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AGMA 1010-E95 - Appearance of Gear Teeth - Terminology

of Wear and Failure
Engenharia Mecanica (Universidade de Mogi das Cruzes)

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ANSI/AGMA 1010- E95

(Revision of AGMA 110.04)

AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Appearance of Gear Teeth -

Terminology of Wear and Failure
ANSI/AGMA 1010- E95

AGMA STANDARD

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ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

American Appearance of Gear Teeth - Terminology of Wear and

National Failure
ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95
Standard (Revision of ANSI/AGMA 110.04)
Approval of an American National Standard requires verification by ANSI that the re-
quirements for due process, consensus, and other criteria for approval have been
met by the standards developer.
Consensus is established when, in the judgment of the ANSI Board of Standards Re-
view, substantial agreement has been reached by directly and materially affected in-
terests. Substantial agreement means much more than a simple majority, but not
necessarily unanimity. Consensus requires that all views and objections be consid-
ered, and that a concerted effort be made toward their resolution.
The use of American National Standards is completely voluntary; their existence
does not in any respect preclude anyone, whether he has approved the standards or
not, from manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, or using products, processes, or
procedures not conforming to the standards.
The American National Standards Institute does not develop standards and will in no
circumstances give an interpretation of any American National Standard. Moreover,
no person shall have the right or authority to issue an interpretation of an American
National Standard in the name of the American National Standards Institute. Re-
quests for interpretation of this standard should be addressed to the American Gear
Manufacturers Association.
CAUTION NOTICE: AGMA technical publications are subject to constant improve-
ment, revision, or withdrawal as dictated by experience. Any person who refers to any
AGMA Technical Publication should be sure that the publication is the latest available
from the Association on the subject matter.
[Tables or other self--supporting sections may be quoted or extracted. Credit lines
should read: Extracted from ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95, Appearance of Gear Teeth --
Terminology of Wear and Failure, with the permission of the publisher, the American
Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia
22314].

Approved December 13, 1995

ABSTRACT
This nomenclature standard identifies and describes the classes of common gear failures and illustrates
degrees of deterioration.

Published by
American Gear Manufacturers Association
1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia 22314

Copyright ã 1995 by American Gear Manufacturers Association

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without prior
written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: 1--55589--665--0

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AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95

Contents Page

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3 Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4 Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 Plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6 Contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7 Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8 Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9 Bending fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Tables
1 Nomenclature of gear failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Fracture classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Figures
1 Mild wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Moderate wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3a SEM micrograph -- abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3b Mild abrasion near the tip of a ground gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4a Severe abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4b Severe abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4c Severe abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5 Severe polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6 Extensive corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7 Fretting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8 Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9 Cavitation damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10a SEM micrograph -- cavitation damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10b SEM micrograph -- cavitation damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11 Erosion of a high speed gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
12 Electric discharge damage due to a small electric current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
13 Severe electric discharge damage due to an electric current of high intensity . . . . 11
14a SEM micrograph -- typical crater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
14b SEM micrograph -- fused metal and gas pockets near edge of crater . . . . . . . . . . . 12
14c SEM micrograph -- electric discharge damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
15 Mild scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
16a SEM micrograph -- scuffing damage showing rough, torn, and plastically
deformed appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
16b SEM micrograph -- scuffing damage showing crater formed when welded
material was torn from surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
17 Moderate scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
18 Severe scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
19 Severe scuffing of a low speed gear lubricated with grease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Contents (concluded)
Figures (concluded)
20 Severe indentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
21 Hot flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
22 Plastic deformation by rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
23 Plastic deformation by tooth hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
24a Rippling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
24b Rippling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
25 Ridging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
26 Burr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
27 Tip--to--root interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
28a Cross section through a tooth flank showing how a pit develops below the
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
28b SEM micrograph -- pitting damage caused by contact fatigue, showing fatigue
cracks near boundary of pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
29 Initial pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
30 Progressive pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
31 Flake pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
32 Spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
33 Micropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
34 Detail of tooth surface showing micropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
35 Detail of tooth surface showing micropitting at 1000X magnification . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
36 Regularly distributed micropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
37 Subcase fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
38 Crack at a forging defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
39 Hardening cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
40 Grinding cracks with a crazed pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
41 Rim crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
42 Case/core separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
43 Bending fatigue crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
44 Brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
45 Micrograph of transgranular brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
46 Micrograph of intergranular brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
47 Micrograph of ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
48 Mixed mode fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
49 Tooth shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
50 Fracture after plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
51 Fatigue of two spur teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
52 Fatigue of two helical teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
53 Fatigue of two bevel pinion teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
54 Fatigue of several teeth that were loaded on both flanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
55 Profile cracks originating from severe pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
56 Broken tooth ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

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AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95

