Age

The studies by Hjetland et al. (2019), Van Bergen et al. (2020), and

Buari et al. (2019) collectively offer a nuanced perspective on the

multifaceted nature of reading comprehension and its development

across various age groups. Hjetland et al.'s 6-year longitudinal study

highlights the critical roles of language comprehension and decoding in

determining reading comprehension, addressing discrepancies in

previous research. Van Bergen et al.'s groundbreaking research

emphasizes the significance of print exposure, operationalized through

autonomous leisure reading, in influencing fluency and understanding

throughout childhood. Additionally, Buari et al. shed light on age-related

deficiencies in information extraction, demonstrating how retinal

movement and contrast sensitivity play pivotal roles in reading losses for

large and small characters. This interdisciplinary approach, coupled with

insights from the U.S. Census Bureau (2021), underscores the

interconnectedness of demographic, social, and economic factors in

understanding the dynamics of reading abilities across different age

cohorts.

Gender

The acquisition of knowledge relies significantly on reading skills,

and cultivating interest plays a pivotal role in motivating readers. Lepper

et al. (2020) highlight the presence of gender differences in students' text-

based interests, yet the specific text components influencing these

disparities and their relationship to reading comprehension in boys and

girls remain unclear. Ngongare et al. (2021) focus on the impact of

gender disparities on reading comprehension, particularly emphasizing

potential variations in performance between female and male students

when exposed to neutral texts. Cui et al. (2023) delve into the influence of

gender stereotypes and biases on the assessment of female critical

thinking skills, revealing that girls often excel in reading comprehension,

demonstrating superior abilities in choice, self-control, and translation

skills. Moreover, Wightman (2020) asserts that gender is a significant

variable affecting learning readiness and language acquisition, with the

general assumption and empirical evidence suggesting that women tend

to learn languages more rapidly than men. These insights collectively

underscore the intricate interplay between gender, reading motivation,

and cognitive skills in the pursuit of knowledge acquisition.

Length of service

The existing literature, exemplified by studies such as Xu (2019),

has established a correlation between faculty employment characteristics

and student academic outcomes without delving into the underlying

reasons for this association. The current study's findings suggest that the
prevalence of part-time faculty teaching night classes could significantly

contribute to variations in subsequent student outcomes, a factor not

explained by instructors' individual characteristics. Survey results shed

light on how course schedules impact part-time faculty members' working

conditions and relationships with students, revealing that those teaching

exclusively at night face challenges in accessing physical resources on

campus and meeting with students. This insight paves the way for further

research into how aspects of part-time faculty employment influence

student success . Similarly, Liu et al. (2020) note that gig workers'

organizational identification is more strongly influenced by transactional

contract fulfillment than by longer tenure, emphasizing the impact of

employer appreciation on their commitment. Furthermore, the

appointment of employees is contingent on meeting position

requirements, and if these criteria are unmet, further research on the

experiences of adjunct faculty, focusing on the professional dimension, is

recommended (Zitko & Schultz, 2020). Additionally, Drozdowski (2021)

underscores the challenges faced by adjuncts, including financial

difficulties, lack of insurance, and volatile employment, highlighting their

often-overlooked contributions and emphasizing the need for further

exploration into the dynamics of part-time teaching.

Highest Educational Attainment

Dumas and Silber (2020) highlight the significance of incorporating the

highest level of education attained when analyzing educational

attainments in data, particularly when dealing with ordinal data. They

stress that ranking these education levels facilitates the measurement of

inequity and overall accomplishment, especially in the context of self-

assessed health. The authors note that higher education levels,

particularly postsecondary education, are associated with lower poverty

rates, while the impact of primary and secondary education may be

limited due to differences in educational quality. On a theoretical level,

Tipayalai and Subchavaroj (2023b) propose that a higher level of

educational attainment for teachers can indicate both a superior state of

the teacher's own human capital development and serve as a positive

signal of innate ability, academic motivation, and cognitive skills

compared to those without such credentials. This, in turn, may translate to

more effective instructional practices, improved classroom management

efficiency, and enhanced creativity in facilitating learning (Liu 2021a).

However, they acknowledge that teacher education is under scrutiny, with

some studies arguing that degrees and diplomas are noisy signals of

teacher preparedness and might not reliably predict instructional

effectiveness in the classroom. Recent evidence challenges policy efforts

aimed at reforming teacher education systems and improving teacher

education programs (Bastian 2019).

