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WEEK 3: ROBOTICS

PT PROF. (DR.) DILIP KUMAR PRATIHAR

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, IIT KHARAGPUR

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Topic 2: Robot Kinematics

PT PROF. (DR.) DILIP KUMAR PRATIHAR

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, IIT KHARAGPUR

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Rotational Operator

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� , 𝜽𝜽 : Rotation about 𝒁𝒁
Rot 𝒁𝒁 � axis by an angle θ (anticlockwise sense)

𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = 𝒒𝒒𝒙𝒙 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺

𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝒒𝒒𝒚𝒚 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪

PT 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 = 𝒒𝒒𝒙𝒙 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪

𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 = 𝒒𝒒𝒚𝒚 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺

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𝒒𝒒𝑿𝑿 = 𝒒𝒒𝒙𝒙 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 − 𝒒𝒒𝒚𝒚 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 + 𝒒𝒒𝒛𝒛 𝑿𝑿𝟎𝟎

𝒒𝒒𝒀𝒀 = 𝒒𝒒𝒙𝒙 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 + 𝒒𝒒𝒚𝒚 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 + 𝒒𝒒𝒛𝒛 𝑿𝑿𝟎𝟎

PT 𝒒𝒒𝒁𝒁 = 𝒒𝒒𝒙𝒙 𝑿𝑿𝟎𝟎 + 𝒒𝒒𝒚𝒚 𝑿𝑿𝟎𝟎 + 𝒒𝒒𝒛𝒛 𝑿𝑿𝟏𝟏

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In matrix form:

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q X  cos θ − sin θ 0  q x 
q  =  sin θ
 Y  cos θ 0 q y 
 q Z   0 0 1  q z 

PT ( )
cos θ − sin θ 0
Rot Ẑ, θ =  sin θ cos θ 0
 0 0 1

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Similarly, we get

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1 0 0 
( )
Rot X̂, θ = 0 cos θ − sin θ
0 sin θ cos θ 

PT ( )
 cos θ 0 sin θ 
Rot Ŷ, θ =  0 1 0 
− sin θ 0 cos θ

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Properties of Rotation Matrix

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•Each row/column of a rotation matrix is a unit vector
•Inner (dot) product of each row of a rotation matrix with each
other row becomes equal to 0. The same is true for each column
also.
•Rotation matrices are not commutative in nature

•
A
T
B = B −1
AT
PT � , 𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒀𝒀
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑿𝑿 � , 𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 ≠ 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒀𝒀

𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑻𝑻−𝟏𝟏 𝑿𝑿
� , 𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑿𝑿

•Inverse of a rotation matrix is nothing but its transpose

� , 𝜽𝜽 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑿𝑿
� , 𝜽𝜽
� , 𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏

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A Numerical Example

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�𝑼𝑼 axis of the universal coordinate system
A frame {B} is rotated about 𝑿𝑿
by 45 degrees and translated along 𝑿𝑿 �𝑼𝑼 , 𝒀𝒀�𝑼𝑼 and 𝒁𝒁�𝑼𝑼 by 1, 2, and 3 units,
respectively. Let the position of a point Q in {B} is given by [3.0 2.0 1.0]T .
Determine U Q .
Solution:

PT U
Q
= U
BT × BQ

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𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝟑𝟑
𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 −𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
=
𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟏
𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏

PT
=
𝟒𝟒
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 + 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 + 𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟏
=
𝟒𝟒
𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝟓𝟓. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟏

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Composite Rotation Matrix

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Composite rotation matrix representing a rotation of α angle
� , followed by a rotation of β angle about 𝒀𝒀
about 𝒁𝒁 � axis , followed
� axis.
by a rotation of γ angle about 𝑿𝑿

PT � , 𝜸𝜸 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒀𝒀
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑿𝑿 � , 𝜷𝜷 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒁𝒁
� , 𝜶𝜶

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Representations of Position in Other Than
Cartesian Coordinate System