Foreword
[The foreword, footnotes, and annexes, if any, are provided for informational purposes only,
and should not be construed as part of American Gear Manufacturers Association Standard
ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95, Appearance of Gear Teeth -- Terminology of Wear and Failure].
This standard provides a means to document the appearance of gear teeth when they wear
or fail. The study of gear tooth wear and failure has been hampered by the inability of two
observers to describe the same phenomenon in terms that are adequate to assure uniform
interpretation.
The term “gear failure” is subjective and a source of considerable disagreement. For exam-
ple, a person observing gear teeth that have a bright, mirrorlike appearance may believe that
the gears have “run--in” properly. However, another observer may believe that the gears
have failed by polishing wear. Whether the gears should be considered failed or not depends
on how much wear is tolerable.
This standard provides a common language to describe gear wear and failure, and serves as
a guide to uniformity and consistency in the use of that language. It describes the appear-
ance of gear tooth failure modes and discusses their mechanisms, with the sole intent of facil-
itating identification of gear wear and failure. The purpose of the standard is to improve
communication between equipment users and gear manufacturers for failure and wear anal-
ysis. Since there may be many different causes for each type of gear tooth wear of failure, it is
not possible in the standard to identify a single cause for each type of wear or failure, nor to
prescribe remedies.
AGMA Standard 110 was first published in 1943. A revised standard, AGMA 110.03, was
published in 1979 with improved photographs and additional material. AGMA 110.04 was
reaffirmed by the members in 1989.
ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95 is a revision of AGMA 110.04. This version was approved by the
AGMA Membership in March 9, 1995. It was approved as an American National Standard on
December 13, 1995.
Suggestions for the improvement of this standard will be welcome. They should be sent to
the American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Vir-
ginia, 22314.

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ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

PERSONNEL of the AGMA Nomenclature Committee

Chairman: J.R. Colbourne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . University of Alberta
Vice Chairman: B.C. Newcomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chicago Gear

ACTIVE MEMBERS
K. Acheson . . . . . . The Gear Works -- Seattle, Inc. E.E. Shipley . . . . . Mechanical Technology Inc.
W.A. Bradley III . Consultant (Deceased)
R. Errichello . . . . . Geartech R.E. Smith . . . . . . . R. E. Smith & Co., Inc.
L. Faure . . . . . . . . . CMD L.J. Smith . . . . . . . Invincible Gear Company
D. McCarroll . . . . . Gleason Works O.A. LaBath . . . . . Cincinnati Gear Company
D.R. McVittie . . . . . Gear Engineers

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
S.E. Borg . . . . . . . . Borg Associates I. Laskin . . . . . . . . . Irving Laskin, P.E.
M.R. Chaplin . . . . . Contour Hardening M. Noguchi . . . . . . Tsubakimoto Chain Company
A.S. Cohen . . . . . . Engranes y Maquinaria T. Okamoto . . . . . . Nippon Gear
P.M. Dean . . . . . . . Consultant C. Moyer . . . . . . . . Consultant
R. Green . . . . . . . . Eaton Corporation

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AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
American National Standard --
Appearance of Gear
Teeth -- Terminology of
Wear and Failure
1 Scope
This standard provides nomenclature for general
modes of gear tooth wear and failure. It classifies,
identifies, and describes the most common types of
failure and provides information which will, in many
cases, enable the user to identify failure modes and
evaluate the degree or progression of wear.
This standard is based on experience with steel
gears; however, many of the failure modes dis-
cussed may apply to gears made from other
materials.
The solution to many gear problems requires
detailed investigation and analysis by specialists
and is beyond the scope and intent of this standard.
This standard does not define “gear failure”. One
observer’s “failure” is another observer’s “run--in”.
There is no single definition of gear failure, since
whether or not a gear has failed depends on the
specific application.
2 Nomenclature
2.1 Definitions
The terms used in this standard, wherever applica-
ble, conform to the definitions given in the following
standard:
ANSI/AGMA 1012--F90, Gear Nomenclature, Defi-
nitions of Terms with Symbols
2.2 Symbols
NOTE: The symbols and definitions used in this stan-
dard may differ from other AGMA Standards. The user
should not assume that familiar symbols can be used
without a careful study of these definitions.
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ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95
2.3 Classes and modes of failure
Table 1 groups the common modes of gear failure
into seven general classes and subdivides the gen-
eral classes into general and specific modes. It also
includes commonly used, but not preferred names.
3 Wear
Wear is a term describing change to a gear tooth
surface involving the removal or displacement of
material, due to mechanical, chemical, or electrical
action.
Figures 1 and 2 show mild and moderate wear.
They are not intended to indicate the mode of wear.
Wear can be categorized as mild, moderate or
severe. Mild wear is considered normal in many
applications. Moderate and sometimes even se-
vere wear may be acceptable in some applications.
3.1 Adhesion
Adhesion is caused by transfer of material from one
tooth surface to another due to microwelding and
tearing. It is confined to surface films and oxide lay-
ers on the tooth surface.
Adhesion can be categorized as mild or moderate.
Severe adhesion is termed scuffing (see clause 4).
3.1.1 Mild adhesion
Mild adhesion typically occurs during running--in
and usually subsides after it has smoothed the tooth
surfaces by removing minor imperfections through
local wear. To the unaided eye, the tooth surface
appears undamaged and the original machining
marks are visible. Microscopically, smooth
microplateaus can be seen between the machining
furrows.
3.1.2 Moderate adhesion
Adhesion is classified as moderate if it removes
some or all of the original machining marks from the
active surface of the tooth. Under certain condi-
tions, adhesion may cause continuous removal of
surface films and oxide layers, resulting in severe
wear.
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ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Table 1 -- Nomenclature of gear failure modes