Generating and Asking Question: As part of a reading comprehension

exercise called Question Generation, students are taught to jot down

questions on significant details or facts they come across in a text. This

encourages pupils to take a moment to reflect on what is being said and

how information links between paragraphs. This study looked at reading

comprehension questions from Turkish textbooks, teacher-generated

questions from classrooms, and teacher-produced questions for the given

material using a multiple case study research approach. (Isir Eda et al.,

2022). When teacher inquiries included a high frequency of high-

challenge questions, especially wh-word adverb queries (which are

mostly why and how), students' answers were more linguistically

complicated. These results held true for the sample's wide age and ability

range, showing that high-challenge questions work well for small-group

comprehension teaching with students of all ages and reading proficiency

levels. Blything, L., Hardie, A., & Cain, K. (2019) Questions are helpful

instruments that foster dialogue, provide information, enhance

interactions, make it easier to analyze and diagnose a situation, let us put

forth our own ideas, assist in understanding others' priorities, encourage

learning and creativity, and—above all—help advance scientific research,

explanations, and applications. Neirotti, R. A. (2021). Based on Steuer, T.

et.al. (2020). Text comprehension is enhanced when students are asked

questions regarding their readings that they have written themselves.

However, not all reading materials have enough questions, and many

unofficial reading resources don't have any at all. Because it might

address the absence of questions, automatic question production

therefore has a lot of potential in education. As of right now, though, there

is not enough data to say whether or not those automatically generated

questions improve students' comprehension in reading comprehension

scenarios.

Summarizing: Students learn how to identify the most crucial concepts in

a text, how to filter out unimportant details, and how to cohesively

combine the main ideas through summarizing. Students' recall of what

they have read is improved when they are taught to summarize.

Summarization techniques are applicable to nearly all subject areas.

Writing is a crucial strategy for learning from texts, and summaries reveal

details about students' comprehension and methods of learning. We

looked into the types of summaries written by teenagers who were

bilingual and whether there was a correlation between the summaries and

the readers' proficiency in both languages. Li, M., et.al., (2022). By

encouraging students to engage in summary writing, educators can foster

deeper comprehension, promote vocabulary growth, and strengthen

language proficiency in both languages. Moreover, Ali, Aziza M.; Razali,

Abu Bakar (2019), English language learners must be able to read well.

By anticipating, analyzing, summarizing, and employing various reading

strategies, students become active participants in the production of an

interaction with the text's author. Similarly, a discussion-based reading

model that encourages readers to engage in shared inquiry effectively

stimulates students' cognition as they reflect on and consider complex

text-related questions. Active engagement in reading and discussion-

based reading models are crucial for learners to construct meaning. By

empowering learners with effective strategies and fostering a

collaborative learning environment, educators can cultivate proficient

readers who can comprehend texts, think critically, engage in meaningful

discourse, and contribute to the world of ideas.

Visualizing: As Cui, Y., et al. (2020) pointed out, visualizing attention

zones in machine reading comprehension (MRC) models offers valuable

insights into their inner workings and decision-making processes. This

visualization technique allows researchers to identify areas of input text

that receive more attention from the model, shedding light on how it

extracts and processes information. By examining attention zones across

different layers of the model, researchers can gain a deeper

understanding of how the model processes information and arrives at its

conclusions. In summary, visualizing attention zones in MRC models has

emerged as a crucial technique for understanding and improving these

powerful language processing tools. By providing insights into how these

models process and extract information from text, attention visualization

aids in enhancing model explain ability, debugging, and performance

optimization. Stevani, M., and Karisma Erikson Tarigan (2022)

highlight the difficulties dyslexic students face in learning English due to

their deficits in reading comprehension, information processing,

concentration, and sensory motor skills. Silawi, Shalhoub-Awwad, and

Prior (2020) highlight that reading comprehension comprises three

components: process strategies (word recognition), prior knowledge, and

conceptual abilities. Beginner readers focus on process strategies, while

skilled readers use abstract conceptual skills and prior knowledge

efficiently. As readers become fluent and experienced, they adopt a

holistic approach, utilizing their past knowledge and conceptual skills to

comprehend text meaning. However, dyslexic children often struggle to

transition, relying on process techniques.

Pronunciation: For students to succeed in speaking and writing English,

pronunciation is a vital component that must be learned. Preliminary

research revealed that students' pronunciation skills in English are still

lacking, and that they frequently struggle with pronouncing vocabulary.

This is another issue that both students and teachers encounter in the

classroom. Students may have trouble communicating both orally and in

writing with other speakers if they are unable to pronounce vocabulary

words accurately and correctly. Additional issues include inappropriate

media choices and instructional strategies. .(Muylani &Sartika D.,2019).