PT
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Cylindrical Coordinate System

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Steps:
1. Starting from the origin O,
translate by r units along 𝑿𝑿 � 𝑼𝑼
axis
2. Rotate in anti-clockwise

PT sense about 𝒁𝒁
angle θ
� 𝑼𝑼 axis by an

3. Translate along 𝒁𝒁
units
� 𝑼𝑼 axis by z

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𝑻𝑻 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
� 𝑼𝑼 , 𝒛𝒛 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒁𝒁
= 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒁𝒁 � 𝑼𝑼 , 𝜽𝜽 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑿𝑿
� 𝑼𝑼 , 𝒓𝒓

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜽𝜽 −𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜽𝜽 𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒓𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜽𝜽

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜽𝜽 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜽𝜽 𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒓𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜽𝜽
=
𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛

PT 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎

We get qx = rcosθ
qy = rsinθ
qz = z
𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏

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Spherical Coordinate System

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Steps:
1. Starting from the origin O,
translate along 𝒁𝒁 � 𝑼𝑼 axis by r
units
2. Rotate in anti-clockwise
sense about 𝒀𝒀� 𝑼𝑼 axis by an

PT angle α
3. Rotate in anti-clockwise
sense about 𝒁𝒁
angle β
� 𝑼𝑼 axis by an

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𝑻𝑻 � 𝑼𝑼 , 𝜷𝜷 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒀𝒀
= 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒁𝒁 � 𝑼𝑼 , 𝜶𝜶 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒁𝒁
� 𝑼𝑼 , 𝒓𝒓

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𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜶𝜶𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜷𝜷 −𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜷𝜷 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜶𝜶𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜷𝜷 𝒓𝒓𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜶𝜶𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜷𝜷

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜶𝜶𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜷𝜷 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜷𝜷 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜶𝜶𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜷𝜷 𝒓𝒓𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜶𝜶𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜷𝜷
=
−𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝜶𝜶 𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜶𝜶 𝒓𝒓𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝜶𝜶
𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏

PT We get qx = rsinαcosβ
qy = rsinαsinβ
qz = rcosα

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Representations of Orientation in Other
Than Cartesian Coordinate System

PT
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Roll, Pitch and Yaw Angles

EL
PT
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Steps:
� 𝑼𝑼 by an angle α
1. Rotate {B} about 𝑿𝑿 rolling
� 𝑼𝑼 by an angle β
2. Rotate {B|} about 𝒀𝒀 pitching

PT � 𝑼𝑼 by an angle γ
3. Rotate {B||} about 𝒁𝒁 yawing

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𝑼𝑼
𝑩𝑩𝑹𝑹𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆: 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
� 𝑼𝑼 , 𝜸𝜸 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒀𝒀
= 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒁𝒁 � 𝑼𝑼 , 𝜷𝜷 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑿𝑿
� 𝑼𝑼 , 𝜶𝜶

EL
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 −𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
= 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 −𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
−𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

We compare with

PT 𝑼𝑼
𝑩𝑩𝑹𝑹 =
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

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We get

𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝜶𝜶 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
−𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝜷𝜷 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏

PT 𝜸𝜸 =
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

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A Numerical Example

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The concept of roll, pitch and yaw angles has been used to
represent the rotation of a frame {B} with respect to the reference
𝑩𝑩𝑹𝑹. Let us suppose that the above rotation can
frame {U}, that is 𝑼𝑼
also be expressed by a 3X3 rotation matrix as given below.

−𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 −𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖

PT 𝑼𝑼
𝑩𝑩𝑹𝑹 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 −𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 −𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
−𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 −𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Determine the angles of rolling, pitching and yawing.

