CU 1:

INTRODUCTION
TO - INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS:
ENZYMES, AMINO ACIDS, VITAMINS,
I. SCIENCE OF MICROBIOLOGY ANTIBIOTICS, VACCINES,
 MICROBIOLOGY – STUDY OF ALL LIVING PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY,
ORGANISMS THAT ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SEWAGE TREATMENT
VISIBLE WITH THE NAKED EYE. - AGRICULTURE: RECYCLING OF
 MICROBES – INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING: ELEMENTS, NITRIFYING BACTERIA
- BACTERIA
- ARCHAEA HARMFUL
- VIRUSES
- FOOD SPOILAGE
- FUNGI
- DISEASES: BACTERIA, VIRUS,
- PRIONS
FUNGAL
- PROTOZOA
- ALGAE HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
 MICROBIOLOGY DISTRIBUTION IN NATURE:
OMNIPRESENT/ UBIQUITOUS  1600’S
- NEARLY EVERYWHERE IN NATURE ROBERT HOOKE
- AIR - AN ENGLISH SCIENTIST OBSERVED
- SOIL STRANDS OF FUNGI AMMONG THE
- OCEANS SPECIMEN OF CELLS HE VIEWED.
- FOOD WE EAT - HERALDED THE CELL THEORY THAT
 MICROORGANISM – A COLLECTION OF STATED LIVING ORGANISMS ARE
ORGANISMS THAT SHARE THE MADE UP OF CELLS
CHARACTERISTIC OF BEING VISIBLE ONLY  1670’S – 1700’S
WITH A MICROSCOPE. ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
- TOO SMALL - A DUTCH MERCHANT DISCOVER
- GERM – RAPIDLY GROWING CELL ANIMALCULES,
- HAS HABITAT - FIRST TO PROVIDE ACCURATE
- LIVES IN POPULATION DESCRIPTIONS OF PROTOZOA, FUNGI
- NOT ALONE AND BACTERIA.
- FATHER OF MICROBIOLOGY
- COMMUNITIES ARE EITHER
- FATHER OF BACTERIOLOGY
SWIMMING FREELY OR ATTACHED
TO A SURFACE (BIOFILM) - FATHER OF PROTOZOOLOGY
 MEMBERS OF THE MICROBIAL WORLD THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS
GENERATION
- BACTERIA
- STATES THAT MICROORGANISMS
- CYANOBACTERIA
ARISE FROM LIFELESS MATTER SUCH
- RICKETTSIAE AS BEEF BROTH
- CHLAMYDIAE JOHN NEEDHAM
- FUNGI - AN ENGLISH CLERIC, ADVANCED
- UNICELLULAR (SINGLE-CELLED) SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
ALGAE FRANCISCO REDI
- PROTOZOA - DISPUTED SPONTANEOUS
- VIRUSES GENERATION THEORY
 MICROORGANISMS EFFECTS ON HUMAN - FLY MAGGOTS DO NOT ARISE FROM
BEINGS DECAYING MEAT (OTHERS BELIEVE)
BENEFICIAL: IF BEEF IS COVERED TO PREVENT
- FOOD: BREAD, YOGURT, WINE, ENTRY OF FLIES
CHEESE, YOGHURT, VINEGAR LAZZARO SPALLANZANI
- DISPUTED SPONTANEOUS
GENERATION THEORY BY SHOWING
 THAT BOILED BROTH WOULD NOT
GIVE RISE TO MICROSCOPIC FORMS
OF LIFE
 1780’S
LOUIS PASTEUR
- FATHER OF MODERN
MICROBIOLOGY
- DISCOVER WHY WINE AND DAIRY
PRODUCTS BECAME SOUR
- DISPUTED SPONTANEOUS
GENERATION THEORY
- DEVISED A SERIES OF A SWAN-
NECKED FLASK EXPERIMENT
- POSTULATED GERM THEORY OF
DISEASE
- ATTEMPT TO PROVE THE GERM
THEORY BUT IS UNSUCCESSFUL
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE
- STATES THAT MICROORGANISMS
ARE THE CAUSES OF INFECTIOUS
DISEASE
- MICROORGANISMS ARE IN THE AIR
AND CAN CAUSE A DISEASE
ROBERT KOCH
- PROVED THE GERM THEORY OF
DISEASE BY THE PROCEDURE OF
KOCH’S POSTULATE.
