STEEL
structural framing of floors, walls, and roofs as well as
MILD STEEL- approximately 0.05% to 0.25% carbon
content 
Medium Carbon Steel: Typically has a carbon range of
0.31% to 0.60%
High carbon steel: approximately 0.59% to
0.65% carbon content
Structural Steel - Structural steel is used in hot-rolled
structural shapes, plates, and bars. Structural steel is
used for various types of structural members, such as
columns, beams, bracings, frames, trusses, bridge
girders, and other structural applications
Sectional Shapes -These shapes are produced in
different sizes and are designated with the letters W, HP,
M, S, C, MC, and L. W shapes are doubly symmetric
wide-flange shapes whose flanges are substantially
parallel.
Structural Steel Grades there are a wide variety of
systems for identifying or designating steel, based on
grade, type and class. Virtually. The terms grade, type,
and class are used in an inconsistent manner.
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
Wrought iron- wrought iron is still used on a smaller
scale for pipes, as well as for general blacksmith work
steel - steel and steel alloys are used widely in civil
engineering applications.
Cast Iron-Cast iron is used for pipes, hardware, and
machine parts not subjected to tensile or dynamic
loading
Chemical Properties - steel is an alloy, a combination
metal made of iron and carbon. The carbon content of
steel reaches a maximum of 1.5 percent. Because of its
hardness and strength, steel is used in the construction of
buildings, bridges, automobiles, and a host of other
manufacturing and engineering applications.
Specialty Steels in Structural Applications As the
ability to refine steels improves, it is possible to produce
special products with sufficient economy to permit their
use in construction projects. These are defined as
materials that possess the optimum combination of
properties required to build cost-effective structures that
will be safe and durable throughout their service life.
HPS 50W and HPS 70W. These are weathering steels
that form a corrosion barrier on the surface of the steel
when first exposed to the environment. This surface
resists further corrosion, and hence reduces the need for
maintenance. HPS 70W has stronger tensile properties
than steel traditionally used for bridge construction, and
hence bridges can be designed with a reduced quantity
of material. These savings are somewhat offset by the
cost of the material
Cold-Formed Steel -Cold-formed steel is used for
interior partitions and exterior curtain wall applications.
 Shapes: A wide variety of shapes can be
produced by cold-forming and
manufacturers have developed a wide
range of products to meet specific
applications. For common applications,
such as structural studs, industry
organizations, such as the Steel Framing
Alliance (SFA) and the Steel Stud
Manufacturers Association (SSMA)
have developed standard shapes and
nomenclature to promote uniformity of
product availability across the industry.
 Cold-Formed Steel Grades Structural
and non-structural cold-formed steel
members are manufactured from sheet
steel in compliance with ASTM
A1003/A1003M
 Disadvantages - A primary difference is
cold-formed members are more
susceptible to buckling due to their
limited thickness. The fact that the yield
strength of the steel is increased in the
cold-forming process creates a dilemma
for the designer. Ignoring the increased
strength is conservative, but results in
larger members, hence more costly, than
is needed if the increased yield strength
is considered
Reinforced steel
Conventional Reinforcing steel (rebar) is manufactured
in three forms: plain bars, deformed bars, and plain and
deformed wire fabrics.
 Plain bars- provide only limited bond
with the concrete and therefore are not
typically used in sections subjected to
tension or bending
 Deformed bars- have protrusions
(deformations) at the surface, they
ensure a good bond between the bar and
the concrete.
 Plain wire fabrics- develop the
anchorage in concrete at the welded
intersections, while deformed wire
fabrics develop anchorage through
deformations and at the welded
intersections.
Mechanical Testing of Steel- Many tests are available
to evaluate the mechanical properties of steel. This
section summarizes some laboratory tests commonly
used to determine properties required in product
specifications. Certain methods of fabrication, such as
bending, forming, and welding, or operations involving
heating, may affect the properties of the material being
tested
Tension test - The test specimen can be either full sized
or machined into a shape, as prescribed in the product
specifications for the material being tested. The tension
1
test (ASTM E8) on steel is performed to determine the Methods for Corrosion Resistance
yield strength, yield point, ultimate (tensile) strength,
elongation, and reduction of area. Typically, the test is 1. Barrier coatings work solely by isolating the steel
performed at temperatures between 10°C and 35°C from the moisture. These coatings have low water and
oxygen permeability.
Torsion test- The torsion test (ASTM E143) is used to
determine the shear modulus of structural materials. The 2. Inhibitive primer coatings contain passivating
shear modulus is used in the design of members pigments. They are low-solubility pigments that migrate
subjected to torsion, such as rotating shafts and helical to the steel surface when moisture passes through the
compression springs. film to passivate the steel surface.
3. Sacrificial primers (cathodic protection) contain
Charpy V Notch Impact Test - The Charpy V Notch pigments such as elemental zinc. Since zinc is higher
impact test (ASTM E23) is used to measure the than iron in the galvanic series, when corrosion
toughness of the material or the energy required to conditions exist the zinc gives up electrons to the steel,
fracture a V-notched simply supported specimen. The becomes the anode, and corrodes to protect the steel.
test is used for structural steels in tension members There should be close contact between the steel and the
sacrificial primer in order to have an effective corrosion
protection.
Bend Test - The test evaluates the ability of steel, or a
weld, to resist cracking during bending. The test is
conducted by bending the specimen through a specified
angle and to a specified inside radius of curvature.
Hardness Test -Hardness is a measure of a material’s
resistance to localized plastic deformation, such as a
small dent or scratch on the surface of the material.
Welding - Welding is a technique for joining two metal
pieces by applying heat to fuse the pieces together. A
filler metal may be used to facilitate the process
o Arc welding uses an arc between the
electrode and the grounded base metal
to bring both the base metal and the
electrode to their melting points.
o Shielded metal arc welding (stick
welding) is the most common form of
arc welding.
o Submerged arc welding is a
semiautomatic or automatic arc welding
process.
o Gas welding (mig welding) is another
type of welding in which no flux is used.

Steel Corrosion- corrosion of steel can be defined as the

destruction that can be detected by rust formation.
Corrosion of steel structures can cause serious problems
and embarrassing and/or dangerous failures. Corrosion is
an electrochemical process; that is, it is a chemical
reaction in which there is transfer of electrons from one
chemical species to another.
the transfer is between iron and oxygen, a process called
oxidation reduction
Corrosion requires the following four elements (without
any of them corrosion will not occur):
1. an anode—the electrode where corrosion occurs
2. a cathode—the other electrode needed to form a
corrosion cell
3. a conductor—a metallic pathway for electrons
to flow
4. an electrolyte—a liquid that can support the
flow of electrons

2
MASONRY -Concrete masonry units are manufactured in three
classes, based on their density:
A masonry structure is formed by combining masonry
units, such as stone, blocks, or lightweight units, medium-weight units, and normal-
weight units
brick, with mortar.

Masonry is one of the oldest construction materials.

Examples of Clay bricks
ancient masonry structures include - Clay bricks are small, rectangular blocks made of fired
clay.
- The pyramids of Egypt
- Clays are composed mainly of silica (grains of sand),
- The Great Wall of China alumina, lime, iron, manganese, sulfur, and phosphates,
- Greek and Roman ruins with different proportions.
- Clay bricks are used for different purposes, including
building, facing and aesthetics, floor making, and
In the last two centuries, bricks have been used in paving.
constructing sewers, bridge piers, tunnel linings, and
multistory buildings.
*Building bricks (common bricks) are used as a
structural material, and are typically strong and durable.
Masonry Units:
Masonry units can be classified as
*Facing bricks are used for facing and aesthetic
 Concrete Masonry Units purposes, and are available in different sizes, colors, and
*Concrete masonry units can be either solid or hollow, textures.
but clay bricks, glass blocks, and stone are typically
solid.
 Structural Clay Tiles *Floor bricks are used on finished floor surfaces, and are
generally smooth and dense, with high resistance to
*Structural clay tiles are hollow units that are larger than abrasion.
clay bricks and are used for structural and non-structural
masonry applications.
*Paving bricks are used as a paving material for roads,
sidewalks, patios, driveways, and interior floors.
 Clay Bricks
* Simply produced by mixing clay and water. Hardening
methods evolved from sun drying to industrial ovens, -Clay bricks are very durable and fire resistant, and
which allowed strength and durability to increase. require very little maintenance.

 Glass Blocks
*Glass that is made generally smaller and significantly -They have moderate insulating properties, which make
thicker than traditional windows and look like building brick houses cooler in summer and warmer in winter.
blocks.
 Stone -Clay bricks are also noncombustible and poor
conductors.

Concrete Masonry Units

Structural Clay Tile

-Solid concrete units are commonly called concrete - Describes a category of burned clay building materials
bricks, while hollow units are known as concrete blocks, used to construct roofing, walls, and flooring for
hollow blocks, or cinder blocks. structural and non-structural purposes.

-Solid concrete units are commonly called concrete - Commonly used in floor arches, fireproofing, partition
bricks, while hollow units are known as concrete blocks, walls and furring.
hollow blocks, or cinder blocks.