Class General mode Specific mode or degree Not preferred
Wear Adhesion Mild Running--in wear
Moderate
Severe (see scuffing) Scoring
Scratching
Abrasion Mild, Moderate, Severe Cutting
Burnishing
Polishing Mild, Moderate, Severe
Corrosion
Fretting corrosion
Scaling
Cavitation
Erosion
Electrical discharge
Rippling
Scuffing Scuffing Mild, Moderate, Severe Scoring
Cold scuffing
Hot scuffing
Welding
Galling
Seizing
Plastic deformation Plastic deformation Indentation Bruising
Peening
Denting
Brinelling
Cold flow Permanent deformation
Hot flow Overheating
Rolling
Tooth hammer
Rippling Fish scaling
Ridging
Burr
Root fillet yielding
Tip--to--root interference
Contact fatigue Pitting (Macropitting) Initial
Progressive Destructive
Flake Arrow head
Spall
Micropitting Frosting
Gray staining
Peeling
Subcase fatigue Case crushing
Cracking Hardening cracks Quenching cracks
Grinding cracks
Rim and web cracks
Case/core separation Internal rupture
Fatigue cracks
Fracture Brittle fracture Fast fracture
Ductile fracture Smearing
Mixed mode fracture Semi--brittle
Tooth shear
Fracture after plastic de-
formation
Bending fatigue Low--cycle fatigue
High--cycle fatigue Root fillet cracks
Profile cracks
Tooth end cracks

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AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
Figure 1 -- Mild wear
Figure 2 -- Moderate wear
3.2 Abrasion
Abrasion is the removal or displacement of material
due to the presence of hard particles: for example,
metallic debris, scale, rust, sand, or abrasive
powder, suspended in the lubricant or embedded in
the flanks of the mating teeth.
Based on the severity of the damage, abrasion can
be categorized as mild, moderate, or severe.
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ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95
Abrasion causes scratches or gouges on the tooth
surface that are oriented in the direction of sliding.
Abrasion normally apears at the addendum and
dedendum where sliding is present. Under magnifi-
cation, the scratches appear as parallel furrows that
are smooth and clean. See figure 3a.
Abrasion due to loose contaminants, is called
three--body abrasion. Two--body abrasion occurs
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when embedded particles or asperities on one gear scratches that are not numerous or deep enough to
tooth abrade the opposing tooth surface. remove significant amounts of material from the
3.2.1 Mild abrasion tooth surface. See figure 3b.
Abrasion is classified as mild if it consists of fine

The diagonal line is an abrasion furrow cut by a hard particle showing smooth,
clean appearance. The vertical lines are the original grind marks
Figure 3a -- SEM micrograph -- abrasion

Figure 3b -- Mild abrasion near the tip of a ground gear

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3.2.2 Moderate abrasion ing marks from the active surface of the tooth.
Abrasion is classified as moderate if remnants of the There may be wear steps at the ends of the active
original machining marks are visible on the tooth face and in the dedendum. The tooth thickness may
surface. be reduced significantly, and in some instances the
tooth tip may be reduced to a sharp edge.
3.2.3 Severe abrasion
Severe abrasion removes all of the original machin- See figures 4a, 4b and 4c.