KOCH’S POSTULATE
- SET OF PRINCIPLES WHEREBY OTHER
MICROORGANISMS COULD BE
RELATED TO OTHER DISEASES.
- KOCH INJECTED PURE CULTURES OF
THE BACILI INTO MICE AND SHOWED
THAT THE BACILI INVARIABLY
CAUSED ANTHRAX.
 1857’S – 1914’S
GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY
- FURTHER ADVANCEMENT IN THE
GERM THEORY
- MANY AGENTS OF DIFFERENT
INFECTIOUS DISEASES WERE
IDENTIFIED
- MANY ETIOLOGIC AGENTS OF
MICROBIAL DISEASE WERE
DISCOVERED
- MANY EPIDEMICS WERE HALTED
EDWARD JENNER
- DISCOVERED VACCINE FOR
SMALLPOX
JOSEPH LISTER
- APPLIED THE THEORY TO MEDICAL
PROCEDURES PAVING THE WAY FOR
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASEPTIC
SURGERY.
 AFTER WORLD WAR II 1920’S
- ANTIBIOTICS WERE INTRODUCED TO
THE MEDICAL WORLD
PAUL EHRLICH
- DISCOVERED SALVARSAN FOR THE
TREATMENT OF SYPHILIS
- SALVARSAN HERALDED THE “MAGIC
BULLET” OF CHEMOTHERAPY,
TREATMENT OF DISEASE USING
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
ALEXANDER FLEMING
- DISCOVERED THE ANTIBIOTIC
PENICILIN FROM THE MOLD
PENICILLIUM NOTATUM.
- INCIDENCE OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE
LIKE PNEUMONIA, MENINGITIS,
SYPHILIS, AND TUBERCULOSIS WAS
SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED WITH THE
USE OF ANTIBIOTICS
II. INTRODUCTION TO
PROKARYOTES AND
EUKARYOTES
 EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 INCLUDES THE MICROORGANISMS
SUCH AS: PLANTS, ANIMALS, FUNGI,
PROTOZOA, AND SIMPLE ALGAE
 THE MAIN DISTINGUISHING:
COMPARTMENTALIZATION
 HAS NUCLEUS AND ORGANELLES
 THE PRESENCE OF MEMBRANE-BOUND
ORGANELLES (COMPARTMENTS) IN
WHICH SPECIFIC METABOLIC
ACTIVITIES TAKE PLACE
 CELL NUCLEUS THAT HOUSES CELL’S
DNA
 PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 FIRST FORM OF LIFE IN EARTH
 SEVERAL MICROORGANISMS SUCH AS:
BACTERIA, CYANOBACTERIA,
RICKETTSIAE, CHLAMYDIAE, AND
MYCOPLASMAS
  CHARACTERIZED BY HAVING VITAL IN THE CHEMICAL BONDS OF
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES: CELL CARBOHYDRATE MOLECULES.
