Chapter 5

Antennas
Antennas for
for
Wireless
Wireless Systems
Systems
Dipole

Isotropic
Typical Wireless
Omni Antenna

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 1

 Chapter 5 Section A

Introduction
Introduction to
to
Antennas
Antennas for
for Wireless
Wireless

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 2

 Understanding Antenna Radiation
The Principle Of Current Moments
Zero current ■ An antenna is just a passive
at each end conductor carrying RF current
each tiny
imaginary “slice” • RF power causes the current
of the antenna flow
does its share
of radiating • Current flowing radiates
TX Maximum current RX electromagnetic fields
at the middle
Current induced in • Electromagnetic fields cause
receiving antenna current in receiving antennas
is vector sum of
contribution of every ■ The effect of the total antenna is the
tiny “slice” of sum of what every tiny “slice” of the
radiating antenna
antenna is doing
Width of band • Radiation of a tiny “slice” is
denotes current
magnitude proportional to its length times
the magnitude of the current in
it, at the phase of the current

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 3

 Different Radiation In Different Directions
■ Each “slice” of the antenna produces
Minimum a definite amount of radiation at a
Radiation:
contributions specific phase angle
out of phase, ■ Strength of signal received varies,
cancel depending on direction of departure
from radiating antenna
• In some directions, the
Maximum components add up in phase
Radiation: to a strong signal level
TX contributions
in phase, • In other directions, due to the
reinforce
different distances the various
components must travel to
reach the receiver, they are
out of phase and cancel,
Minimum
Radiation: leaving a much weaker signal
contributions ■ An antenna’s directivity is the same
out of phase, for transmission & reception
cancel

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 4

 Antenna Polarization
RF current in a conductor
Antenna 1 causes electromagnetic fields
Vertically Antenna 2
Polarized Horizontally that seek to induce current
Electromagnetic
Polarized flowing in the same direction
Field in other conductors.
TX RX The orientation of the antenna is
current
almost
called its polarization.
no
current

■ To intercept significant energy, a receiving antenna must be oriented

parallel to the transmitting antenna
• A receiving antenna oriented at right angles to the transmitting
antenna is “cross-polarized”; will have very little current induced
• Vertical polarization is the default convention in wireless telephony
• In the cluttered urban environment, energy becomes scattered and
“de-polarized” during propagation, so polarization is not as critical
• Handset users hold the antennas at seemingly random angles…..

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 5

 Antenna Gain

■ Antennas are passive devices: they do not produce

power
Omni-directional
• Can only receive power in one form and pass Antenna
it on in another, minus incidental losses
• Cannot generate power or “amplify”
■ However, an antenna can appear to have “gain”
compared against another antenna or condition. This
gain can be expressed in dB or as a power ratio. It
applies both to radiating and receiving
■ A directional antenna, in its direction of maximum
radiation, appears to have “gain” compared against a
non-directional antenna
■ Gain in one direction comes at the expense of less
radiation in other directions
■ Antenna Gain is RELATIVE, not ABSOLUTE
• When describing antenna “gain”, the
comparison condition must be stated or
implied Directional
Antenna
May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 6
 Effective Radiated Power

■ An antenna radiates all power fed to it from the Reference

Antenna
transmitter, minus any incidental losses.
Every direction gets some amount of power A TX
■ Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the apparent 100 W
power in a particular direction
• Equal to actual transmitter power times
antenna gain in that direction B
■ Effective Radiated Power is expressed in Directional
comparison to a standard radiator TX
Antenna 100 W
• ERP: compared with dipole antenna
ERP B A (ref)
• EIRP: compared with Isotropic antenna
A
Example: Antennas A and B each radiate 100 watts from B
their own transmitters. Antenna A is our reference. 275w 100w
Antenna B is directional. In its maximum direction, its
signal seems 2.75 stronger than the signal from antenna
A. Antenna B’s ERP in this case is 275 watts.

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 7

 Reference Antennas
Defining Gain And Effective Radiated Power

■ Isotropic Radiator
• Truly non-directional -- in 3 dimensions
• Difficult to build or approximate physically, Isotropic
Antenna
but mathematically very simple to describe
• A popular reference: 1000 MHz and above
– PCS, microwave, etc.
■ Dipole Antenna
• Non-directional in 2-dimensional plane only
• Can be easily constructed, physically
practical
• A popular reference: below 1000 MHz
– 800 MHz. cellular, land mobile, TV & FM
Quantity Units Dipole Antenna
Gain above Isotropic radiator dBi
Notice that a dipole
Gain above Dipole reference dBd has 2.15 dB gain
Effective Radiated Power Vs. Isotropic (watts or dBm) EIRP compared to an
Effective Radiated Power Vs. Dipole (watts or dBm) ERP isotropic antenna.

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 8

 Antenna Gain And ERP
Examples
■ Many wireless systems at 1900 & 800 MHz use omni
antennas like the one shown in this figure
■ These patterns are drawn to scale in E-field radiation
units, based on equal power to each antenna Isotropic
■ Notice the typical wireless omni antenna concentrates
most of its radiation toward the horizon, where users
are, at the expense of sending less radiation sharply
upward or downward
■ The wireless antenna’s maximum radiation is 12.1 dB Dipole
stronger than the isotropic (thus 12.1 dBi gain), and
10 dB stronger than the dipole (so 10 dBd gain).