3

Applications:
- Side pressure Arch Construction
- End pressure Arch construction
- Classified into three grades: Hard, semi-porous and
porous. Differentiated by the length of time the tile is
fired during the manufacturing process.
Importance of Masonry:
Masonry is elemental. It comes from and speaks
of the earth. Its past is still with us preserved in great
wonders of the world. Its present is all around us, the
buildings we admire as we travel around the world. Its
future I limited only by the designer or constructor’s
inability to consider a masonry perspective on a
challenging assignment.
The quality image of a masonry building is one
of excellence and permanence. No other material leaves
as lasting an impression of strength, quality and
substance as that conveyed by brick, block and stone.
Masonry is a building system that has survived the test
of time and remains unmatched in design, quality and
flexibility. Architects and engineers throughout the
centuries have applied masonry to their simplest and
most challenging design work. Building owners and
users who have cared about the image created by
buildings in their communities have selected masonry as
an expression of themselves and their business for both
the present and the future. No other building material
can convey the permanence and stability of your
business, year after year, like masonry can.
Masonry units with their great choices of sizes,
colors and textures provide the design flexibility to make
your new building stand out from the crowd a unique
design to be a source of pride in your community.
Building owners and users who care about their image
are quickly moving from the splashy sales pitches for
look-alike metal buildings and stark tilt-up concrete and
toward masonry-brick, block and stone. Let a masonry
building be your business’ affirmation of its strength,
permanence, quality and substance.
Mortar
- is a mixture of cementitious material, aggregate, and
water. Mortar can be classified as cement-lime mortar,
cement mortar, or masonry cement mortar. Mortar is
used for the following functions:
 Bonding masonry units together, either non-
reinforced or reinforced.
 Serving as a seating material for the units.
 Leveling and seating the units.
 Providing aesthetic quality of the structure.
Four types of mortar mix:
- each type is mixed with a different ratio of cement,
lime, and sand to produce specific performance
characteristics such as flexibility, bonding properties,
and compressive strength.
 Type N - is recommended on exterior and above-
grade walls that are exposed to sever weather and
high heat, has a medium compressive strength.
 Type O - used primarily interior, above-grade, non-
load bearing walls, has relatively low compressive
strength (350 psi).
 Type S - common choice for many below-grade
applications, such as masonry foundations,
manholes, retaining walls, and sewers as well as at-
grade projects like brick patios and walkways. Has
a high compressive strength (1800 psi) and a high-
tensile bond strength.
 Type M - highest amount of portland cement and is
recommended for heavy loads and below-grade
applications, including foundations, retaining walls,
and driveways. Provides at leat 2000 psi of
compressive strength, it offers relatively poor
adhesion and sealing properties, making it
unsuitable for many exposed applications.
Grout
- is generally a mixture of portland cement, sand, fine
gravel, water and is employed in pressure grouting,
filling voids, and sealing joints such as those between
tiles.
- correctly mixed and applied grout forms a water
resistant seal.
Purpose of Grout
 Bonding the masonry unit
 Bonding the reinforcing steel to the masonry
 Increasing the bearing area
 Increasing fire resistance
 Improving the over tuning resistance by increasing
the weight.
Uses of Grout in Masonry
- Grout is used to fill the pores or voids in hollow
masonry units, also used as reinforcement in existing
structures.
Pressure Grouting (Set Grouting) - inserting a grout
material into otherwise accessible but interconnected
pore or space which neither the configuration or volume
are known, and is often referred to simply as grouting.
4

Plaster
- is a fluid mixture of portland cement, lime, sand, and
water, which is used for finishing either masonry walls
or framed (wood) walls.
The primary objectives of plastering are to protect the
surface from atmospheric influences, to cover the
defective workmanship in masonry, to conceal porous
materials, and to provide a suitable surface for painting.
Procedure of Plastering Work
1. Preparation of Surface for Plastering
- Keep all the mortar joints of wall rough, so as to give a
good bonding to hold plaster.
- Roughen the entire wall to be plastered.
- Clean all the joints and surfaces of the wall with a wire
brush, there should be no oil or grease etc. left on wall
surface.
- If there exist any cavities or holes on the surface, then
fill it in advance with appropriate material.
- If the surface is smooth or the wall to be plastered is
old one, then rake out the mortar joint to a depth of at
least 12 mm to give a better bonding to the plaster.
- Wash the mortar joints and entire wall to be plastered,
and keep it wet for at least 6 hours before applying
cement plaster.
If the projection on the wall surface is more than 12 mm,
then knock it off, so as to obtain a uniform surface of
wall. This will reduce the consumption of plaster.
2. Groundwork for Plaster
- In order to get uniform thickness of plastering
throughout the wall surface, first fix dots on the wall. A
dot means patch of plaster of size 15 mm * 15 mm and
having thickness of about 10 mm.
- Dots are fixed on the wall first horizontally and then
vertically at a distance of about 2 meters covering the
entire wall surface.
- Check the verticality of dots, one over the other, by
means of plumb-bob.
- After fixing dots, the vertical strips of plaster, known
as screeds, are formed in between the dots. These
screeds serve as the gauges for maintaining even
thickness of plastering being applied.
3. Applying Under Coat or Base Coat
- In case of brick masonry the thickness of first coat
plaster is in general 12 mm and in case of concrete
masonry this thickness varies from 9 to 15 mm.
- The ratio of cement and sand for first coat plaster
varies from 1:3 to 1:6.
- Apply the first coat of plaster between the spaces
formed by the screeds on the wall surface. This is done
by means of trowel.
- Level the surface by means of flat wooden floats and
wooden straight edges.
- After leveling, left the first coat to set but not to dry
and then roughen it with a scratching tool to form a key
to the second coat of plaster.
4. Applying Finishing Coat
- The thickness of second coat or finishing coat may
vary between 2 to 3 mm.
- The ratio of cement and sand for second coat plaster
varies from 1:4 to 1:6.
- Before applying the second coat, damp the first coat
evenly.
- Apply the finishing coat with wooden floats to a true
even surface and using a steel trowel, give it a finishing
touch.
- As far as possible, the finishing coat should be applied
starting from top towards bottom and completed in one
operation to eliminate joining marks.
5. Curing of Plastering works
- After completion of the plastering work, it is kept wet
by sprinkling water for at least 7 days in order to
develop strength and hardness.
- Use of gunny bags or other materials is used to keep
the plastering works wet in external works.
- Improper curing may lead to cracks formation or
efflorescence in plaster work.
Care be taken after Completion of Plaster Work
- Cleaning of doors or frame and floor area is necessary
at the completion of work.
- Curing should be started as soon as the plaster has
hardened sufficiently and must be cured for at least 7
days.
- Curing shall commence, 24 hours after the plaster is
laid.
EXTERIOR INSULATION AND FINISH SYSTEM
(EIFS)
Introduction
• Has been in use since the 1960s in North
America, first on masonry building
5
 • Is a general class of non-load bearing building
cladding systems that provides exterior walls
with an insulated, water-resistant, finished
surface in an integrated composite material
system.
• In Europe, systems similar to EIFS are known
as External Wall Insulation System (EWIS) and
External Thermal Insulation Cladding System
(ETICS).
• Offer continuous insulation by design, allowing
architects the design flexibility and aesthetics
they require, while helping to meet the new
energy codes. EIFS are continuous insulation.
TYPES OF EIFS
• POLYMER BASED SYSTEM (common) - This
system has a nominally 1/16 inch thick
reinforced base coat applied to the insulation
prior to application of the finish coat. The
insulation typically consists of closed expanded
polystyrene (EPS) and can be either adhesively
or mechanically attached to the sheathing.
• POLYMER MODIFIED SYSTEM (rare) - This
system has a nominally 3/16 inch to 1/2 inch
thick reinforced base coat applied to the
insulation prior to application of the finish coat.
The insulation typically consists of extruded
expanded polystyrene (XPS) and is
mechanically attached to the sheathing and or
wall structure.
EIFS is made up of
 Substrate - refers to any solid substance to
which another substance is applied so that the
second substance adheres to the substrate.
 Adhesive- Adhesive, also known as glue,
cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non metallic
substance applied to one or both surfaces of two
separate items that binds them together and
resists their separation.
 Drainage plane - are water repellent materials
(building paper, house wrap, sheet membranes,
etc) that are located behind the cladding and are
designed and constructed to drain water that
passes through the cladding.
 Insulation board – can be used to insulate
almost any part of your home, from the roof
down to the foundation. They provide good
thermal resistance and often add structural
strength to your home.
 Reinforcement mesh - In reinforced concrete,
an arrangement of steel bars or wire normally in
two directions at right angles, tied or welded at
the intersections or interwoven.
 Base coat - the plaster underlying the finish
coat and consisting of a single coat or of
separately applied scratch coat and brown coat.
 Primer - is a material that will promote the
bonding of the surface of a product with any
application of a top coat of paint, sealant, fire
protection, etc.
 Finishing coat- the final coat of paint.
HOW CAN THIS BE APPLIED IN
CONSTRUCTION
 Aesthetics and creative freedom
 It is applied out side the walls
 Used as insulation to maintain temperature
inside building
 Incases drainage system
INSTALLATION
• EIFS are typically attached to the outside face of
exterior walls with an adhesive (cementitious or
acrylic based) or mechanical fasteners.
Adhesives are commonly used to attach EIFS to
gypsum board, cement board, or concrete
substrates. EIFS are attached with mechanical
fasteners (specially designed for this
application) when installed over housewraps
(sheet-good weather barriers) such as are
commonly used over wood sheathings. The
supporting wall surface should be continuous
(not "open framing") and flat.
TESTING OF MATERIALS
• ASTM C1397-13(2019) Standard Practice for
Application of Class PB Exterior Insulation and
Finish Systems (EIFS) and EIFS with Drainage
• ASTM E2570/E2570M-07(2019) Standard Test
Methods for Evaluating Water-Resistive Barrier
(WRB) Coatings Used under Exterior Insulation
and Finish Systems (EIFS) or EIFS with
Drainage
ADHESIVES
• Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage or
paste, is any non-metallic substance applied to one or
both surfaces of two separate items that binds them
together and resists their separation.
• These include the ability to bind different materials
together, to distribute stress more efficiently across
the joint, the cost effectiveness of an easily
mechanized process, an improvement in aesthetic
design, and increased design flexibility.
• Disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased
stability at high temperatures, relative weakness in
bonding large objects with a small bonding surface
area, and greater difficulty in separating objects
during testing.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE:
• In the course of time and during their development,
adhesives have gained a stable position in an
increasing number of production processes.
• There is hardly any product in our surroundings that
does not contain at least one adhesive.
6
HISTORY OF ADHESIVES: used for fast assembly of structures designed to be
only lightly loaded.
• The earliest use of adhesives was discovered in Italy.
• Most early adhesives were animal glues by rendering
animal products. 2. Thermosetting adhesives - set as a result of the
building up of molecular chains to produce a rigid
• The first adhesives were gums and other plant resins. cross linked structure.
• The modern adhesive age began about 1910 with the • Types of thermosetting adhesives:
development of phenol formaldehyde adhesives for
the plywood industry. 1 - Resorcinol resins
TYPES OF ADHESIVES: 2 - Polyesters (unsaturated)
1. Natural Adhesives - are made from organic 3 - Polyamides
sources such as vegetable matters, starch,
natural resins or from animals. Often referred as 4 - Epoxy resins
bioadhesives. When we combine these natural 5 - PRF (Pheno - Resorcinol - Formaldehyde resin)
products with additives and resins, they become
the strong natural adhesives we all rely on. 6 - MUF (Melamine - Urea - Formaldehyde)