SIGNALING, BEING SELF-SUSTAINING (EXAMPLE. CYANOBACTERIA)
- GLUCOSE IS THE PRINCIPLE
 LACK OF NUCLEUS AND ORGANELLES
CARBOHYDRATE FORMED FROM
 DNA consists of single chromosome in direct THE PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
contact with the cytoplasm
PROKARYOTIC VERSUS EUKARYOTIC
 The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called CELLS
the nucleoid PROKARYO EUKARYOT
TES ES
ORGANISM EUBACTER PROTISTS,
 BINARY DIVISION – A TYPE OF IA & FUNGI,
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN A ARCHAEBA PLANTS &
SINGLE CELLED ORGANISM CTERIA ANIMAL
LEVEL OF SINGLE SINGLE
3 STRUCTURAL REGIONS OF ORGANIZA CELLED CELLED
PROKARYOTIC CELLS TION (PROTISTS)
 PLASMA MEMBRANE – OR
ENCLOSING THE CELL MULTICELL
ULAR
 CYTOPLASMIC REGION – INSIDE
USUALLY
THE CELL W/ TISSUE
 FLAGELLA AND PILI – OUTSIDE AND
REGION ORGANS
TYPICAL SMALL (1- LARGE (10-
 SIZE AND SHAPE OF BACTERIA CELL SIZE 10 100
SPHERICAL FORMS – COCCI MICRONS) MICRONS)
(SINGULAR), COCCUS (PLURAL) CELL WITH CELL FUNGI AND
 RODLIKE FORMS – BACILLI WALL WALLS PLANTS
(SINGULAR), BACILLUS (PLURAL) (CELLULOS
COMMA SHAPE - VIBRIO E); NONE IN
FLEXIBLE, WAVY SHAPE – ANIMALS
SPIROCHETE ORGANELL USUALLY MANY
ES NONE DIFFERENT
CORKSCREW SHAPE – SPIRILLUM
ONES W/
PLEOMORPHIC (VARIETY OF SHAPES
SPECIALIZE
AND SIZES) – RICKETTSIAE AND D
MYCOPLASMAS METABOLI ANAEROBI MOSTLY
 DISTINCT ARRANGEMENT SM C& AEROBIC
PAIR OF COCCI – DIPLOCOCCUS AEROBIC
A CHAIN OF COCCI – STREPTOCOCCUS GENETIC SINGLE COMPLEX
4 ARRANGED IN A CUBE COCCI – MATERIAL CIRCULAR CHROMOSO
TETRACOCCUS S DOUBLE ME
GRAPE-LIKE CLUSTER COCCI - STRANDED USUALLY IN
STAPHYLOCCOCUS DNA PAIRS W/
BACILI SOMETIMES FORM LONG SINGLE
CHAINS – STREPTOBACILLI DOUBLE
STRANDED
III. MICROBIAL METABOLISM DNA
MOLECULES
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
MODE OF BINARY MITOSIS
- TRAPS THE ENERGY IN SUNLIGHT DIVISION FISSION AND
THROUGH THE PROCESS OF MOSTLY MEIOSIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND STORE IT SEXUAL NO MEIOSIS
REPRODUC MEIOSIS;
TION TRANSFER
OF DNA
ONLY
 - NONPHOTOSYNTHETIC
BACTERIA, FUNGI, AND
PROTOZOA RELY UPON
PREFORMED CARBOHYDRATES IN
THE ENVIRONMENT TO OBTAIN
THE ENERGY NECESSARY FOR
THEIR METABOLIC PROCESSES.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- SYNTHESIZE THEIR FOODS
FROM SIMPLE MOLECULES SUCH
AS CARBON DIOXIDE AND
WATER.
- OCCURS IN UNICELLULAR ALGAE
AND IN PHOTOSYNTHESIZING
BACTERIA SUCH AS
CYANOBACTERIA AND GREEN
AND PURPLE SULFUR BACTERIA
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND ENERGY
- EVERY ACTIVITY TAKING PLACE
IN MICROBIAL CELLS INVOLVES
BOTH A SHIFT OF ENERGY AND A
MEASURABLE LOSS OF ENERGY.
- MORE ENERGY MUST BE TAKEN
INTO THE SYSTEM THAN IS
NECESSARY TO SIMPLY CARRY
OUT
- MOST CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
NEITHER COMBINE WITH
ANOTHER NOR BREAK APART
AUTOMATICALLY
- A SPARK CALLED THE ENERGY
OF ACTIVATION IS NEEDED
- THE ACTIVATION ENERGY
NEEDED TO SPARK AN
EXERGONIC REACTION (ENERGY-
YIELDING) OR ENDERGONIC
REACTION (ENERGY- REQUIRING)
CAN BE HEAT ENERGY OR
CHEMICAL ENERGY
- CATALYSTS ARE SUBSTANCES
THAT SPEED UP CHEMICAL
REACTIONS BUT REMAIN
UNCHANGED DURING THE
REACTIONS.