Gain Comparison
Typical Wireless
12.1 dBi Isotropic Omni Antenna
10dBd Dipole Gain 12.1 dBi or 10 dBd
Omni

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 9

 Radiation Patterns
Key Features And Terminology

An antenna’s directivity is Typical Example

expressed as a series of patterns
Horizontal Plane Pattern
■ The Horizontal Plane Pattern graphs Notice -3 dB points
the radiation as a function of azimuth
(i.e..,direction N-E-S-W) 0 (N)

■ The Vertical Plane Pattern graphs the 0

10 dB
radiation as a function of elevation (i.e.., -10 points
up, down, horizontal) -20
■ Antennas are often compared by noting Main
-30 dB Lobe
specific landmark points on their
patterns: 270 90
(W) (E)
• -3 dB (“HPBW”), -6 dB, -10 dB nulls or a Minor
minim Lobe
points
Front-to-back Ratio
• Front-to-back ratio
• Angles of nulls, minor lobes, etc.
180 (S)

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 10

 How Antennas Achieve Their Gain

Quasi-Optical Techniques (reflection, focusing)

• Reflectors can be used to concentrate
radiation
– technique works best at microwave frequencies,
where reflectors are small
• Examples:
– corner reflector used at cellular or higher
frequencies
– parabolic reflector used at microwave
frequencies
– grid or single pipe reflector for cellular

Array techniques (discrete elements) In phase

• Power is fed or coupled to multiple
antenna elements; each element radiates
• Elements’ radiation in phase in some Out of
directions phase
• In other directions, a phase delay for each
element creates pattern lobes and nulls
May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 11
 Types Of Arrays

■ Collinear vertical arrays

• Essentially omnidirectional in
horizontal plane
• Power gain approximately
equal to the number of
elements
• Nulls exist in vertical pattern,
unless deliberately filled
■ Arrays in horizontal plane
• Directional in horizontal RF
power
plane: useful for sectorization
• Yagi
– one driven element, parasitic
coupling to others
• Log-periodic RF
– all elements driven power
– wide bandwidth
■ All of these types of antennas are
used in wireless
May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 12
 Omni Antennas
Collinear Vertical Arrays

The family of omni-directional wireless

antennas: Typical Collinear Arrays
■ Number of elements determines Number of
Elements
Power
Gain
Gain,
dB
Angle
θ
• Physical size 1
2
1
2
0.00
3.01
n/a
26.57°
• Gain 3
4
3
4
4.77
6.02
18.43°
14.04°
• Beamwidth, first null angle 5
6
5
6
6.99
7.78
11.31°
9.46°
■ Models with many elements have 7 7 8.45 8.13°
very narrow beamwidths 8
9
8
9
9.03
9.54
7.13°
6.34°
• Require stable mounting and 10
11
10
11
10.00
10.41
5.71°
5.19°
careful alignment 12
13
12
13
10.79
11.14
4.76°
4.40°
• Watch out: be sure nulls do 14 14 11.46 4.09°

not fall in important coverage Vertical Plane Pattern

areas beamwidth
■ Rod and grid reflectors are
sometimes added for mild directivity -3
d
θ
Examples: 800 MHz.: dB803, PD10017, B

BCR-10O, Kathrein 740-198 Angle

of
1900 MHz.: dB-910, ASPP2933 first
null

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 13

 Sector Antennas
Reflectors And Vertical Arrays

Vertical Plane Pattern

■ Typical commercial sector Up
antennas are vertical combinations
of dipoles, yagis, or log-periodic
elements with reflector (panel or
grid) backing
• Vertical plane pattern is
determined by number of
vertically-separated Down
elements
– varies from 1 to 8, affecting Horizontal Plane Pattern
mainly gain and vertical plane N
beamwidth
• Horizontal plane pattern is
determined by: W E
– number of horizontally-spaced
elements
– shape of reflectors (is reflector
folded?) S

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 14

Example Of Antenna Catalog Specifications

Electrical Data
Antenna Model ASPP2933 ASPP2936 dB910C-M
Frequency Range, MHz. 1850-1990 1850-1990 1850-1970
Gain - dBd/dBi 3/5.1 6/8.1 10/12.1
VSWR <1.5:1 <1.5:1 <1.5:1
Beamwidth (3 dB from maximum) 32° 15° 5°
Polarization Vertical Vertical Vertical
Maximum power input - Watts 400 400 400
Input Impedance - Ohms 50 50 50
Lightning Protection Direct Ground Direct Ground Direct Ground
Termination - Standard N-Female N-Female N-Female
Jumper Cable Order Sep. Order Sep. Order Sep.

Mechanical Data
Antenna Model ASPP2933 ASPP2936 dB910C-M
Overall length - in (mm) 24 (610) 36 (915) 77 (1955)
Radome OD - in (mm) 1.1 (25.4) 1.0 (25.4) 1.5 (38)
Wind area - ft2 (m2) .17 (.0155) .25 (.0233) .54 (.05)
Wind load @ 125 mph/201 kph lb-f (n) 4 (17) 6 (26) 14 (61)
Maximum wind speed - mph (kph) 140 (225) 140 (225) 125 (201)
Weight - lbs (kg) 4 (1.8) 6 (2.7) 5.2 (2.4)
Shipping Weight - lbs (kg) 11 (4.9) 13 (5.9) 9 (4.1)
Clamps (steel) ASPA320 ASPA320 Integral

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 15

Example Of Antenna Catalog Radiation Pattern

■ Vertical Plane Pattern

• E-Plane (elevation plane)
• Gain: 10 dBd
• Dipole pattern is superimposed at
scale for comparison (not often
shown in commercial catalogs)
• Frequency is shown
• Pattern values shown in dBd
• Note 1-degree indices through
region of main lobe for most
accurate reading
• Notice minor lobe and null detail!

May 27, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 5A - 16