2. Synthetic Adhesives - are based on elastomers,

thermoplastic, emulsion and thermoset. The adhesive
industry has been hard at work to create synthetic
adhesives that outshine natural glues. The first
commercially produced synthetic adhesive was Karisons
Klister in the 1920’s. DISADVANTAGES OF THERMOSETTING
ADHESIVES:
• Low durability
• Techniques for inspection is limited
• Do not remain stable at high temperature
Types of Synthetic Adhesives:
• Require time to attain strength after application
1. Thermoplastic adhesives - are fusible, soluble and
creep resistant. They have good resistance to oils • Are highly expensive
but poor resistance to water.
•
• Polyvinyl acetate is the principal constituent of the
PVA emulsion adhesive. ADHESIVES FAILURE:

• Cyanoacacrylates is a special type of acrylic resin.
It works best on smaller surfaces, using a very small
amount of glue that provides high bond strength on
plastic and rubber materials.
• Hot Melt Adhesives are thermoplastic polymers
that are tough and solid at room temperature. But are
very liquid at elevated temperatures. Hot Melts are
Adhesives can fail at several different points. If a
substrate and adhesive are incompatible, adhesive failure
can happen. For example, certain plastics may have
plasticizers that seep into the surface over time and
cause adhesive failure in some spots. Additionally, some
surfaces can cause the adhesive to improperly cure.
Common failures are:
7
- Cohesive
- Mixed fracture
- Alternating crack path
USES OF ADHESIVES
- Physically interlocks materials.
- Physically interlocks and chemically bonds materials.
- Dissolves plastics, which then re-harden similar to
welding.
- Binds to water and hydroxyl groups on substrate
surface.
- Viscosity of adhesive holds materials together.
- Interlocks and binds to water hydroxyl.
PROPERTIES:
- Adhesion to a variety of substrates allows bonding
of dissimilar materials if necessary.
- High damping capacity of the adhesive dissipates
dynamic stresses of vibration, motion, & impact
throughout the bond & peel stresses at the bond line.
- Flexibility and damping resistance resists thermal
expansion stresses when the coefficients of thermal
expansion are different between adhesive and
substrates.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE:
- Resists end-use or post-processing temperatures to
maintain adhesive chemistry and the physical bond.
- Withstands physical shock at a range of temperatures.
- Maintains adhesive performance despite exposure to
UV light, rain, salt water, and other weathering
conditions.
ADVANTAGES OF ADHESIVES:
- The ability to join two material to give light-weight,
but strong and stiff, structures.
- This can also join metallic and non metallic
materials.
- An improved stress distribution in the joints.
- Most convenient and most cost effective joining
technique.
- An improvement in the appearance of the joined
structure.
- An improvement to corrosion resistance.
DISADVANTAGES OF ADHESIVES:
- The temperature it can withstand is limited unlike
the welding and riveting.
- The strength and toughness of adhesive in tension or
shear is very low compared to many metals.
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF
ADHESIVES:
• Building
- Resinous grouts for anchoring bolts, ties.
- Joining and attaching internal building panels and
elements
- Attachment of brick slips to concrete
- Joints between precast concrete units
• Civil Engineering
Whilst unsaturated polyesters, polyurethanes and
acrylics all have their place among the applications for
thermosetting adhesives, epoxy resins remain as the
major candidate materials essentially in non-structural
situations such as:
- Industrial flooring in the form of either pourable self-
leveling or troweled filled compositions.
- water-proofing membranes on concrete bridge decks
- skid resistance layers on roads and other surfaces
- resin mortars or concrete (for repair, etc.)
- low viscosity formulations for the injection and
sealing for cracks.
• Railway
Adhesives are used in a civil engineering context, in
the track, and for the construction of rolling stock.
Taking these applications in order, heavily filled acrylic
adhesives have been used to provide a longitudinal shear
connection between adjacent precast concrete beams in
bridge structures. Although in the final deck mechanical
devices aid the adhesive, bonding alone has been relied
on when lifting pairs of beams into place. Resin injection
has also been extensively used for the repair of brick and
masonry arch bridges subjected to damage from
vibrational or mortar loss.
8
CLADDING  Slate - its elegant and sophisticated appearance,
high durability, excellent water resistance and
• any material used to cover a structure's exterior. low maintenance

• exterior finishing system meant to protect the 2. Timber Cladding

underlying structure and provide an aesthetically
appealing finish.  comes in horizontal boards, shingles, or panels.
Most common used in homes because it looks
What is cladding made from? rustic, warm, and inviting. It is also a good
natural insulator, and it’s an environmentally
 Wood, metal, brick, PVC, composite materials
friendly.
that can include aluminium, wood, blends of
cement and recycled polystyrene, wheat/rice
straw fibers.
 Thickness: 5mm, 8mm, 10mm
 Common sizes: 2600mm x 250mm and 2400mm
x 1000mm

Uses:
1.It is mainly used to stop wind and rain from entering
the building.
a) It is made of impermeable materials so that rain
water could only access the building through
joints.
b) It is made up of porous material (bricks) which
absorbs rain during rainfall and subsequently
dries out.
3. Weatherboard cladding
2. It can also provide sound and thermal insulation as
 Weatherboards are made from timbers such as
well as fire resistance.
cedar, cypress, baltic pine or hardwood. They
3. It is often used to make a building's exterior look more can be fixed to all kinds of underlying material
attractive. like fiber cement or brick. However, they may
require ongoing maintenance if you want them
to stay in good condition.
TYPES:
STONE CLADDING
 is comprised of thin layers of natural or
simulated stone (simulated stone is much
cheaper than real stone) on the exterior of homes
or buildings. Weight is the primary area of
concern when building with stone.
 Stone panels are installed onto the building face
using either a concealed system or an exposed
clip system. Stone-clad rainscreen façades are
most commonly back-ventilated and consist of 4. Brick cladding
an interior drainage cavity, which helps swiftly
 You can create various looks and patterns by
remove any moisture that may seep behind.
using different colored bricks in a brick cladding
Ex. system. Bricks are also easy to work with,
lightweight, and a good insulator. They also
 Granite - known for its durability and the don’t need much maintenance.
permanence of its color and texture.
 Limestone - lauded for its aeasthetic diversity
and flexibility. It can be carved and shaped
relatively easily.
 Sandstone
 Marble