- CATALYSYTS ARE ENZYMES IN
MICROORGANISMS
IV. GROWTH REQUIREMENTS FOR
MICROORGANISM
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS
 CARBON – CAN BE OBTAINED FROM
ORGANIC MATERIALS IN THE
ENVIRONMENT, OR IT MAY BE
DERIVED FROM CARBON DIOXIDE.
- AUTOTROPHS (LITHOTROPHS)
– MICROORGANISM THAT
UTILIZE INORGANIC
COMPOUNDS AND INORGANIC
SALTS AS THEIR SOLE
CARBON SOURCE.
- HETEROTROPHS
(ORGANOTROPHS) –
ORGANISMS THAT MAKE USE
OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES
LIKE SUGARS OR GLUCOSE AS
THEIR CARBON SOURCE.
- PHOTOORGANOTROPHS –
USES LIGHT
- PHOTOLITHOTROPHS - USES
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- CHEMOORGANOTROPHS –
OXIDATION OF INORGANIC
SUBSTANCE
- CHEMOLITHOTROPHS - USES
CHEMICAL REACTION
 NITROGEN, SULFUR, PHOSPHORUS
- NITROGEN – USED FOR THE
SYNTHESIS OF PROTEIN,
AMINO ACIDS, DNA, AND RNA
NITROGEN –FIXING BACTERIA
– A BACTERIA THAT OBTAIN
NITROGEN DIRECTLY FROM
THE ATMOSPHERE.
- NITROGEN- 14% OF DRY
WEIGHT OF A BACTERIA CELL
- SULFUR AND PHOSPHORUS –
APPROXIMATELY 4%
- PHOSPHORUSIS – AN
ESSENTIAL ELEMENT FOR
NUCLEIC ACID SYNTHESIS
AND FOR THE CONSTRUCTION
OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
 INORGANIC IONS
- MAGNESIUM – STABILIZES
RIBOSOMES, CELL
MEMBRANES, AND NUCLEIC
ACIDS
- POTASSIUM – REQUIRED FOR
THE NORMAL FUNCTIONING
AND INTEGRITY OF
RIBOSOMES AND
PARTICIPATES IN CERTAIN
 ENZYMATIC ACTIVITIES OF
THE CELL.
- CALCIUM – IMPORTANT
COMPONENT OF GRAM-
POSITIVE BACTERIAL CELL
WALL AND TO THE
RESISTANCE OF BACTERIAL
ENDOSPORES AGAINST
ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS.
- IRON – A COMPONENT OF THE
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
AND FUNCTIONS AS A CO-
FACTOR FOR ENZYMATIC
ACTIVITIES.
- TRACE ELEMENTS
(MANGANESE, ZINC, COPPER,
COBALT) – USE FOR
SYNTHESIS OF ENZYMES
 GROWTH FACTORS
- AMINO ACIDS, PURINES, AND
PYRAMIDINES
- VITAMIN B COMPLEX
 OXYGEN
- USED BY AEROBIC BACTERIA
FOR CELLULAR RESPIRATION.