Figure 4a -- Severe abrasion

Figure 4b -- Severe abrasion

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Figure 4c -- Severe abrasion
3.3 Polishing
Polishing is fine--scale abrasion that causes gear
teeth to have a bright mirrorlike finish. The gear
tooth surface may be smooth or wavy with local
bumps. Under magnification, the surface appears
to be covered by fine scratches that are oriented in
the direction of sliding.
When a hard surface mates with a soft surface, pol-
ishing is more likely to occur on the hard surface.
Polishing is promoted by chemically active lubri-
cants that are contaminated with fine abrasives.
Based on the severity, polishing can be categorized
as mild, moderate, or severe.
3.3.1 Mild polishing
Polishing is classified as mild if it is confined to the
peaks of the surface asperities. Mild polishing typi-
cally occurs during running--in and ceases before
the original machining marks are removed from the
tooth surface.
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3.3.2 Moderate polishing
Polishing is classified as moderate if remnants of
the original machining marks are visible on the tooth
surface.
3.3.3 Severe polishing
Severe polishing removes all of the original machin-
ing marks from the active surface of the tooth. The
polished surface may be wavy and there may be
wear steps at the ends of the active face and in the
dedendum.
See figure 5.
3.4 Corrosion
Corrosion is the chemical or electrochemical reac-
tion between the surface of a gear and its environ-
ment. The tooth surfaces may appear stained or
rusty and there may be reddish--brown deposits of
rust. If the loose corrosion products are removed,
etch pits may be revealed. Corrosion commonly at-
tacks the entire tooth surface and it may proceed in-
tergranularly by preferentially attacking the grain
boundaries of the tooth surfaces.
See figure 6.
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Figure 5 -- Severe polishing
Figure 6 -- Extensive corrosion
3.5 Fretting corrosion
Fretting corrosion occurs between contacting sur-
faces that are pressed together and subjected to cy-
clic, relative motion of extremely small amplitude.
Under these conditions, the lubricant is squeezed
from between the surfaces permitting metal--to--
metal contact and causing adhesion of the surface
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asperities. The relative motion breaks the welded
asperities and generates iron oxide powder that has
the fineness and reddish--brown color of cocoa.
The wear debris is hard and abrasive. Fretting cor-
rosion tends to be self--aggravating because the
wear debris builds a dam that prevents fresh lubri-
cant from reaching the contact area.
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Fretting corrosion may occur in non--rotating gears,
if they are subjected to structure borne vibrations
such as those encountered during transport.
See figure 7.
3.6 Scaling
In figure 8, the patchy raised areas on the tooth
flanks are due to an oxidation process during heat
treatment. When running under load, the tooth
force is initially transmitted by way of these projec-
tions which rapidly acquire a metallic sheen. This
phenomenon is known as scaling.

Figure 7 -- Fretting corrosion

Figure 8 -- Scaling

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3.7 Cavitation sand blasted. Microscopically, the craters caused

Cavitation is the nucleation and implosion of by cavitation are deep, rough, clean, and have a
bubbles in the lubricating fluid. This may cause honeycomb appearance.
damage in the gear tooth surface which appears to
the unaided eye to be rough and clean as if it were See figures 9, 10a and 10b.

Figure 9 -- Cavitation damage

Cavitation damage showing sandblasted appearance

Figure 10a -- SEM micrograph -- cavitation damage

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Cavitation crater showing deep, rough, clean, and honeycomb appearance

Figure 10b -- SEM micrograph -- cavitation damage

3.8 Erosion surface due to the relative motion of a high velocity

Erosion is the loss of material from a gear tooth fluid. See figure 11.

Figure 11 -- Erosion of a high speed gear

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3.9 Electric discharge particles that were once molten.

An electric arc discharge across the oil film between
A metallurgical section taken transversely through
mating gear teeth produces temperatures that may
the craters and acid etched may reveal austenitized
be high enough to locally melt the gear tooth
and rehardened areas in white, bordered by tem-
surface. Microscopically, the damage appears as
pered areas in black. Sometimes microcracks are
small hemispherical craters. The edges of the
found near the craters.
craters are smooth and they may be surrounded by
burned or fused metal in the form of rounded See figures 12, 13, 14a, 14b and 14c.

Figure 12 -- Electric discharge damage due to a small electric current

Figure 13 -- Severe electric discharge damage due to an electric current of high intensity

11

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Figure 14a -- SEM micrograph -- typical crater

Figure 14b -- SEM micrograph -- fused metal and gas pockets near edge of crater
3.10 Rippling ing and tearing. The scuffed areas appear to have a
For a description of rippling, see 5.6. Rippling is rough or matte texture. The damage typically oc-
generally associated with plastic deformation, but it curs in the addendum, dedendum, or both, away
may also be a form of wear. from the operating pitchline, in narrow or broad
bands that are oriented in the direction of sliding.
4 Scuffing Scuffing may occur in localized patches. Under
Scuffing is severe adhesion that causes transfer of magnification, the scuffed surface appears rough,
metal from one tooth surface to another due to weld- torn, and plastically deformed.

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Rounded particles of metal that were once molten

Figure 14c -- SEM micrograph -- electric discharge damage

The term “scoring” which was incorrectly used in be categorized as mild, moderate, or severe.
earlier gear nomenclature for scuffing, is in reality
scratching and is now classified as a form of abra- 4.1 Mild scuffing
sive wear. Scuffing is classified as mild if it occurs only on small
Scuffing is not a fatigue phenomenon and it may oc- areas of the teeth and is confined to the peaks of the
cur instantaneously. surface asperities.
Based on the severity of the damage, scuffing can See figures 15 and 16.