9

5. Fiber Cement Cladding
 This particular type of cladding is made by
compressing sand, cement, and cellular fiber
into sheets. Although it looks like wood, it is
lighter and easier to install than wood. It also
requires less maintenance.
Types of Fiber Cement Cladding
1. Shakes and Shingles: Fiber cement shakes and
shingles are harnessed on both small and large
façades. They are used to imitate the appearance
of wood without the associated wear and tear.
2. Horizontal Lap Siding: Most common style
used for residential siding. It involves long, even
pieces of siding that are a bit thicker at the
bottom than they are at the top. Installed from
the bottom up, each subsequent piece is installed
to overlap the previous one.
3. Shiplap Siding: appears to be butted right up
against one another. Typically installed using a
tongue and groove system, this creates a clean,
smooth surface, which is common among
contemporary homes.
4. Vertical Siding: With vertical siding, you may
opt for a rustic board-and-batten look, or a
cleaner look with simple minimalist lines.
5. Soffit: Available in vented and non-vented style.
Vented styles will allow you to better the control
air flow throughout your building
6. Vinyl cladding
 is resistant to water damage and pest infestation
in addition to being able to withstand high
winds. Insulated vinyl siding will reflect radiant
heat, reducing thermal conductivity to keep your
home cool and reduces noise pollution. It’s
recyclable, economical, and uses fewer
resources when it’s being manufactured. It also
requires little maintenance.
7. Metal cladding
 Steel and aluminum are popular metal choices
for metal cladding systems. You can count on
your metal cladding system to be strong,
durable, lightweight, and long lasting.
 The base metal is sandwiched or cladded
between the two sheets of coating material.
 This sandwich is then passed through two heavy
rollers maintained at high temperature and
pressure.
 Cladded metal is cathodic with respect to the
base metal so that electrolytic protection is
provided.
Types of Metal Cladding
Standing seam, Snaplock, Interlocking, Flatlock
and shingle, Cassette, and Custom
8. Curtain Walling
 This type of cladding is associate with multi
story building like shopping complex, recreation
hall etc.. It is made of lightweight aluminum
frame which available like glazed or opaque
panel.
The typical functions of its outer walls are:
• Resistance to atmospheric agents
• Usage safety
• Environmental control
Testing used in Cladding
ASTM E283
10
Determine the air leakage rate through exterior windows,
curtain walls, and doors. 
ASTM E2178
Test the air leakage rate of building materials to
determine what materials may be considered an air
barrier material.
ASTM E2357
Standard test method for determining air leakage of air
barrier assemblies and verifies the performance and
reliability of the air barrier assembly.
ASTM E1186
Used to evaluate the airtightness of air barrier membrane
seams, overlaps and T-joints, and penetrations through
the membrane such as cast-in-place masonry ties,
through-wall piping, and fastener penetrations, proving
an immediate pass/fail result for the test sample.
ASTM E96
Used in determining whether a material acts as a vapor
barrier, a vapor retarder, or vapor permeable.
ASTM E331 and ASTM E1105
Testing for water penetration under static pressure.
ASTM E966
For field tests on building facades or facade elements,
this test method is used to measure outdoor-indoor noise
reduction (OINR) or apparent outdoor-indoor
transmission loss.
ASTM E1503
determine the existing exterior sound pressure levels on
site.
ASTM E330
it is used to determine whether the component or
assembly structural performance is sufficient to
withstand the structural loads under which it can be
reasonable expected to be exposed.
ASTM F1642 and GSA – TF 01
Testing is conducted in either a shock tube or area-
tested. Shock tube
testing is useful when conducting convenient and
inexpensive testing on single, small test
samples. Full scale arena blast testing is more
appropriate for larger, project-specific mock-ups
and is typically considered more of a real-world
environment.
1ASTM E84
Standard test method for surface burning characteristics
of building materials. This is a 10-min fire-test response
method.
ASTM 1354
Standard test method for heat and visible smoke release
rates for materials using an oxygen consumption
calorimeter. This test method is used primarily to
determine the heat evolved in a fire involving products
of the test material.
Types of Cladding in terms of Fire Resistance
▪ Excellent fire resistance cladding: brick.
▪ High fire resistance cladding: planks or
weatherboards made from fibre cement or steel.
▪ Good fire resistance cladding: aluminium,
reconstituted timber products.
▪ Poor fire resistance cladding: timber weatherboards,
plywood sheets.
How to install cladding?
• Planks or shingles made from vinyl, wood,
aluminum, or fiber cement are always nailed to
the exterior of a building. A blind nailing
technique is used for this cladding, which means
that the nails are all covered by the material of
the row above it.  orci.
• Buildings made from masonry and concrete use
a curtain wall system for cladding.  The curtain
wall supports itself and does not touch the
exterior of the building.  The space between
allows air to circulate between the cladding and
the building. Materials used are brick or natural
stone. 
• Metal cladding is fireproof. When you have it
installed, you need to start at the bottom to the
top. The downside of metal is that it can be
dented easily if something hits it.
Benefits/Advantages of Cladding
• Increased life expectancy of the building
• Increased value of the building
• Lower maintenance costs
• Lower energy costs
• Create a controlled internal environment.
• Protect the building from external conditions.
• Provide privacy and security.
• Prevent the transmission of sound.
• Provide thermal insulation.
• Create an external facade.
• Prevent the spread of fire.
11
 • Generate an 'airtight' building envelope.
• Providing openings for access, daylight and
ventilation.
Disdvantages of Cladding
• Cladding can be very expensive
• Depending upon the size and quality of the
structure and the material used, the installation
of siding can take a long time.
• While cladding is low-maintenance, it requires a
simple wash on a regular basis, if it is broken or
dented, its aesthetic qualities are reduced and it
may be difficult to repair the damaged part.
Considerations
• How the building is going to be used.
• Internal and external conditions.
• Durability.
• Local context.
• Planning requirements.
• Building regulations requirements.
• Accessibility and build ability.
• Appearance.
• Availability.
• Budget.
• Maintenance requirements.
• Structural requirements.

12
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
▪ Result of combining two or more distinct
constituent materials
▪ The combinations of properties in composite
materials are formidable and typically cannot be
found in conventional materials
•Size of the particle: larger than 1 micron
-particles act as fillers to improve the properties of the
matrix phase and/or to replace some of its volume
The stronger the bond between the dispersed particles
and the matrix, the larger is the reinforcing effect

CLASSIFICATION: MICROSCOPIC & MATRIX PHASE - The primary phase, having a

MACROSCOPIC continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is usually
more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed
MICROSCOPIC COMPOSITES
phase and shares a load with it.
Two Constituent Phases:
MATRIX (CONTINUOUS PHASE) - the commonly
used in most microscopic composites is polymer
(plastic) or metal.
DISPERSED PHASE (REINFORCING PHASE) -
surrounded by the matrix -harder and stiffer than the
matrix.

Two Basic Classes:

FIBER- REINFORCED COMPOSITES - include
fibers dispersed in a matrix such as metal or polymer.
Uses
Fibers can be classified on the basis of their diameter
• The matrix binds the dispersed materials
and character as:
(particles or fibers) together
Whiskers
• Transfers loads to them
• Very thin single crystals and extremely strong
• Protects them against environmental attack and
• Random orientation of short fibers damage due to handling
• Not commonly used for reinforcement  

Fibers: Common materials used in microscopic composites

• Long filaments which can be oriented • Polymer (plastic)

• Easier to process in the composite • Metal

• Glass fibers are the most common of all

reinforcing fibers because of their low cost and
POLYMER - The term polymer is commonly used in
high strength
the plastics and composites industry, often as a synonym
• Have larger diameter than whiskers for plastic or resin. A polymer is a chemical
compound with molecules bonded together in long,
Wires repeating chains.
• Have the largest diameter  
Polymer Advantages
PARTICLE- REINFORCED COMPOSITES - • low cost
consist of particles dispersed in a matrix phase; the
strengthening mechanism varies with the size of • easy processability
reinforcing particles.
• good chemical resistance
•Size of the particle: about 0.01 to 0.1 micron
• and low specific gravity
-the matrix bears most of the applied load
 
-small dispersed particles hinder the motion
Polymer Disadvantages
13
 • low strength
• low modulus
• low operating temperatures
• and low resistance to prolonged exposure to
ultraviolet light and some solvents
METALS - A metal is a material that, when freshly
prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous
appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively
well
Metals Advantages
• high strength
• high modulus
• high toughness and impact resistance
• Compression Molding
• Injection Molding
CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
• Composites are used by civil engineers as
structural shapes in buildings and other
structures and can replace steel and aluminum
structural shapes.
• Fiber-reinforced polymer rebars –
used for:
ridge decks, tanks, industrial flooring, trusses and joists,
walkways and platforms, wind turbines, waste treatment
plants, handrailings, plastic pipes, utility and light poles,
door and window panels and frames, and electrical
enclosures

• relative insensitivity to temperature changes used to:

• high resistance to high temperatures and other
severe environmental conditions
Metals Disadvantages
• high density
• high processing temperatures due to their high
melting points
• may react with particles and fibers
• vulnerable to attack by corrosion
FABRICATION
strengthen and wrap columns and bridge supports that
are partially damaged by earthquakes and other
environmental factors
• Fiber-reinforced concrete
Different types of fibers
1. separate fibers, chopped-strands - If separate
fibers or chopped-strands are used, they are
mixed with the fresh concrete in a random order.
2. Rovings - are placed in the direction in which
the tension is applied in the structural member.

Fabrication of microscopic composites includes the
merging of the matrix and dispersed material into a
product with minimum air voids.
 