- AEROBIC – USES OXYGEN
- ANAEROBIC – OXYGEN- FREE
ENVIRONMENT
- OBLIGATE ANAEROBES –
CANNOT SURVIVE IN THE
PRESENCE OF OXYGEN
- MICROAEROPHILIC – GROW IN
LOW CONCENTRATIONS OF
OXYGEN
- CAPNOPHILIC –
ENVIRONMENT RICH IN
CARBON DIOXIDE
– MODERATE TEMPERATURES;
20˚C TO 40˚C
 THERMOPHILIC ORGANISMS
(THERMOPHILES)
– PREFER HIGHER
TEMPERATURES; 40˚C ABOVE
 OPTIMUM GROWTH
– BEST GROWTH OCCUR
 ACIDITY OR ALKALINITY (pH)
 ACIDOPHILES ( pH < 5.0 )
- GROW AT A LOW PH
- LACTOBACILLUS SP, FUNGI,
MOLDS, YEAST
 NEUTROPHILES ( pH 6.0 – 8.0 )
- GROW AT A NEUTRAL pH
- MOST HUMAN PATHOGENS
 ALKALOPHILES ( pH 8.5 – 10.5 )
- GROW AT A HIGH pH OR
HIGH SALT CONCENTRATION
 OSMOTIC CONDITION
 HALOPHILIC
- ORGANISMS THAT CAN
TOLERATE SALTY
ENVIRONMENT
- REQUIRES HIGH SALT
CONCENTRATION
 HALODURIC ORGANISM
- ORGANISMS THAT DON’T
PREFER TO LIVE IN SALTY
ENVIRONMENT BUT ARE
CAPABLE OF SURVIVING
 OSMOPHILES
- REQUIRES HIGH OSMOTIC
PRESSURE
 EXTRACELLULAR SALT
CONCENTRATION INCREASED
- ORGANISM WILL SHRINK OR
DIE

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS SEXUAL VS ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL ASEXUAL
 MOISTURE WATER REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION
-SERVES AS MEDIUM FROM
WHICH BACTERIA ACQUIRE INVOLVES ONLY 1 INVOLVES 2 PARENTS
PARENT
THEIR NUTRIENTS
 TEMPERATURE OFFSPRING OFFSPRING GENETIC
 PSYCHROPHILIC ORGANISMS GENETICALLY MIX OF BOTH PARENTS
(PSYCHROPHILES) – PREFER IDENTICAL TO PARENT
COLD TEMPERATURES; 0˚C TO
20˚C
 MESOPHILIC ORGANISMS INVOLVES REGULAR INVOLVES
BODY CELLS SPECIALIZED SEX
(MESOPHILES)
CELLS
QUICKER TIME PERIOD SLOWER TIME PERIOD
  EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT DOES
NOT CONTAIN SALT
- ORGANISM WILL SWELL OR
RUPTURE
V. MICROBIAL REPRODUCTION
AND GROWTH
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 HAPLOID NUCLEI UNITE TO
FORM A DIPLOID CELL
HAVING TWO SETS OF
CHROMOSOMES
 ADVANTAGE OF MIXING
CHROMOSOMES TO OBTAIN
GENETIC VARIATIONS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 DUPLICATION OF THE
NUCLEUS THROUGH THE
ASEXUAL PROCESS OF
MITOSIS AND A SPLITTING OF
THE CELL IN CYTOKINESIS
 BACTERIA REPRODUCE BY
THE ASEXUAL PROCESS OF
BINARY FISSION
GROWTH CURVE
BACTERIAL GROWTH CURVE ILLUSTRATES
THE PHASES IN THE GROWTH OF THE
POPULAION OF BACTERIA WHEN THEY ARE
GROWN IN A CULTURE OF FIXED VOLUME.
4 PHASES OF GROWTH ARE RECOGNIZED
STAGE 1: LAG PHASE
 THE PERIOD OF ADJUSTMENT FOR THE
BACTERIA IN THE NEW ENVIRONMENT
STAGE 2: LOG/ LOGARITHMIC/ EXPONENTIAL
PHASE
 THIS PERIOD IS CHARACTERIZED BY
RAPID CELL DIVISION, POPULATION
DOUBLES RAPIDLY
STAGE 3: STATIONARY PHASE
 THE RATE OF GROWTH STARTS TO SLOW
DOWN, TOXIC WASTES BEGIN TO
ACCUMULATE, NUTRIENTS STARTS TO
DEPLETE, AND UNFAVORABLE
ENVIRONMENT DEVELOPED. SOME MAY
DIE.
STAGE 4: DEATH
 THE PERIOD OF RAPID CELL DEATH
WHERE THE NUMBER OF DEAD CELLS IS
GREATER THAN THE NUMBER OF LIVING
CELLS.
VI. MICROBIAL GENETICS
 BACTERIAL CONJUGATION
- POSTULATED BY JOSHUA
LEDERBERG AND EDWARD
TATUM IN THE 1940’S
- TWO BACTERIAL CELLS COME
TOGETHER AND MATE SUCH
THAT A GENE TRANSFER
OCCURS BETWEEN THEM.