Figure 15 -- Mild scuffing

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Figure 16a -- SEM micrograph -- scuffing damage showing rough, torn,

and plastically deformed appearance

Figure 16b -- SEM micrograph -- scuffing damage showing crater formed when
welded material was torn from surface

4.2 Moderate scuffing 4.3 Severe scuffing

Moderate scuffing occurs in patches that cover sig- Severe scuffing occurs on significant portions of the
nificant portions of the teeth. If the operating condi- gear tooth (for example, the entire addendum, the
tions do not change, moderate scuffing may be entire dedendum, or both). In some cases the
progressive. See figure 17.

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surface material may be plastically deformed and severe scuffing is usually progressive.
displaced over the tip of the tooth or into the root of
the tooth. Unless corrective measures are taken, See figures 18 and 19.

Figure 17 -- Moderate scuffing

Figure 18 -- Severe scuffing

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Figure 19 -- Severe scuffing of a low speed gear lubricated with grease

5 Plastic deformation indentations caused by foreign material that be-
Plastic deformation is permanent deformation that comes trapped between mating teeth.
occurs when the stress exceeds the yield strength See figure 20.
of the material. It may occur at the surface or sub-
surface of the active flanks of the gear teeth due to
high contact stress, or at the root fillets of the gear 5.2 Cold flow
teeth due to high bending stress, see 8.3.
Cold flow is plastic deformation that occurs at a
5.1 Indentation temperature lower than the recrystallization
The active flanks of gear teeth may be damaged by temperature.

Figure 20 -- Severe indentations

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5.3 Hot flow
Hot flow is plastic deformation that occurs at a
temperature higher than the recrystallization
temperature. See figure 21.
5.4 Rolling
Plastic deformation may occur on the active flanks
of gear teeth caused by high contact stresses in
combination with both the rolling and sliding action
of the gear mesh. Displacement of surface material
may form a groove along the pitchline and burrs on
the tips and in the roots of the driving gear teeth.
The surface material of the driven gear may be
displaced toward the pitchline forming a ridge.
See figure 22.

Figure 21 -- Hot flow

Figure 22 -- Plastic deformation by rolling

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5.5 Tooth hammer
Local, subsurface yielding may occur on gear teeth
that are subjected to high contact stresses such as
those caused by “tooth hammer” (vibratory impact
with intermittent tooth contact separation). The sub-
surface plastic deformation causes shallow
grooves (Brinelling) on the surfaces of the active
flanks of the gear teeth along lines of contact be-
tween mating teeth. See figure 23.
5.6 Rippling
Rippling is the periodic, wavelike deformation of the
active gear tooth surface. The peaks of the waves
run perpendicular to the direction of sliding. The
peaks are wavy along the length of the tooth, creat-
ing a fish--scale appearance. Rippling usually oc-
curs under high contact stress and boundary
lubricated conditions.
Although rippling may be considered as a wear phe-
nomenon, it is most often associated with plastic
flow. See figures 24a and 24b.

Figure 23 -- Plastic deformation by tooth hammer

Figure 24a -- Rippling

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5.7 Ridging quently occurs on slow speed, heavily loaded worm

Ridging is the development of pronounced ridges or hypoid gear teeth.
and grooves on the active flanks of gear teeth. It fre- See figure 25.

Figure 24b -- Rippling

Figure 25 -- Ridging
5.8 Burr
Burrs are rough, often sharp, extensions formed on
the edges of components caused by heavy loading,
high friction, rolling, or scuffing. Burrs are also
sometimes caused by the manufacturing process.
A pronounced burr can be seen at the tip of the
worm thread’s working flank in figure 26. This burr
was generated by plastic deformation due to the
pressure and the sliding action along the active sur-
face of the flanks.

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Figure 26 -- Burr
5.9 Root fillet yielding
Gear teeth may be permanently bent if the bending
stress in the root fillets exceeds the tensile yield
strength of the material. If the yielding causes sig-
nificant spacing errors between teeth that are per-
manently bent and unloaded teeth that are not,
subsequent engagement may result in destructive
interference between mating teeth.
Figure 27 -- Tip--to--root interference
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5.10 Tip--to--root interference
Plastic deformation, adhesion and abrasion may
occur on the tooth tips of one gear and in the roots of
the mating gear teeth due to tip--to--root interfer-
ence. The interference may be caused by geomet-
ric errors in the profiles of the gear teeth,
engagement below the form diameter, inadequate
tip or root relief, spacing errors, or insufficient center
distance. See figure 27.
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6 Contact fatigue propagates for a short distance in a direction

Repeated contact stresses may cause surface or
subsurface fatigue cracks and the detachment of
material fragments from the gear tooth surface.
6.1 Pitting (Macropitting)
Macropitting may occur when fatigue cracks initiate
either at the surface of the gear tooth or at a shallow
depth below the surface. The crack usually
roughly parallel to the tooth surface before turning
or branching to the surface. When the cracks have
grown long enough to separate a piece of the
surface material, a pit is formed. The edges of a pit
are usually sharp and angular. Cracks may be
found near the boundary of the pit and fatigue
“beach marks” (see clause 9) may be evident on the
crater bottom. See figures 28 to 32.