The selection of the fabrication process IS typically
based on the;
MACROSCOPIC COMPOSITES
• chemical nature of the matrix and of the
dispersed phases
• Entrained air in concrete can also be considered
as a component in a microscopic composite
material. Entrained air increases the durability of
concrete since it releases internal stresses caused
by the freezing of water within the concrete.
• Used in many engineering applications

• the shape and strength requirements • Relatively large, how the load is carried and how
the properties of the composite components are
• and on the temperature required to form, melt, or improved vary from one composite to another.
cure the matrix
Common Macroscopic Composites
Methods
Plain Portland Cement Concrete – consist of cement
• The Resin Transfer Molding paste and aggregate particles with different physical and
mechanical properties
• Reaction Injection Molding
Reinforced Portland Cement Concrete – consist of
• Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding
plain concrete and steel bars
(VARTM)
Steel bars - used in areas subjected to compression; used
• Filament Winding
to control cracking in concrete due to temperature
• Pultrusion change.

• Tube Rolling

14
ASPHALT CONCRETE – consist of approximately
95% aggregate and 5% asphalt binder, by weight
ENGINEERED WOOD – manufactured by bonding
together wood strands, veneers, or lumber with different
grain orientations to produce large and integral units.

PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES
RANDOMLY ORIENTED FIBER COMPOSITES
The properties of composite materials are affected by:
▪ Unlike continuously aligned fiber composites,
• The component properties
the mechanical properties of randomly oriented
• Volume fractions of components fiber composites are isotropic. The modulus of
elasticity of randomly oriented fiber composites
• Type and orientation of the dispersed phase falls between the moduli of loading parallel to
• Bond between the dispersed phase and matrix fibers and perpendicular to fibers. To estimate
the modulus of elasticity of randomly oriented
Assumptions that can be used to simplify the analysis fiber composites, can be rewritten as;
include the following:
PARTICLE – REINFORCED COMPOSITES
• Each component has linear, elastic, and
isotropic properties. ▪ The analysis of loading a particle-reinforced
composite depends on the specific nature of the
• A perfect bond exists between the dispersed dispersed and matrix phases. A rigorous analysis
and matrix phases without slipping. of loading a particle reinforced composite can
become quite complex.
• The composite geometry is idealized and the
loading pattern is parallel or perpendicular to
reinforcing fibers.

LOADING PARALLEL TO FIBERS

▪ When load is applied to an aligned fiber-
reinforced composite parallel to the fibers, as
seen in the figure, both matrix and fiber phases
will deform equally. Thus, the strains of both
phases will be the same (known as an isostrain
condition) and are given by

LOADING
▪ When load is applied to an aligned fiber-
reinforced composite perpendicular to the fibers,
both matrix and fiber phases will be subjected to
the same stress (isostress condition). In other
words,

15
FASTENERS Twist-off-type Tension Control Bolt Assemblies
 One of the classifications of steel that is used in  Tension control bolts (TC Bolts or Twist-off
construction for structural connections including Bolts) are one of the world’s most widely used
bolts, nuts and washers. in all steelwork connections as it was recognized
by AISC (American Institute of Steel
FASTENING PRODUCTS
Construction) and RCSC (Research Council on
 Conventional bolts Structural Connections).

 Twist-off-type tension control bolt assemblies NUTS

 Nuts  Nuts are flat steel pieces, usually hexagonal in

shape with internally cut threads.
 Washers
 A bolt or screw with a nut is widely used for
 Compressible-washer-type direct tension fastening machine and structural components.
indicators
 Anchor rods
 Threaded rods
 Forged steel structural hardware
 Rivets
 Nails
 Screws

BOLTS
 Threaded lengths made of steel rods with heads
on single end.
 Bolts are generally used along with nuts.
 Bolt and rivet joints are designed based on their
shear strength and bearing strength of the
material or component being fastened.

WASHERS
• Divided into types namely a plain washer
or flat washer and split lock washer.
• Used to spread the load of a bolt or a screw or to
help prevent loosening under vibration

16
 • Just like with bolts, screws too are threaded
lengths of rods made of steel with a held on one
end. Screws provide more strength and holding
power than nails.
SCREW TYPES

Compressible-washer-type Direct Tension Indicators

• ASTM F959 covers the requirements for HEAD STYLES
Compressible-washer-type Direct Tension
Indicators. Direct tension indicators are intended
for installation under either a bolt head or a
hardened washer. These washers are capable of
indicating the achievement of a specified
minimum bolt tension.
ANCHOR RODS
• Anchor rods (anchor bolts, concrete embeds or
foundation bolts) are embedded in concrete
foundations to support structural steel columns,
light poles, traffic signals, highway sign
structures, industrial equipment and many other
applications.

DRIVE TYPES
THREADED ROD

NAILS
• slender metal shaft that is pointed at one end and
flattened at the other end and is used for
fastening one or more objects to each other.
TYPES OF NAILS
• Common nail is the most widely used type of
nail. It has a large, flathead that is driven in so
that it is flush with the material’s surface.
• Finishing nail has a smaller, narrower head that
is driven in below the material’s surface.
RIVETS
• Permanent mechanical fastener used to join two
plates together
• A large rivet can join pieces of metal but a
smaller rivet can even join paper or wood
materials, making it a versatile fastener.
• typically used to support shear loads that are
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft, it can still
support tension loads that are parallel to the axis

TYPES 0F RIVETS
SCREWS

17
  Domed open end POP rivets (Blind rivets) are
used to connect two pieces of materials in quick
and efficient way.
 Closed End POP rivets differ from blind pop
rivet in a way that they are flat, closed end
which creates a watertight seal. And also known
as a waterproof rivet.
 Countersunk POP rivet (Flat rivet) is used in
countersunk holes
 Large Flange POP rivets (Oversize rivets)
have a larger washer on the hat than the standard
POP rivets
 Multi Grip rivets can substitute the
conventional rivets in applications where the
thickness of the riveted materials varies.
Installation of Fasteners
There are three steps in installing fasteners.
 First, insert the shank or pilot of the fastener
squarely into a previously punched, drilled, or
cast hole.
 Next, apply force until the head of the nut
contacts sheet. Some types of fasteners will be
fully installed when the head is flush within the
sheet.
 And finally, install the mating piece from the
side opposite the head of the fastener.

18
GLASS
• Glass is a hard substance which may be
transparent or translucent and brittle in nature.
• Glasses are predominantly non-crystalline fusion
products of inorganic materials, mostly oxides.
• They have good mechanical properties and a
wide range of thermal, electrical, and optical
properties.
• It is manufactured by fusion process.
• Glass is used in construction purpose and
architectural purpose in engineering.
Components:
• glass is made from liquid sand.
• GLASS IS MADE BY heating ordinary sand
(which is mostly made of silicon dioxide) until it
melts and turns into a liquid.
• 69 % silica,17% soda, 11% lime and magnesia
and 3 % alumina, iron oxide and manganese
oxide. 
• Although the main structural frame is made out
of steel or concrete, most of the of the new high
and medium-rise buildings are predominantly
glass, which is strong enough to take wind loads
and withstand the outdoor environment
indefinitely with the only maintenance being an
occasional wash.
Types
The ultimate strength of glass is related to the rate at
which it is cooled. There are four main types or strengths
of glass:
• Annealed Glass - Annealed glass is a basic
product formed from the annealing stage of the
float process.
• Heat Strengthened Glass - Heat Strengthened
Glass is semi tempered or semi toughened glass.
• Tempered or Toughened Glass - This is the most
common type of glass used in balustrades or
similar structural applications.
• Laminated Glass - Safety and security are the
best known of these, so rather than shattering on
impact, laminated glass is held together by the
interlayer.
General Applications of Glass
• Glass is used in the following non-exhaustive
list of products:
• Packaging (jars for food, bottles for drinks,
flacon for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals)
• Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)
• Housing and buildings (windows, facades,
conservatory, insulation, reinforcement
structures)
• Interior design and furnitures (mirrors,
partitions, balustrades, tables, shelves, lighting)
• Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook
top, TV, computer screens, smart-phones)
• Automotive and transport (windscreens,
backlights, light weight but reinforced structural
components of cars, aircrafts, ships, etc.)
• Medical technology, biotechnology, life science
engineering, optical glass
• Radiation protection from X-Rays (radiology)
and gamma-rays (nuclear)
• Fibre optic cables (phones, TV, computer: to
carry information)
• Renewable energy (solar-energy glass,
windturbines)
• All of this is made possible by the countless
properties of the glass substance
The types and applications of glass in engineering
and construction are:
1. Float Glass - Float glass is made of sodium silicate
and calcium silicate so it is also called as soda lime
glass. It is clear and flat so, it causes glare. These glasses
are available from 2mm to 20mm thickness ranges. They
have a weight range of 6 to 36 kg/m2. These are used as
shop fronts, public places etc.
2. Shatterproof Glass - Shatterproof glass is used for
windows, skylights, floors etc. Some type of plastic
polyvinyl butyral is added in its making process. So, it
cannot form sharp edged pieces when it
3. Laminated Glass - Laminated glass is the
combination of layers of normal glass. So, it has more
weight than normal glass. It has more thickness and is
UV proof and soundproof. These are used for aquariums,
bridges etc.
4. Extra Clean Glass - Extra clean glass has two special
properties, photocatalytic and hydrophilic. Because of
these properties, it acts as stain proof and gives beautiful
appearance. Maintenance is also easy.
5. Chromatic Glass - Chromatic glass is used in ICU’s,
meeting rooms etc. it can control the transparent
efficiency of glass and protects the interior from
daylight. The chromatic glass may be photochromic
which has light sensitive lamination, thermos-chromatic
which has heat sensitive lamination and electrochromic
which has electric lamination over it.
6. Tinted Glass - Tinted glass is nothing but colored
glass. A color producing ingredients is mixed to the
19
normal glass mix to produce colored glass which does material but by adding admixtures and laminates
not affect other properties of glass. Different color we can make it as more strong.
producing ingredients are tabulated below:
Workability of Glass
Coloring ion Color A glass can be molded into any shape or it can
be blown during melting. So, workability of
glass is superior property of glass. 
Iron oxide Green
Transmittance

Sulphur Blue The visible fraction of light that passing through

glass is the property of visible transmittance.

