MODULE

INTRODUCTION

Learning Objective: At the end of the module, the students will be able to (a) discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete as construction
material (b) determine the load combinations for design strength (c)
determine the strength reduction factor for different structural elements

Content : 1. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

2. Advantages of Reinforced Concrete as a Construction Material
3. Compatibility of concrete and steel
4. Loads and Load Combinations
5. Strength Reduction Factors

Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in a rocklike
mass with a paste of cement and water.
Reinforced Concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides
the tensile strength lacking in the concrete.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete as a Construction Material.

1. It has considerable compressive strength per unit cost compared with most other materials.
2. Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water and, in fact, is the best
structural material available for situations where water is present.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It is a low-maintenance material.
5. As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life. Under proper conditions,
reinforced concrete structures can be used indefinitely without reduction of their load carrying
abilities.
6. It is usually the only economical material available for footings, floor slabs, basement walls, piers,
and similar applications.
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be cast into an extraordinary variety of shapes.
8. In most areas, concrete takes advantage of inexpensive local materials (sand, gravel, and water)
and requires relatively small amounts of cement and reinforcing steel, which may have to be
shipped from other parts of the country.
9. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared with other materials such as
structural steel.

Disadvantages of Concrete as a Construction Material

1. Concrete has a very low tensile strength, requiring the use of tensile reinforcing.
 2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently. In addition, falsework
or shoring may be necessary to keep the forms in place for roofs, walls, floors, and similar
structures until the concrete members gain sufficient strength to support themselves.
3. The low strength per unit of weight of concrete leads to heavy members.
4. Similarly, the low strength per unit of volume of concrete means members will be relatively large,
an important consideration for tall buildings and long-span structures.
5. The properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning and mixing.
Furthermore, the placing and curing of concrete is not as carefully controlled as is the production
of other materials, such as structural steel and laminated wood.

Compatibility of Concrete and Steel

Concrete and steel reinforcing work together beautifully in reinforced concrete structures. The
advantages of each material seem to compensate for the disadvantages of the other. For instance,
the great shortcoming of concrete is its lack of tensile strength, but tensile strength is one of the
great advantages of steel. Reinforcing bars have tensile strengths equal to approximately 100 times
that of the usual concretes used.
The two materials bond together very well so there is little chance of slippage between the two;
thus, they will act together as a unit in resisting forces. The excellent bond obtained is the result of
the chemical adhesion between the two materials, the natural roughness of the bars, and the closely
spaced rib-shaped deformations rolled onto the bars’ surfaces. Reinforcing bars are subject to
corrosion, but the concrete surrounding them provides them with excellent protection.

Loads
The most important and most critical task of an engineer is the determination of the loads that can
be applied to a structure during its life, and the worst possible combinations of these loads that
might occur simultaneously. Loads on a structure may be classified as dead loads and live loads.

Dead Load
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. This consists mainly of
the weight of the structure and other permanent attachments to the frame.

Live Load
Live loads are loads that may change in magnitude and position. Live loads that move under their
own power are called moving loads. Other live loads are those caused by wind, rain, earthquakes,
soils and temperature changes. Wind and earthquake loads are called lateral loads.

Table 1.1 Minimum uniform and concentrated live loads

Use or Occupancy Uniform Load Concentrated Load
Category Description kPa kN
Office Use 2.4 9.0
1. Access Floor Systems
Computer Use 4.8 9.0
2. Armories --- 7.2 0
Fixed seats 2.9 0
3. theaters, assembly areas and Movable seats 4.8 0
auditoriums Lobbies and platforms 4.8 0
Stage Areas 7.2 0
4. Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and
--- 3.6 0
similar recreational areas
5. Catwalk for maintenance access --- 1.9 1.3
6. Cornices and marquees --- 3.6 0
7. Dining rooms and restaurants --- 4.8 0
8.Exit facilities --- 4.8 0
General storage and/or repair 4.8 ---
9. Parking, garages and ramps Public parking and ramps 4.8 ---
Private (residential) or pleasure-
2.4 ---
type motor vehicle storage
Ward and rooms 1.9 4.5
10. Hospitals Laboratories and operating rooms 2.9 4.5
Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Table 1.1 Minimum uniform and concentrated live loads (continued)
Use or Occupancy Uniform Load Concentrated Load
Category Description kPa kN
Reading rooms 2.9 4.5
11. Libraries Stack rooms 7.2 4.5
Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Light 6.0 9.0
12. Manufacturing Heavy 12.0 13.4
Building corridors above ground
3.8 9.0
floor
Call centers and business
2.9 9.0
processing offices
13. Office Lobbies and ground floor corridors 4.8 9.0
Other offices 2.4 9.0
Press rooms 7.2 11.0
14. Printing plants
Composing and linotype rooms 4.8 9.0
Basic floor area 1.9 0
Exterior balconies 2.9 0
15. Residential
Decks 1.9 0
Storage 1.9 0
16. Restrooms --- --- ---
17. Reviewing stands,
grandstands, bleachers, and --- 4.8 0
folding and telescoping seating
18. Roof decks Same as area served or occupancy --- ---
Classrooms 1.9 4.5
19. Schools Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Ground floor corridors 4.8 ---
20. Sidewalks and driveways Public access 12.0 ---
Light 6.0 ---
21. Storage
Heavy 12.0 ---
Retail 4.8 4.5
22. Stores
Wholesale 6.0 13.4
23. Pedestrian bridges and
--- 4.8 ---
walkways