Figure 28a -- Cross section through a tooth flank showing how a pit develops below the surface

Figure 28b -- SEM micrograph -- pitting damage caused by contact fatigue, showing fatigue cracks
near boundary of pit

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Based on the nature and severity of the damage,
macropitting can be categorized as non--
progressive, progressive, flake, or spall.
6.1.1 Initial pitting
Nonprogressive macropitting normally consists of
small pits less than 1 (one) mm in diameter. They
occur in localized areas and tend to redistribute the
load by removing high asperities. When the load is
Figure 29 -- Initial pitting
Figure 30 -- Progressive pitting
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more evenly distributed, the macropitting stops.
See figure 29.
6.1.2 Progressive pitting
Progressive macropitting normally consists of pits
significantly larger than 1 (one) mm in diameter. Pit-
ting of this type may continue at an increasing rate
until a significant portion of the tooth surface has pits
of various shapes and sizes. See figure 30.
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6.1.3 Flake pitting See figure 31.

Flake macropitting consists of pits that are relatively
shallow but large in area. The fatigue crack extends
from an origin at the surface of the tooth in a fan
shaped manner until thin flakes of material break
out and form a triangular crater.
6.1.4 Spalling
Spall macropitting is progressive macropitting that
occurs when pits coalesce and form irregular cra-
ters that cover a significant area of the tooth surface.
See figure 32.

Figure 31 -- Flake pitting

Figure 32 -- Spalling

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6.2 Micropitting grees. The cracks may extend deeper than the vis-
Micropitting gives the gear tooth a frosted, matte, or ible micropits.
gray stained appearance. Under magnification, the Micropitting occurs most frequently on surface
surface appears to be covered by very fine pits (nor- hardened gear teeth although it may also occur on
mally less than 20 mm deep). Metallurgical sections through hardened gear teeth. It may occur
through the micropits show fatigue cracks that are anywhere on the active profile of the gear tooth.
inclined to the surface at an angle of less than 45 de- See figures 33, 34, 35 and 36.

Figure 33 -- Micropitting

Figure 34 -- Detail of tooth surface showing micropitting

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Figure 35 -- Detail of tooth surface showing micropitting at 1000X magnification

Figure 36 -- Regularly distributed micropitting

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6.3 Subcase fatigue
Subcase fatigue may occur in surface hardened
gears (for example, carburized, nitrided, induction
hardened, and flame hardened). The origin of the
fatigue crack is below the surface of the gear teeth in
the transition zone between the case and core.
Typically, the crack runs parallel to the surface of the
gear tooth before branching to the surface. The
branched cracks may appear at the surface as fine
longitudinal cracks on only a few teeth. If the
surface cracks join together, long shards of the tooth
surface may break away. Fatigue beach marks may
be evident on the crater bottom formed by
propagation of the main crack. See figure 37.
7 Cracking
Aside from cracks in the gear tooth root fillets
caused by bending fatigue, cracks may occur
elsewhere on the gear due to mechanical stress,
thermal stress, material flaws (for example, see
figure 38), or improper processing.

Figure 37 -- Subcase fatigue

Figure 38 -- Crack at a forging defect

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7.1 Hardening cracks
Cracking in heat treatment usually occurs during or
after quenching.
Hardening cracks are generally intergranular with
the crack running from the surface toward the center
of mass in a relatively straight line. If the cracking
occurs prior to tempering, the fracture surfaces will
be discolored by oxidation when the gear is ex-
posed to the furnace atmosphere during tempering.
See figure 39.
7.2 Grinding cracks
Cracks may develop on the tooth surfaces of gears
that are finished by grinding. The cracks are usually
shallow and appear either as a series of parallel
cracks or in a crazed, mesh pattern. The cracks
may appear immediately after grinding, during sub-
sequent handling or storage, or after time in service.
Grinding cracks may result from localized overheat-
ing. Areas of the tooth surface where overheating
has occurred can be detected by acid etching the
surface. Tempered areas appear brown or black on
a light brown or gray background. Areas where un-
tempered martensite has formed appear as white
areas surrounded by black, tempered areas. Mag-
Figure 39 -- Hardening cracks
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netic particle or dye penetrant inspection can be
used to detect grinding cracks.
See figure 40.
7.3 Rim and web cracks
If the gear rim is thin (for example, less than about
twice the gear tooth whole depth), it may be sub-
jected to significant alternating rim bending stresses
that are additive to the gear tooth bending stress,
and may result in fatigue cracks in the rim.
Rim cracks are similar to tooth bending fatigue
cracks, except that rim cracks usually propagate ra-
dially through the gear rim, whereas bending fatigue
cracks propagate across the base of the teeth. Rim
cracks may grow into the web of the gear.
Web cracks may be caused by cyclic stresses due
to vibrating loads near a natural frequency of the
gear blank. A fatigue crack may originate in the web
of the gear and may grow into the rim of the gear.
Web and rim cracks generally originate at stress
concentrations. These concentrations may arise
from one or more of the following: sharp corners or
notches in the root fillets, keyways, splines, holes,
shrink fits, web--to--rim or hub--to--web fillets or met-
allurgical defects such as inclusions.
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Rim or web cracks may cause catastrophic failure in
high speed gears if centrifugal forces cause the
fatigue cracks to propagate in a fast fracture mode,
tearing open the rim.
See figure 41.
7.4 Case/core separation
Case/core separation may occur in surface hard-
ened gear teeth when internal cracks occur near the
case/core boundary. The internal cracks may
propagate causing corners, edges, or entire tips of
the teeth to separate. The cracks may appear
immediately after heat treatment, during subse-
quent handling or storage, or after time in service.
See figure 42.