Pronunciation is crucial for English success, but students often struggle

with vocabulary. This issue affects oral and written communication, and

can be exacerbated by inappropriate media choices and instructional

strategies. Moreover, this approach cultivates a learner-centered

environment, fostering self-awareness and promoting personalized

pronunciation strategies. By encouraging students to reflect on their own

speech patterns and identify areas for improvement, they become active

participants in their learning journey. Reading engagement has been

interpreted as a precondition for students' developing attentiveness,

which ultimately leads to high reading comprehension performance. The

context of engagement is keeping readers cognitively and behaviorally

active, so measuring readers' engagement should also include a balance

of interest, self-regulation, motivation, reading attitude, and engagement

with the text (Roomy & Alhawsawi, 2019). Students' curiosity and

engagement increase when they connect text to their interests and

experiences. Skilled readers control their reading process by setting

objectives, tracking understanding, and adjusting speed. The use of

context clues is one of the most effective ways of developing and

enhancing reading comprehension because it helps the reader figure out

the meaning of unknown words and strengthens learners’ vocabulary

(lter, 2019; Mauliza et al., 2019; Putri & Fitrawati, 2019). The use of

context clues was highly related to overall reading effectiveness (Putri &

Fitrawati, 2019). Context clues are the words and sentences that

surround a word and help explain the word's meaning. It also helps the

reader figure out the meaning of an unknown word. The benefits of

context clue utilization enhance comprehension, fosters language love,

and boosts confidence in reading abilities. It encourages exploration,

vocabulary expansion, and appreciation for language's richness, fostering

a deeper understanding. In conclusion, the use of context clues

represents a cornerstone of effective reading comprehension and

vocabulary development. By harnessing the power of contextual cues,

readers not only unlock the meaning of complex texts but also embark on

a lifelong journey of linguistic exploration. As explained by the

Department of Education (DepEd), low students’ reading comprehension

skills are a main factor in the failure rate of students in mathematics and

science, which impairs global competitiveness. From the point of view of

Chen et al. (2020), reading comprehension is a multifaceted process that

requires the integration and coordination of a variety of abilities, including

word decoding (the capacity to decipher or recognize written words) and

speech or listening comprehension (the ability to comprehend what is

decoded in spoken form). Effective reading comprehension relies on the

interplay between word decoding and speech or listening comprehension.

Readers must decipher unfamiliar words and understand the relationships

between words, phrases, and sentences to extract the passage’s

meaning. Proficient readers have a well-developed repertoire of

strategies for tackling unfamiliar words, making inferences from context,

and synthesizing information from multiple sources. Cultivating these

essential skills unlocks the vast storehouse of knowledge and expression

within the written word.

Summarizing: Reading is a crucial skill for academic success, expanding

vocabulary, enhancing grammar knowledge, and facilitating

comprehension across learning domains. Condensing Writing is a crucial

strategy for learning from texts, and summaries reveal details about

students' comprehension and methods of learning. We looked into the

types of summaries written by teenagers who were bilingual and whether

or not those summaries correlated with their reading proficiency in both

first and second languages. Miao L. et.al., (2020). As stated by Triana N.

(2022). The teacher can teach reading comprehension using a variety of

techniques. The researcher employed a variety of tactics, including

"Paired Reading and in pairs, summarize. The tactic is meant to promote

diverse modes of thought. which all promote understanding. One tactic in

Paired Reading and Paired Strategy is Students study in groups of two.

Students have the ability to study, discuss, and create collectively

summarize the text. Collaborative learning strategies, such as paired

reading and paired summarizing, can effectively enhance students'

reading comprehension by fostering engagement, promoting diverse

perspectives, and encouraging active participation in the learning

process. It exposes individuals to diverse words, enhancing language

rules and writing proficiency. Reading serves as a foundational skill for

academic success, expanding vocabulary, enhancing grammar

knowledge, and facilitating comprehension across various learning

domains. As stated by Dong (2019), reading does offer a wider range of

vocabulary and grammar because it essentially supports and feeds the

brain with the correct language structure. Meylana (2019) explained that,

among English skills, reading skills play the most important role in a

student's learning success because the overall learning activities begin

with reading activities. Reading expands vocabulary, improves

communication, and enhances writing ability. It exposes readers to

grammatical structures, promoting deeper comprehension of linguistic

principles. Reading also helps students absorb concepts and participate

more successfully in academic activities, paving the way for knowledge

acquisition across disciplines.

Predicting: Reading comprehension can be predicted by various factors

such as decoding, language comprehension, working memory ability, and

text features. Teachers' instructional style plays a significant role in

shaping students' reading comprehension abilities. Effective instructional

strategies can enhance students' engagement, promote deeper

understanding, and foster a positive attitude towards reading. As

explained by Cevoli, B. et.al., (2020). The study explores the impact of

future word predictions on English-speaking adults' reading speed. Using

a robust language model (GPT-2), the study found that accurate

predictions were closely related to eye movement behavior, such as

skipping words and spending time on them. However, strong but

inaccurate predictions led to a high prediction error cost on fixation

durations. The results suggest that text statistics analysis can predict

words and influence human eyes' scanning behavior at small distances.