Manganese dioxide Black U value of Glass

U value represents the amount of heat
Cobalt Blue transferred through glass. If a glass is said to be
insulated unit then it should have lower u value.
Recycle Property of Glass
Chromium Dark green
Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be
used as raw material in construction industry.
Titanium Yellowish brown
TESTING

Uranium Yellow • ASTM C158 These test methods cover the

determination of the modulus of rupture in
bending of glass and glass-ceramics.
7. Toughened Glass - Toughened glass is strong glass
which has low visibility. It is available in all thicknesses • ASTM E2098 This test method covers
and when it is broken it forms small granular chunks procedures for determining the breaking force of
which are dangerous. This is also called as tempered glass fiber mesh following their conditioning in
glass. This type of glass is used for fire resistant doors, an alkali solution.
mobile screen protectors etc. • ASTM F394 or ASTM C1499. – TESTING
8. Glass Blocks - Glass block or glass bricks are FOR EQUIBIAXIAL STRENGTH
manufactured from two different halves and they are
pressed and annealed together while melting process of
glass. These are used as architectural purpose in the
construction of walls, skylights etc. They provide
aesthetic appearance when light is passed through it.
9. Glass Wool – Glass wool is made of fibers of glass
and acts as good insulating filler. It is fire resistant glass.
10. Insulated Glazed Units - Insulated glazed glass
units contains a glass is separated into two or three
layers by air or vacuum. They cannot allow heat through
it because of air between the layers and acts as good
insulators. These are also called as double glazed units.
Engineering Properties of Glass
Transparency of Glass
Transparency is the main property of glass
which allows the vision of outside world
through it. The transparency of glass can be
from both sides or from one side only. In one
side transparency, glass behaves like mirror
from the other side.
Strength of Glass
Strength of glass depends on modulus of rupture
value of glass. In general glass is a brittle

20
PAINT PRIMER
Paint is a fluid that dries to form a continuous solid film - to improve adhesion
when spread over a surface or substrate.
- to protect metal against corrosion
What is paint made of?
- to reduce porosity of receiving substrate so as to
• Pigment – provides color, hiding, and control prevent undue absorption of resin from subsequent coats
gloss of paints
• Resin – binder that holds the pigment & SEALER
particles together
- to resist alkali attack from cement based materials
• Solvent – act as a carrier for pigments and resin;
- to improve adhesion
may be organic or inorganic
- to seal problematic surfaces, e.g. resinous wood
• Additives – used to modify the properties of the
liquid paint or dry film - to stabilize loose surface particles
Drying, Hardening and Curing of Paint - to reduce porosity of receiving substrate so as to
prevent undue absorption of resin from subsequent coats
• Drying - evaporation of all solvents and diluents
of paints
added to the paint in order to make it liquid or
reduce its viscosity TEXTURE (OPTIONAL)
• Hardening - process by which the main - to give a distinct 3-dimensional appearance
polymer of the paint creates & hardens with all
other pigments & additives which comprises the UNDERCOAT
paint, creating a solid & adherent coating - to impart opacity and film build
• Curing = Drying + Hardening - to level out minor irregularities and provide uniform
Factors affecting the rate of Drying and/or Curing of texture
Paint - to improve inter-coating adhesion
 Temperature TOPCOAT
 Humidity - to provide the required functions of paint
 film thickness
 ventilation TYPES OF PAINT
OIL PAINTS
FUNCTIONS:
DECORATIVE
PROPERTIES EXAMPLES
Paint can be used as a coating to decorate a surface or
substrate. It has a wide variety of colour, texture, Appearance Gloss/ Matt/ Semi-gloss
finishes and gross level.
PROTECTIVE Application By Brush, Roller or Sprayer
Method
Paint can be designed to protect the surface or substrate
against ultra-violet rays, humidity, chemicals, corrosion, Drying Time Fast dry/ Slow dry
algae, abrasion etc.
SPECIAL PURPOSES Adhesion Adhesion to substrates/
Existing coating/
Paint can be used for specific uses such as luminous Intercoating
paint, anti-condensation paint, fire retardant paint, etc
Mechanical Hardness/ Flexibility
Characteristics
PROPERTIES
Resistance Ultra-violet/ Chemical/
Abrasion/ Fungus/ Algae
PAINT SYTEM
Outdoor Gloss retention/ Colour /
Durability Ultra-violet 21

Storage Settling tendency/ Viscosity

Durability stability
 - made with either alkyd (synthetic) or linseed - mixed with water before usage
(natural) oils
Application:
- Types: matte and glossy finish
- mainly used for exterior surfaces, also used for
- cannot be pre-mixed with water interior décor
Application: - patios, garages, driveways, sidewalks, and
- finishing and protection of wood in buildings concrete furniture
and exposed metal structures such as ships and Drying Time: 24 hours to 48 hours for layered coating to
bridges. dry
Drying and curing Time:
24 hours to 12 days BITUMINOUS PAINT
- manufactured by dissolving asphalt or vegetable
bitumen in oil or in petroleum
ENAMEL PAINT
- black in color and mainly used in ironworks
- paint that air-dries to a hard, usually glossy, finish under the water
- used for coating surfaces that are outdoors or otherwise - starts to deteriorate under exposure to sun
subject to hard wear or variations in temperature
Applications:
- available in a variety of color range
- - waterproofing concrete foundations and
Application: wooden surfaces
- most applicable for surface paint of metal and wood - - rust resistant surface preparation for metals and
(Door, window, grills) cisterns,
Drying Time: - - priming substrates before the installation of
bituminous membranes
- oil-based enamel paints – 8 to 24 hours
Drying Time: 2-4 hours depending on weather condition
-Water-based paint -1to 2 hours or less

ALUMINUM PAINT
EMULSION PAINT
- formed by finely ground aluminum particles in
- water based and provides a rich and Matt finish
suspension
to interior walls
- a good heat and light reflector as well as it
- durable and have good color retention property
resists water permeability
for a longer period
- suitable for restoring old or rusted aluminum or
- don’t give a hard surface after drying as in the
steel objects in industrial areas
case of oil paints
- used for coating industrial equipment and
- fungus and mildew resistant
corrugated sheets in industrial areas
Application:
- interior walls and ceilings
Application:
- metals, wood, Structural steel, and masonry such
Drying Time: as metal roofs, steel sheet, machinery, electric
and telegraphic poles or towers, oil and gas
- 15 minutes to dry; hardens within 2 hours storage tanks, hot water pipes or tanks.
Drying and Curing Time:
CEMENT PAINT - 15 minutes before applying the next coat
- also known as concrete paint (minimum of 2 coats); 1-3 days curing
- comes in the form of white powder
- durable and water resistant
- main ingredients are white Portland cement, ANTI - CORROSIVE PAINT
lime, and some pigments
22
 - consist of linseed oil as the vehicle and the base Drying and Curing Time:
is zinc chrome
- takes an hour or less to dry, subsequent coat
-  intended to resist the surface against corrosion should be applied in about 4 hours
and chemical attack
- 2 to 4 weeks to cure
- cheap and durable
- solvents should be added before application
ASBESTOS PAINT
Application:
- lightweight, has excellent insulation, non-
- Metallic, ferrous metal, cast iron and steel corrosive, chemically inert and didn’t conduct
surfaces electricity
Drying Time: - mainly used as a cheap and efficient way to
make such structures fire-resistant
- fast dry
- stable and relatively safe, but once disturbed,
microscopic fibers are released into the air and
SYNTHETIC RUBBER PAINT can easily be inhaled

- formed by dissolving chlorinated rubber in the solvent. Application:

- an excellent means to resist against chemical attack - houses, buildings, trains, planes and automobile

- less affected by sunlight and varying weather

conditions
TESTS
Application:
For Paint Discoloration:
surface of fresh concrete
ASTM D4587 - measures the ability of a paint to resist
Drying Time: deterioration caused by a range of exposure elements
such as heat, UV light, & water.
fast dry
For Paint Drying times:
ASTM test procedure D1640 - Standard Test Methods
CELLULOSE PAINT for Drying, Curing, or Film Formation of Organic
- formed by dissolving nitrocotton, celluloid sheets etc in Coatings at Room Temperature.
petroleum For Paint Adhesion Problems:
- its adhesive property of the paint is increased by adding ASTM D4541 measures the pull-off strength (adhesion)
castor oil of paint from metal or rigid surfaces.
Application:
cars and airplanes, window frames, doors, DEFECTS
building panels, picture frames, shop fronts
Blistering and Peeling
Drying Time:
are defects in which swelling of the paint film occurs.
5 to 15 minutes to dry before applying next coat (4-5 The swelling is caused by the formation of an air bubble
coats) under the paint film due to the presence of moisture or
oil or grease matter.