Figure 40 -- Grinding cracks with a crazed pattern

Figure 41 -- Rim crack

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Figure 42 -- Case/core separation

7.5 Fatigue cracks material. These cracks can appear in tooth flanks
Fatigue cracks are cracks which propagate under and in tooth root fillets. See figure 43. For fatigue
the influence of repeated alternating or cyclic fracture, see clause 9.
stresses which are below the tensile strength of the

Figure 43 -- Bending fatigue crack

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8 Fracture There are three types of overload fracture:

When a gear tooth is overloaded it may fail by -- brittle fracture;

plastically deforming or fracturing. If it fractures, the
failure may be a ductile fracture preceded by
appreciable plastic deformation, a brittle fracture
with little prior plastic deformation, or a mixed
mode fracture exhibiting both ductile and brittle
characteristics.
Fatigue failures usually culminate in a fracture when
the fatigue cracks grow to a point where the
remaining tooth section can no longer support the
load. In this sense the remaining material is
overloaded; however, the fracture is a secondary
failure mode that is caused by the primary mode of
fatigue cracking.
Fractures are classified as brittle or ductile
depending on their macroscopic and microscopic
characteristics, as listed in table 2.
8.1 Fracture modes
Overload breakage usually occurs as a result of a
single application, or very few applications, of very
high load. Sometimes a crack initiated by an
overload will progress as a fatigue crack with slow
propagation, usually with evidence of fretting
corrosion in the region of the initial crack.
-- ductile fracture;
-- mixed mode fracture.
8.1.1 Brittle fracture
Brittle fractures are characterized by rapid crack
propagation without appreciable gross plastic de-
formation. Brittle fractures have a bright, granular
appearance. The fracture surface is generally flat
and perpendicular to the direction of the maximum
tensile stress. Radial ridges or a chevron pattern
may be present on the fracture surface pointing
toward the origin of the crack.
On a microscopic level, brittle fracture typically con-
sists of transgranular cleavage facets or
intergranular facets. See figure 44, 45 and 46.
8.1.2 Ductile fracture
Ductile fractures are characterized by tearing of
metal accompanied by gross plastic deformation.
Ductile fractures have a gray, fibrous appearance.
The fracture surface may have a flat or slant
orientation to the direction of the maximum tensile
stress. The fracture surface may terminate with a
shear lip that extends along the nonworking side of
the gear tooth.

Table 2 -- Fracture classifications

Characteristic of fracture
Brittle fracture Ductile fracture
surface
light reflection bright gray (dark)
shiny dull
texture crystalline silky
grainy matte
rough smooth
coarse fine
granular fibrous (stringy)
orientation flat slant or flat
square
pattern radial ridges shear lips
chevrons
plastic deformation (necking or negligible appreciable
distortion
microscopic features cleavage (facets) dimples (shear)

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Origin in the case at Plastic deformation

the tooth end
Granular fracture surface
Sheared zones

Figure 44 -- Brittle fracture

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Figure 45 -- Micrograph of transgranular brittle fracture

Figure 46 -- Micrograph of intergranular brittle fracture

Microscopically, ductile fractures are characterized
by numerous dimples that are formed by the nucle-
ation and growth of microvoids. See figure 47.
8.1.3 Mixed mode fracture
A local area of a fracture surface may exhibit both
ductile and brittle characteristics. Under these
conditions, the fracture is termed mixed mode. This
is not to be confused with a fracture surface having
features that suggest successive crack propagation
by different mechanisms, for example a fatigue
crack causing a ductile fracture. See figure 48.