Conversely, inaccurate predictions can hinder reading progress, leading

to hesitation, backtracking, and increased fixation durations. In these

instances, the prediction error cost becomes apparent, as readers must

expend additional cognitive effort to correct the erroneous prediction and

regain their footing in the text. The English teacher faced several

challenges when implementing the previewing and predicting strategy to

teach reading comprehension, including the students’ lack of vocabulary,

their difficulty comprehending texts, the fact that the learning materials

were solely supported by texts, the timing of the implementation, and the

need for students to receive clear instruction. Anggraini,W. et.al.,(2022).

Hence, teachers were trying to understand knowledge acquisition and

looking for the best techniques and strategies for the students to learn

effectively, particularly in reading comprehension (Tavera & Casinillo,

2020). Lots of strategies and techniques were introduced and practiced in

the classroom, but there are few that could be more relaxing and

enjoyable for both the teacher and learners to learn effectively. Educators

must value creativity, originality, and understanding their students' needs

to find effective teaching methods for reading comprehension. Integrating

interactive storytelling, gamification, technology-enhanced learning,

cooperative activities, and creative expression can transform classrooms

into dynamic learning environments, fostering proficient readers and

active. In addition to this, Ancheta, W. M. (2022), the content area

teachers’ competencies were determined using a descriptive research

methodology based on their level of knowledge of the nature of reading

and content area reading instruction. (Ma’youf & Aburezeq, 2022). In the

Philippines, the Department of Education has intensified its thrust to

bridge literacy gaps among learners and intensify the advocacy for

reading proficiency through knowledge of the nature of reading and

content-area reading instruction. By embracing these transformative

practices, content area teachers can cultivate a classroom environment

that fosters a deep appreciation for the written word and empowers

learners to become proficient readers, critical thinkers, and lifelong

learners.

Visualization: It plays a role in understanding and is a feature of how most

people store information in their memories. When pupils have enough

automaticity with the visual and phonological components of reading, it

becomes a part of reading. In accordinance with Yasa, I. et.al.,

(2022).One strategy for raising students’ reading comprehension skills is

the visualization strategy. It entails providing pupils with visual aids to

help them comprehend and analyze the material they are reading, such

as charts, diagrams, and pictures. Students can improve their

comprehension and memory of the material by visualizing it and forming

mental images. This method seeks to help students understand abstract

ideas by giving them greater substance and accessibility. Students can

gain a deeper comprehension of the text by using visual aids to help them
connect disparate ideas and concepts. Visualization is a powerful tool that

can be used to communicate and understand complex information. By

transforming data into images, visualizations can help us to see patterns,

trends, and relationships that would be difficult to discern from raw data.

Visualization can also be used to tell stories, engage audiences, and

support decision-making. As per Dunn, L.A. (2020), a possible approach

could be to improve students’ visualization skills while they engage with

the text, inspiring them to decipher it. Pupils with high incidence

disabilities received assistance in recognizing the visual elements in the

movies that matched each element. They then practiced identifying the

same elements in literature with varying degrees of complexity by using

plot diagrams and mental imagery. Results showed that students could

recognize elements in the text structure and were able to visualize more.

Based on the format of the responses, the comprehension results varied.

There is discussion of the implications for reading comprehension.

Ma’youf and Aburezeq (2022) conducted a study on the effectiveness of a

differentiated strategy in improving reading comprehension. They divided

the study into two groups, one using traditional methods and the other

using the four-level strategy. Differentiated reading strategies can

improve students’ comprehension by tailoring instruction to their individual

needs and learning styles. These strategies, such as the four-level

strategy, provide a structured framework for differentiating reading

instruction. Research, like Ma’youf and Aburezeq’s (2022) study, supports

the effectiveness of these strategies in improving student comprehension.

Stoller and Grabe (2019) state that reading is crucial for learning other

skills, but poor academic performance can result from a lack of reading

ability” to visualization by saying that visualization can be a powerful tool

for improving reading comprehension. In addition to these cognitive

benefits, visualization can also make reading more enjoyable and

engaging for readers. This is because it can help to break up text and

make it more visually appealing. Visualization can also help to make

reading more interactive, as readers can explore and manipulate the

visualizations to gain a better understanding of the text. Moriyanti, M.

et.al., (2019) It was discovered that inferring is where visualization has

the greatest impact; details are next, and primary idea comes last. The

lexicon is affected the least. Thus, it can be said that pupils benefit greatly

from visualizing when reading in terms of inference, details, and primary

idea.