PLASTIC PAINT Fading

- consist of a variety of plastics as a base and discoloration of the paint surface mainly due to
water as a thinner atmospheric agencies such as sunlight, moisture, etc.

- available in attractive colors Alligatoring

- After drying, the water will evaporate and will pattern cracking similar to the scales of an alligator
provide an attractive colored surface. occurs when the hard coat of paint is applied over the
Application: soft coat or existing coat of paint

- walls and ceilings of the auditorium, showrooms Chalking

etc.
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- formation of powder on the painted surface due to the
use of insufficient oil in the primer.
Running
- happens when a thin layer of paint is coating on a
glossy and smooth surface the paint may run back and
sometimes leaves small areas of surface uncovered.
Sagging
- happens when a thick paint film runs downwards when
a surface is painted with a thick paint film
Flaking
detachment of paint film from the surface
occurs when bond between surface & paint film is poor
Mildew
form of fungus which grows well in warm, moist and
dark places
grows rapidly and develops the grey colored patches on
the painted surface
Wrinkling
- occurs when a thick layer of paint is to be coated on the
surface. In this case, the paint film gets shrinks and
develops crawls on the surface as shown in the picture
Saponification
occurs when the painted surface is exposed to chemicals
soap patches are formed on the paint surface and paint
film gets peeled off from the surface

QUALITIES
 ease of application
 reasonable drying period
 forming a thin film without cracking
 forming a hard & durable coating
 performance should not be affected by the
weather
 not harmful for users

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PERMEABLE PAVEMENT
• is a porous urban surface composed of open pore
pavers, concrete, or asphalt with an underlying
stone reservoir.
• is a specific type of pavement with a high
porosity that allows rainwater to pass through it
into the ground below
THREE MAJOR TYPES
APPLICATIONS
PERMEABLE ASPHALT PAVEMENT
• Asphalt is typically designed with a small
amount of air voids, typically 4% of the total
mix volume, in order to allow the binder to
migrate a little.
PERMEABLE CONCRETE PAVEMENT
• much like porous asphalt, has the fines removed
in order to create voids. It was also developed in
the 70s. Portland cement concrete (PCC) is
typically made with coarse aggregate (gravel),
fine aggregate (sand), water, cement, and
optional additives.
BENEFITS
PERMEABLE INTERLOCKING CONCRETE
PAVEMENT
• are individual units that can be laid out in an
interlocking grid pattern, with in-between spaces
commonly filled with grass or small stones. 
This type of paving is popular in public areas
due to its architectural appeal   •
COMPOSITION  •
 Permeable pavements should not be used in high
pollutant loading sites.
• Permeable pavement is suitable for pedestrian-
only areas, low-volume roads, low speed areas,
overflow parking areas, residential driveways,
alleys, and parking stalls.
• Permeable pavement can be prone to clogging
from sand and fine sediments that fill void
spaces and the joints between pavers. Fuel may
leak from vehicles and toxic chemicals may
leach from asphalt and/or binder surface.
• Reduces stormwater runoff, including reduction
of temperature, total water volume, and flowrate
• Treats water runoff
• Increases groundwater infiltration and recharge
Provides local flood control
Improves the quality of local surface waterways
• Reduces soil erosion
• Reduces the need for traditional stormwater
infrastructure, which may reduce the overall
project cost
• Increases traction when wet
• Reduces splash-up in trafficked areas
• Extends the life of paved area in cold climates
due to less cracking and buckling from the
freeze-thaw cycle
• Reduces the need for salt and sand use during
the winter, due to little or no black ice
• Requires less snow-plowing
• Reduces groundwater pollution
• Creates greenspace (grass groundcover, shade
from tree canopies, etc.)
• Offers evaporative cooling

TESTS
PERVIOUS CONCRETE
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 • ASTM C 979 Standard Specification for
Pigments for Integrally Coloured Concrete
• ASTM C1688 Standard Test Method for
Density and Void Content of Freshly Mixed
Pervious Concrete
• ASTM D 994 Standard Specification for
Preformed Expansion Joint Filler for Concrete
(Bituminous Type)
• ASTM D1751 Standard Specification for
Preformed Expansion Joint Filler for Concrete
Paving and Structural Construction
(Nonextruding and Resilient Bituminous Types)
• ASTM D1752 Standard Specification for
Preformed Sponge Rubber Cork and Recycled
PVC Expansion Joint Fillers for Concrete
Paving and Structural Construction
• ASTM D3385 Standard Test Method for
Infiltration Rate of Soils in Field Using Double-
Ring Infiltrometer
 
POROUS ASPHALT AND INTERLOCKING
PAVEMENTS
• Porous asphalt and permeable interlocking
pavements use flexible pavement design
methods adopted from the 1993
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement
Structures (AASHTO 1993). 

26
PLASTIC
• an organic material prepared out of resin. It may
or may not contain fillers, plasticisers and
solvents
• may be defined as a natural or synthetic organic
polymer which are having the property of being
plastic at some stage of their manufacture when
they can be moulded to required size and shape.
TYPES
THERMOPLASTIC
 are defined as polymers that can be melted and
recast almost indefinitely.
 they are molten when heated and harden upon 8 COMMON TYPES OF PLASTICS USED IN
cooling.  CONSTRUCTION

 they are mechanically recyclable.  • POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC (PE)

• POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PLASTIC (PVC)
• POLYSTYRENE PLASTIC (PS)
•  POLYPROPYLENE PLASTIC (PP)
• POLYMETHYL METHACRYLATE (PMMA)
• POLYESTER RESIN (PR)
• PHENOLIC RESIN (PF)
• ORGANIC SILICON RESIN (SI)

POLYETHYLENE PLASTICS
• is made from the polymerized vinyl monomers.
• high pressure polyethylene has low crystallinity
and density while low-pressure polyethylene has
THERMOSETTING PLASTIC high crystallinity and density. As the
 are made up from long chains of molecules that crystallinity and density increase; the hardness,
are cross-linked. They have a very rigid softening point, and strength increase while the
structure. impact toughness and elongation decrease.

 once heated, thermosetting plastics can be • has better chemical stability and water
moulded, shaped and pressed into shapes. resistance.

 once set they cannot be reheated since they are USES:

permanently set. • Packaging Applications 
• Consumer Goods
• Fibers and Textiles 
• Pipes and Fittings
pipes for gas, water, sewage, drainage, sea
outfalls, industrial application, cable protection, steel
pipe coating, large inspection chambers and manholes
for pipe sewage etc.)
• Automotive – fuel tanks
• Wiring & Cables – sheeting of energy,
telecommunication cables.  

27
 • Automotive
POLYETHYLENE PLASTICS • Electronics

 LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene Plastics) • Packaging

 HDPE (High Density Polyethylene Plastics)
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PLASTIC (PVC)
DEFINITION:
• is a kind of common building plastic made from
the polymerized vinyl chloride monomer.
• Polyvinyl chloride plastic has better chemical
stability and aging resistance, but poor heat
resistance.
• It may decompose and metamorphose if the
temperature exceeds 100°C. Usually, it should
be used at temperature of below 60-80°C. By
adding different amounts of plasticizer, hard and
soft polyvinyl chloride plastic can be made.
USES
PVC is usually used in:
POLYPROPYLENE PLASTIC (PP)
• is made from the polymerized acrylic monomer.
• has the properties of light weight (density
0.90g/cm2), strong heat resistance (100-120 0C),
regular ductility and water resistance.
• the weak points are that it has poor stiffness in
low temperature; and poor air resistance.
USES
Polypropylene can be used in a variety of building and
construction applications including:
• Siding
• Air and moisture barrier membranes
• Carpet textiles
• Films and sheets used in insulating building
wraps

• Siding and Windows • industrial adhesives and tapes,

• Wiring and Cables • Plastic parts included in piping.

• Water Pipes
• Flooring POLYMETHYL METHACRYLATE (PMMA)
• thermoplastic resin, also called organic glass,
can be made from the polymerized polymethyl
POLYSTYRENE PLASTIC (PS) methacrylate.
•  is made from the polymerized styrene • it has the advantages of good light transmittance,
monomer. high strength at low temperature, low water
absorption, better heat resistance, better aging
• It has the merits of good light transmittance,
easy pigmentation, better chemical stability, resistance, and easy to be processed.
water resistance, light resistance, easy • it has the disadvantages of poor abrasive
processing, and low price. resistance and high price.
• However, polystyrene plastic has the USES
disadvantages of weak stiffness, poor impact
toughness, weak heat resistance and easy Acrylics have a very wide range of uses in the
flammability. These weak points set restrictions construction industry:
to its uses. • Transparent or translucent sheeting such as
USES: acrylic glass (‘Plexiglass’ or ‘Perspex’).