Table 1.2 Minimum roof live loads

ROOF SLOPE Method 1 Method 2
Triburary Area (m2) Rate of Maximum
0 to 20 20 to 60 Over 60 Uniform
Load (kPa)
Reduction Reduction
Uniform Load (kPa) r R (%)
1. Flat or rise less than 1-unit
verticalin 3-unit horizontal (33.3%
slope). Arch and dome with rise less
1.00 0.75 0.60 1.00 0.80 40
than 1/8 of span
2. Rise 1-unit vertical to less than 3-
unit horizontal (33.3% to less than
100% slope). Arch and dome with 0.75 0.70 0.60 0.75 0.06 25
rise 1/8 of span to less than 3/8 of
span.
3. Rise 1-unit vertical 1-unit
horizontal (100% slope) and greater.
0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
Arch or dome with rise 3/8 of span
or greater. No reduction permitted
4. Awnings except cloth covered 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
5. Greenhouses, lath houses and
0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
agricultural buildings
Combination of Loads
Structure and structural members should be designed to resist the load combination specified
below.
The most critical effect can occur when one or more of the contributing loads are not acting. All
applicable loads shall be considered, including both earthquake and wind, in accordance with the
specified load combinations.

Symbols and Notations

D = dead load
E = earthquake load
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil
L = live load, except roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or expansion resulting
from temperature change, shrinkage, moisture change, creep in component
materials, movement due to differential settlement, or combinations thereof
W = Load due to wind pressure

Basic Load Combinations

U = 1.4 D

U = 1.2D + 1.6L +0.5 (Lr or R)

U = 1.2D + 1.6 (Lr or R) + (1.0 L or 0.5W)

U = 1.2D + 1.0W + 1.0L + 0.5(Lr or R)

U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L

U = 0.9D + 1.0W

U = 0.9D +1.0E

Strength Reduction Factors

The design strength provided by a concrete member, its connection to other members, and its cross-
sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, shear, and torsion shall be taken as the nominal strength
multiplied by a strength reduction factor Φ having the following values:

Table 1.3 Strength reduction factors, Φ

Action or Structural Element Φ
0.65 to 0.90 in accordance with
(a) Moment, axial force, or combined moment and axial force Section 421.2.2 of NSCP 2015
(see table 1.4)
(b) Shear 0.75
(c) Torsion 0.75
(d) Bearing 0.65
(e) Post-tensioned anchorage zones 0.85
(f) Brackets and corbels 0.75
(g) Struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas 0.75
Components of connections of precast members controlled by
(h) yielding of steel elements in tension
0.90
(i) Plain concrete elements 0.60
(j) Anchors in concrete elements 0.45 to 0.75
 Table 1.4 Strength reduction factors, Φ, for moment, axial force, or combined moment and axial
force
Φ
Net tensile strain, Type of transverse reinforcement
Spirals Others
≤ 0.75 0.65
( − ) ( − )
< < 0.005 . + . . + .
( . − ) ( . − )
≥ 0.005 0.90 0.90

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Reference:
Nilson, A.H., Darwin, D. & Dolan, C.W. (2010). Design of Concrete Structures (14th Ed). Mc-Graw Hill
McCormac, J.C. & Brown, R. (2014). Design of Reinforced Concrete (9th Ed). Wiley
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (2015). National Structural Code of the Philippines (7th Ed).