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Solution:

EL
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 −𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
Angle of rolling 𝜶𝜶 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 −𝟏𝟏
= 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 −𝟏𝟏 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

−𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
Angle of pitching 𝜷𝜷 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 −𝟏𝟏

𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

PT = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏

= 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
−𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐

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−𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Angle of yawing 𝜸𝜸 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 −𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 −𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
= −𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 ≈ −𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔

PT
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Using Euler Angles
U
R = UB R −1

EL
B

Steps:
� 𝑩𝑩 by an angle α in
1.Rotate {B} about 𝒁𝒁
anti-clockwise sense
� 𝑩𝑩′ by an angle β in
2.Rotate {B} about 𝒀𝒀

PT anti-clockwise sense
� 𝑩𝑩" by an angle γ in
3.Rotate {B} about 𝑿𝑿
anti-clockwise sense

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𝑩𝑩
𝑼𝑼𝑹𝑹𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬
� 𝑩𝑩" , −𝜸𝜸 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒀𝒀
= 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑿𝑿 � 𝑩𝑩′ , −𝜷𝜷 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒁𝒁
� 𝑩𝑩 , −𝜶𝜶

𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔

𝑼𝑼
𝑩𝑩𝑹𝑹 = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
−𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

PT
We compare with

𝑼𝑼
𝑩𝑩𝑹𝑹 =
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

25
 EL
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝜶𝜶 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
−𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝜷𝜷 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

PT 𝜸𝜸 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 −𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

26
 EL
Denavit-Hartenberg Notations

• Proposed in the year 1955

PT
27
Link and Joint Parameters

EL
• Length of linki (ai): It is the
mutual perpendicular
distance between Axisi-1 and
Axisi
• Angle of twist of linki (𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 ): It is

PT defined as the angle

between Axisi-1 and Axisi

28
 • Offset of linki (di): It is the distance

EL
measured from a point where ai-1
intersects the Axisi-1 to the point
where ai intersects the Axisi-1
measured along the said axis

• Joint Angle (θi): It is defined as the

Notes:
PT
•Revolute joint: θi is variable
•Prismatic joint: di is variable
angle between the extension of ai-1
and ai measured about the Axisi-1

29
Rules for Coordinate Assignment

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• Zi is an axis about which the
rotation is considered or along
which the translation takes
place

• If Zi-1 and Zi axes are parallel to

PT each other, X axis will be

directed from Zi-1 to Zi along
their common normal

30
 • If Zi-1 and Zi axes intersect each

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other, X axis can be selected
along either of two remaining
directions

• If Zi-1 and Zi axes act along a

straight line, X axis can be

PT selected anywhere in a plane

perpendicular to them

• Y axis is decided as Y = ZxX

31
 EL
We have

𝒊𝒊−𝟏𝟏 𝒊𝒊−𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨 𝑩𝑩 𝑪𝑪
𝒊𝒊𝑻𝑻 = 𝑨𝑨𝑻𝑻 𝑩𝑩𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪𝑻𝑻 𝒊𝒊𝑻𝑻

= 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒁𝒁, 𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒁𝒁, 𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑿𝑿, 𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑿𝑿, 𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊

PT = 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝒘𝒘𝒁𝒁 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝒘𝒘𝑿𝑿

32
 𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 −𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊

EL
𝒊𝒊−𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 −𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊
𝒊𝒊𝑻𝑻 =
𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒔𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊
𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏

𝒊𝒊−𝟏𝟏 −𝟏𝟏
Now, 𝒊𝒊
𝒊𝒊−𝟏𝟏𝑻𝑻 = 𝒊𝒊𝑻𝑻

PT =
𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊
−𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊
𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊
𝟎𝟎
𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊
𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊
−𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊
𝟎𝟎
𝟎𝟎
𝒔𝒔𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊
𝒄𝒄𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊
𝟎𝟎
−𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊
−𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊
−𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊
𝟏𝟏

33
Example 1

EL
PT
34
Forward Kinematics

EL
PT
35
 PT
36

EL
 PT
37

EL
Inverse Kinematics

EL
PT
38
 PT
39

EL
 PT
40

EL
 PT
41

EL
 PT
42

EL