• In insulation: • Opaque cladding and panel materials.

Lightweight polystyrene foam provides • Paints

excellent thermal insulation in numerous applications, • Resins
such as building walls and roofing, refrigerators and
freezers, and industrial cold storage facilities. • Sealants
Polystyrene insulation is inert, durable and resistant to
• adhesives and adhesive tapes Flashing materials.
water damage.
• Concretes
Also used in:
• Mortars
• Appliances

28
 • renders and asphalt. • is made by hydrolysing of one or more types of
organic silicon monomer.
• has the properties of heat resistance, cold
POLYESTER RESIN (PR)
resistance, water resistance, and corrosion
DEFINITION: resistance.

• is made by condensing diatomic or polybasic • it is poor in mechanical performance and

alcohol and diatomic or polybasic acid. cohesive force. These two weak points can be
improved by adding synthetic resin (phenolic
• has the properties of good bonding capacity, aldehyde, epoxy, and polyester), glass fiber, and
elasticity, better colourability, flexibility, heat asbestos, etc.
resistance and water resistance.
USES
USES:
Silicone resins serve in a variety of applications, such as:
• Construction Materials
• Binders for silicone resin emulsion paints and
• Automotive plasters
• Aircraft • Binders for industrial coatings
• Marine Luggage • Binders for organic fillers, e.g. pre-ceramics
• and Packaging Appliances and Furnishing • Binders for fabrics or textile webs in the
composites industry

PHENOLIC RESIN (PF) • Impregnating agents for electrical windings

• is made by polymerizing phenol and aldehyde • Hydrophobic agents for masonry protection
under the influence of acid catalyst or alkaline • Modifiers for alkyd, epoxy, polyester and acrylic
catalyst. paints.
• has better cohesion strength, light resistance, • Release agents for the plastics industry
water resistance, heat resistance, corrosion
resistance, and electrical insulation. However, it
has poor stiffness.
PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS AS A
• Phenolic resin, added by filling material and CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
curing agent, can be made into phenolic plastic.
• Strength - plastics are sufficiently strong and
Phenolic plastic is smooth, strong, durable, and
can be used for load bearing structural members.
cheap.
• Weather resistance - plastics made from
USES:
phenolic resins have good wheather resistance
• Phenolics are applied as adhesives or matrix
• Fire resistance - fire resistance depends on the
binders in:
plastic structure Durability - has sufficient
• Brake linings durability and provides sufficient surface
hardness
• Clutch plates
• Dimensional stability - plastics easily maintain
• Circuit boards its shape
• Engineered wood: • Chemical resistance - plastics offer great
• Plywood resistance to moisture, chemicals and solvents

• Laminated beams • Thermal resistance - plastics have lo thermal

conductivity
• Oriented strand board
• Working conditions - all work operations like
• Structural engineered board drilling, cutting, sawing can de carried out on
plastics
• Insulation
Moisture resistance - this property depends on
the variety of plastics used Ductility- Plastics
have low ductility which may result to the
ORGANIC SILICON RESIN (SI) failing of plastic structural members.
APPLICATIONS OF PLASTICS
29
 • Corrugated and plain sheets for roofing. • ASTM D638 (Standard Test Method for
Tensile Properties of Plastics)
• For making joint less flooring.
- This test method is designed to produce tensile
• Flooring tiles.
property data for the control and specification of plastic
• Overhead water tanks. materials. These data are also useful for qualitative
characterization and for research and development.
• Bath and sink units.
For Flexural Properties:
• Cistern hall floats.
• ASTM D790 - 17 (Standard Test Methods for
• Decorative laminates and mouldings. Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and
• Window and door frames and shutters for Reinforced Plastics and Electrical Insulating
bathroom doors. Materials)

• Lighting fixtures. - These test methods are used to determine the

flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced
• Electrical conduits. plastics, including high modulus composites and
electrical insulating materials utilizing a three-point
• Electrical insulators.
loading system to apply a load to a simply supported
• Pipes to carry cold waters. beam (specimen).
For Compressive Properties:

Advantages of Plastics: • ASTM D695 - 15 (Standard Test Method for

• they are light in weight.
• they can be easily moulded and have excellent
finishing.
• they possess very good strength and toughness. They
possess good shock absorption capacity.
Compressive Properties of Rigid Plastics)
- This test method covers the determination of
the mechanical properties of unreinforced and reinforced
rigid plastics, including high-modulus composites, when
loaded in compression at relatively low uniform rates of
straining or loading.

• are corrosion resistant and chemically inert.

• they have low thermal expansion of co-efficient and
possess good thermal and electrical insulating property.
• they are very good water resistant and possess good
adhesiveness.
• are strong, good and cheap to produce.
• can be recycled and does not decompose.

Disadvantages of Plastics:
• it is a nonrenewable resources.
• causes CANCER
• they become brittle at low temperature.
• can deform under load.
• they have low heat resistance and poor ductility.
• they are combustible.
• produces toxic fumes when it is burnt
• It is a recycle process, but it is very costly

TESTING PLASTIC MATERIAL

For Tensile Properties:

30
ROOFING
ROOF - the structure forming the upper covering of a
building.
The earliest known roofing was the woolly skin of a
giant mammoth noted in Siberia during 40,000 BC.
Cavemen covered their structures with sod roofs covered
with earth and plants
The first known glazed clay roof tile was used in
Neolithic China 5,000 years ago.
Hip Rafters
Greece and Babylon used the first earthenware roof tiles
between 4,000 and 5,000 BC. - Frame the external angles of hipped end roofs.

The Romans brought variations of the Greek clay tiles to

England as early as 100 BC. Jack Rafters
Around 735 AD thatched roofs were developed and The shortened rafters running from hip rafters to plate &
used. Wood shingles were introduced 300 years later from ridge to valley rafters.
Industrial production of clay roofing tiles began in the
19th century. One hundred years later concrete roof tiles
were fist used. Valley Rafters
Used at internal angles of roof.

Components of a Typical Roof

Ridge
The horizontal top area where two sloped roof areas
meet.
Spine of a roof

Common Rafters
- Main load-bearing members of the roof.
- Span between a wall plate at eaves & ridges.

Hipped End
- The roof slope is continued around the end of a
building of a hipped end roof.

Wall Plate/ Plate

Rafters
- Provide the bearing & fixing medium for
Splay cut / believed & nailed to ridge board at upper
various roof members.
ends & birth-mouthed nailed to wall plate at lower ends.

31
 - Distribute the loads evenly over the supporting
walls.
- Bedded in cement mortar on top of load-bearing
walls.

Types of Roofing Materials

Tile CoverinG
-Clay, Concrete (overlapping technique)
Eaves -Pitches from 15 to 45 degrees.
-Pitch of tiles are less than pitch of the rafters.
Bottom portion of the roof overhanging the wall.

Plain Tiling
- double lapping principle
- wind id able to penetrate into the building through gaps

Rule: at least 2 thickness of the tile covering any part of

the roof and bond.

Single Lap Tiling

- overlapping side to joint to minimum pitch of 35
degrees

Verge
Thatch Covering
Roof covering that overhangs at the gable end. - made of Thatch, Wheat & Rye straw and Sea grass

Shingles Covering
Shingles- like the scales of a fish
Red cedar- life expectancy (30 years), high cost
Hardwood- durable

Purlin
- Horizontal roof members which
intermediate support to rafters.
- Acts as beam, reducing the span of rafters &
enabling economic section to be used.
Slate Covering
Slate- naturally dense material
- Every sheet should be nailed twice
Minimum pitch of 25 degrees
- Centrals is nailed to overcome vibrations (wind)
Sheet Covering
Sheet cover- zinc, aluminum and lead
Cheaper alternative
give Short life
No creep light & ductile
Standard size: 2500mm x 1000mm
Thickness: 0.80mm.

32
Asphalt Covering
Advantages
- Affordable
- Variety of styles
- Easy installation
Disadvantages
- Not an environmental friendly roofing material
- Gets damaged if installed at below freezing
temperatures
- Not resistant to extreme temperature variations

Concrete Covering
Advantages
- Long Lasting
- Can accommodate with other floors
Disadvantages
- Leakage problems
- Maintenance can be problematic
- No room for multiple design patterns

Stone Slab Covering

Advantages
- Excellent insulation
- Unique looks
- Stormproof
- Solid
Disadvantages
- Heavy load on the walls
- Hard to transport
- Hard to construct

Green Roofs
- A vegetative layer grown on the rooftop
- Provide shade and remove heat from the air
- Can be installed on a wide range of buildings

Test method for roofing

ASTM E 1592 – Standard test method for structural

performance of sheet metal roof and siding systems by
uniform static air pressure difference

UL 580 – Test for uplift resistance of roof assemblies

Roofs are important because …

- it provides shelter from the weather

- it helps to keep the interior building cool
- it provides stability to walls
- it resists penetration and spreading of fire

33