- SPECIAL PILUS CALLED SEX
PILUS JOINS THE DONOR AND
RECIPIENT DURING THE
TRANSFER.
- COPY OF F-FACTOR PLASMID,
DNA MOST OFTEN
TRANSFERRED
- COPIED TO PRODUCE
DOUBLE-STRANDED DNA FOR
INTEGRATION.
- CERTAIN DONOR STRAINS OF
BACTERIA TRANSFER GENES
WITH HIGH EFFICIENCY.
F’ PLASMID – THE PLASMID
CARRYING THE CHROMOSOMAL
DNA
SEXDUCTION – ACCOUNTS FOR
THE SPREAD OF CERTAIN
BACTERIAL GENES THROUGH
BACTERIAL POPULATION.
 BACTERIAL TRANSFORMATION
- DISCOVERED BY FREDERICK
GRIFFITH IN 1928
- HE DISCOVERED THAT IF HE
MIXED FRAGMENTS OF DEAD
PATHOGENIC
PNEUMONOCCOCI WITH
SPECIMENS OF LIVE
HARMLESS PNEUMONOCOCCI,
THE HARMLESS BACTERIA
TOOK ON GENES OF THE
BACTERIAL FRAGMENTS AND
BECAME PATHOGENIC
 - THE FIRST AMONG
DEMONSTRATING THAT
BACTERIA COULD UNDERGO
GENETIC CHANGES.
- WHEN BACTERIA UNDERGO
LYSIS, THEY RELEASE
CONSIDEREABLE AMOUNTS
OF DNA INTO THE
ENVIRONMENT,
COMPETENT CEL- ONCE CAPABLE
OF TAKING UP THE DNA
COMPETENCE FACTOR- NEEDED
FOR THE TRANSFORMATION
 BACTERIAL TRANSDUCTION
- BACTERIAL VIRUSES ALSO
KNOWN AS
BACTERIOPHAGES, TRANSFER
DNA FRAGMENTS FROM ONE
BACTERIUM TO ANOTHER
BACTERIUM.
- INVOLVED CONTAIN A
STRAND OF DNA ENCLOSED IN
AN OUTER COAT OF PROTEIN
LYTIC CYCLE – HOST BACTERIUM
UNDERGOES LYSIS AND RELEASE
NEW PHAGES
LYSOGENIC CYCLE – THE VIRUS
MAY ATTACH TO THE BACTERIAL
CHROMOSOME AD INTEGRATE
ITS DNA INTO THE BACTERIAL
DNA. – VIRUS DOES NOT
DESTROY BACTERIUM, BUT
REMAINS IN A LYSOGENIC
CONDITION WITH IT.
TEMPERATE PHAGE/PROPHAGE –
THE VIRUS.
 MUTATION
- A PERMANENT ALTERATION
IN THE SEQUENCE OF
NITROGENOUS BASES OF A
DNA MOLECULE.
TYPES OF MUTATION
o POINT MUTATION – INVOLVES A SINGLE
BASE PAIR IN THE DNA MOLECULE
o MISSENSE MUTATION – SHOULD A NEW
AMINO ACID BE SUBSTITUTED IN THE
FINAL PROTEIN
o NONSENSE MUTATION – CERTAIN
MUTATION CHANGE THE GENETIC CODE
AND DESTROY THE INFORMATION IT
CONTAINS
o FRAMESHIFT MUTATION – PAIRS OF
NUCLEOTIDES ARE EITHER ADDED TO
OR DELETED FROM THE DNA
MOLECULE, THE “READING FRAME” IS
SHIFTED
MUTAGENS – PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
AGENTS CAPABLE OF BRINGING ABOUT
MUTATIONS
 CHEMICAL MUTAGENS
– INCLUDES NITROUS ACID
- BASE ANALOG – A CHEMICAL
MUTAGEN THAT RESEMBLES A
NITROGENOUS BASE AND IS
INCORPORATED BY ERROR INTO A
DNA MOLECULE.
