the numerical anxiety level and mathematics performance of

the respondents along age, gender and programs. The study revealed that students, regardless

of age had passing performance. However, female and male students had fair and passing

mathematics performance, respectively. Students from College of Business Education, Teacher

Education and Computer Studies had fair performance while those from Marine Transportation,

Criminal Justice Education and Engineering had passing performance. The study also revealed
that students across different variables had moderate numerical anxiety level. Furthermore, it

was found out that mathematics performance is significantly related to numerical anxiety.

However, the relationship was inverse and small.

Maglipong, C. V. and Bongolto, J. L. (2015) conducted a study to determine the

influence of mathematical patterns on the student’s performance in terms of conceptual

understanding and achievement in college algebra and their perception towards the use of

mathematical patterns. The study used the pretest-posttest quasi-experimental-control group

design. Two sections were randomly chosen from the five sections that were officially enrolled in

the first semester of school year 2014-2015. One group was randomly assigned as the control

group and the second one as the experimental group. The control group had undergone the

lecture-discussion while the experimental group underwent mathematical patterns. The study

used three instruments: Mathematics Achievement and Conceptual Understanding Tests and

the Interview Guide Questions. The performance of both groups of the students in the pretest

and posttest were described in terms of the mean and standard deviation. Based on the findings

of the study, the researcher concluded that the use of mathematical patterns is an effective

method of teaching in improving students’ achievement and conceptual understanding. The

researcher recommends that mathematical patterns may be used by mathematics teachers in

their classes to help improve achievement and develop conceptual understanding even to pre-

school, elementary and secondary levels.

Theoretical Framework:

This study is primarily anchored on the pedagogical approach to teaching and learning.

It is associated with the Self-concept theory and Constructivist Learning Theory.

Self-Concept Theory according to Sincero (2012, cited by Peteros et al., 2020), which

mentioned three aspects of self-concept, such as; Self-concept is learned, self-concept is

organized and the self-concept is dynamic. Self-concept is learned, when individuals develop
the self-concept and can be changed, which the surrounding environment affects (Zimmerman,

2013, cited by Peteros et al., 2020). This is a result of the contacts with different individuals

through socialization. Likewise, when students observed from the societal stereotype that boys

are better than girls in Math, they tend to develop the concept based on what is perceived by

society to be true to them.

Self-concept is organized state that the self has a general stable quality, in its

organization, which is characterized by harmony and orderliness and which provides the core of

human personality (Craven, R. G., and Marsh, H. W. (2008 cited by Han, F. (2019). One may

look at him in different ways, but there is one perception that will help the individual organize

these perceptions. When beliefs of individuals are consistent with what he is, there is a

tendency that this belief would stay on the person and thus it would be tough to change this

perception though it is possible to change.

The Self-Concept is Dynamic when the self is revealed through its constant striving for

the maintenance and enhancement of the self, as has been described by Combs and Snygg

(1959, cited by Han, F. (2019). Considering this aspect of the self, it may be said that

experience is perceived in terms of relevance to the self and that behaviour is determined by

these perceptions. Considering various opinions of different psychologists, the dynamic

characteristic of the self may be elaborated into four more aspects As individuals experience

different situations in life, his beliefs may change depending upon what kind of situation he

experiences and how they respond to these experiences. The reactions of an individual are

dependent on how they perceive themselves in a given situation wherein there is the tendency

to let go of things that are not consistent to them and hold on to the things that would reflect

oneself and helpful in developing a more favorable personal being.

The basic premise of constructivist theory is that people are said to learn when they

have gained experience from what they learn. That is, people create their own meaning through

experience. Constructivist thinking is rooted in several aspects of Piaget and Vygotsky’s

cognitive theories. From Piaget, we learn actively, create schemes, assimilate and

accommodate all forms of science, etc. From Vygotsky, we get social constructivism, group

work, internships, and so on. Thus, we can say that the “top-down” and” bottom-up” learning

methodology is born of constructivism thinking. This means that the teacher will give the main

idea then the students will get the details. In this thinking, the teacher does not teach the detail

so that students will find it difficult to find an understanding of the details (Aljohani, 2017).

Scientists and philosophers like Dewey (1916), Piaget (1973), and Vygotsky (1978) have

different perspectives and ideas about constructivism especially around its epistemology and

ontology (Gul. 2016). In other words, they have interpreted constructivism according to their

own experience. In relation to that, the conclusion is that the learners’ knowledge is their own

life, their style and their life is an experience they get. Therefore, the teaching and learning

process must be related to the practical real world so that the classroom is designed and

shaped in such a way that teacher and students can share their knowledge and experience

actively.

Constructivism views the formation of knowledge as an active subject that creates

cognitive structures in their interactions with the environment. Cognitive interaction will occur as

far as reality is structured through the cognitive structure created by the subject itself. The

cognitive structure must always be altered and adapted according to the demands of the

environment and the changing organism. The process of adjustment occurs continuously

through the process of reconstruction (Amineh and Davatgari. 2015).