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Figure 47 -- Micrograph of ductile fracture
Figure 48 -- Mixed mode fracture
8.2 Tooth shear
When teeth are sheared from gears, the appear-
ance of the sheared surfaces is similar to that of ma-
chined surfaces. Tooth shear is almost always
caused by a single severe overload, see figure 49.
8.3 Fracture after plastic deformation
All such fractures begin with gross plastic deforma-
tions of the teeth before final breakage. See figure
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50. Usually, all the teeth suffer damage which oc-
curs because the material is unable to support the
applied load:
-- when the stress due to load exceeds the
material strength (cold flow then fracture);
-- when the gear material is weakened by over-
heating during operation (hot flow followed by
fracture).
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Figure 49 -- Tooth shear

Figure 50 -- Fracture after plastic deformation

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9 Bending fatigue
Fatigue is a progressive failure consisting of three
distinct stages:
Stage 1 Crack initiation;
Stage 2 Crack propagation;
Stage 3 Fracture.
Most of the fatigue life is occupied by stages 1 and 2
until the cracks grow to critical size where sudden
fracture occurs in stage 3. The fracture may be duc-
tile, brittle or mixed mode depending upon the
toughness of the material and the magnitude of the
applied stress.
During stage 1 the peak bending stress is less than
the yield strength of the material and no gross
yielding of the gear teeth occurs. However, local
plastic deformation may occur in regions of stress
concentrations or areas of structural discontinuities
such as surface notches, grain boundaries, or
inclusions. The cyclic, plastic deformation usually
occurs on slip planes that coincide with the direction
of maximum shear stress. The cyclic slip continues
within the slip planes of a few grains, usually near
the surface where the stress is highest, until
microcracks are initiated. The cracks grow in the
planes of maximum shear stress until they form a
major crack.
The stage 2 propagation phase begins when the
crack turns and grows across grain boundaries
(transgranular) in a direction approximately perpen-
dicular to the maximum tensile stress. During the
propagation phase, the plastic deformation is
confined to a small zone at the leading edge of the
crack, and the surfaces of the fatigue crack usually
appear smooth without signs of gross plastic
deformation.
Under the scanning electron microscope, contours,
called fatigue striations, may be seen on a fatigue
cracked surface. They are thought to be associated
with alternating blunting and sharpening of the
crack tip and correspond to the advance of the crack
during each stress cycle. The orientation of the
striations is at 90 degrees to the crack advance.
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If the crack propagates intermittently, it may leave a
pattern of macroscopically visible “beach marks”.
These marks correspond to positions of the crack
front where the crack stopped. The origin of the
fatigue crack is usually on the concave side of
curved beach marks and is often surrounded by
several concentric beach marks. Beach marks may
not be present, especially if the fatigue crack grows
without interruption under cyclic loads that do not
vary in magnitude. The presence of beach marks is
a strong indication that the crack was due to fatigue;
but not absolute proof, because other failure modes
may leave beach marks (for example, stress
corrosion under changing environment).
If there are multiple crack origins, each producing
separate crack propagation zones, ratchet marks
may be formed. They are caused when adjacent
cracks, propagating on different crystallographic
planes, join together to form a step. Ratchet marks
are often present on fatigue cracked surfaces of
gear teeth because the stress concentration in the
root fillet frequently initiates multiple fatigue cracks.
9.1 Low cycle fatigue
Low cycle fatigue is defined as fatigue where mac-
roscopic plastic strain occurs in every cycle and the
number of cycles to failure is low (typical about 1000
to 10 000). Cracks may initiate within the gear teeth,
as well as on the surface, and a smaller fraction of
the life is spent initiating rather than propagating
cracks.
9.2 High cycle fatigue
High cycle fatigue is defined as fatigue where the
cyclic stress is below the yield strength of the
material and the number of cycles to failure is high.
Most gear tooth bending failures are due to high
cycle fatigue rather than low cycle fatigue. A large
fraction of the life is spent initiating rather than
propagating cracks.
9.2.1 Root fillet cracks
Although bending fatigue cracks may occur else-
where, they usually initiate in the root fillet on the
tensile side of the gear tooth.
See figures 43, 51, 52, 53 and 54
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Crack propagation zones

Origin of crack

Beach marks
Origin of cracks
Fracture zones

Figure 51 -- Fatigue of two spur teeth

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Beach marks

Origin of crack

Ratchet marks
Crack propagation zones Fracture zones
Origin of crack

Figure 52 -- Fatigue of two helical teeth

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Fracture zones

Crack propagation zones

Figure 53 -- Fatigue of two bevel pinion teeth

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Crack propagation zones

Fracture zones

Figure 54 -- Fatigue of several teeth that were loaded on both flanks

9.2.2 Profile cracks 9.2.3 Tooth end cracks

Fatigue cracks may initiate on the active surface of
the gear tooth if there are stress concentrations
caused by macropits or material flaws.
See figure 55.
Fatigue cracks may initiate at an end of the gear
tooth if the load is concentrated at the tooth end.
Stress concentrations or material flaws at the ends
of the teeth may also be responsible for tooth end
cracks. See figure 56.

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Figure 55 -- Profile cracks originating from severe pitting

Figure 56 -- Broken tooth ends

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PUBLISHED BY
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
1500 KING STREET, ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA 22314

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