 PHYSICAL MUTAGENS
– INCLUDE X RAYS, GAMMA RAYS,
AND ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT –
PHOTOREACTIVATION – A PROCESS
KNOWN WHERE RADIATION
DAMAGE CAN BE REPAIRED BY
CERTAIN BACTERIAL ENZYMES
MUTATION RATE – THE PROBABILITY OF A
MUTATION OCCURRING DURING CELLULAR
DIVISION.
VII. MICROBIAL SYSTEM OF
CLASSIFICATION
- MICROORGANISM ARE
PLACED INTO A SYSTEM OF
CLASSIFICATION
-
 TAXONOMY
- SCIEMCE OF CLASSIFICATION
- TAXON, ALTERNATIVE
EXPRESSION FOR A
CLASSIFICATION CATEGORY
- DISPLAYS THE UNITY AND
DIVESITY AMONG LIVING
THINGS, INCLUDING
MICROORGANISMS.
 CAROLUS LINNAEUS
- ONE OF THE FIRST
TAXONOMISTS IN 1750’S AND
1760’S
 -CLASSIFIED ALL KNOWN
PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF
THAT PERIOD AND SET DOWN
THE RULES FOR
NOMENCLATURE
 SPECIES
- FOR ORGANISMS, A
POPULATION OF INDIVIDUALS
THAT BREED AMONG
THEMSELVES
- FOR MICROORGANISMS, A
GROUP OF ORGANISMS THAT
ARE 70 PERCENT SIMILAR
FROM A BIOCHEMICAL
STANDPOINT.
CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
 GENUS – FORM OF VARIOUS SPECIES
GROUPED TOGETHER
 FAMILY – VARIOUS GENERA ARE THEN
GROUPED BECAUSE OF SIMILARITIES
 VARIOUS FAMILIES ARE PLACED
TOGETHER IN AN ORDER
 SEVERAL CLASSES ARE
CATEGORIZED IN A SINGLE PHYLUM
OR DIVISION
KINGDOM – VARIOUS PHYLA OR DIVISION ARE
PLACED IN THE BROADEST CLASSIFICATION
ENTRY.
 DEVISED BY ROBERT WHITTAKER OF
CORNELL UNIVERSITY IN 1969.
5 KINGDOMS
 MONERA
- PROKARYOTES SUCH AS
BACTERIA AND CYANOBACTERIA
(FORMERLY BLUE-GREEN ALGAE)
 PROTISTA
- INCLUDES PROTOZOA,
UNICELLULAR ALGAE, AND
SLIME MOLDS, ALL OF WHICH
EUKARYOTES AND SINGLE-
CELLED
 FUNGI
- THE MOLDS, MUSHROOMS, AND
YEAST
 ANIMALIA
- ANIMALS
 PLANTAE
- PLANTS
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF MICROORGANISMS
 BACTERIA
- PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS
WHOSE CELLS LACKS OF
NUCLEUS OR NUCLEAR
MEMBRANE
- REPRODUCED BY BINARY
FISSION
- UNIQUE CONSTITUENTS IN THEIR
CELL WALLS AND EXISTS IN
MOST ENVIRONMENT ON EARTH
 FUNGI
- PREFER ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT
AND MOST LIVE AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE UNDER OXYGEN-
RICH CONDITIONS.
- EUKARYOTIC MICROORGANISMS
INCLUDE MULTICELLULAR
MOLDS AND UNICELLULAR
(SINGLE-CELLED) YEAST
- YEAST ARE SLIGHTLY LARGER
THAN BACTERIA AND IS USED IN
ALCOHOL FERMANTATION AND
BREAD MAKING
- MOLDS ARE FILAMENTOUS,
BRANCHED FUNGI THAT USE
SPORES FOR REPRODUCTION
 PROTOZOA ARE EUKARYOTIC,
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS, CAN BE
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO HOW THEY
MOVE,
 SOME USES FLAGELLA,
 OTHERS USE CILIA,
 AND OTHERS USE PSEUDOPODIA.
 CERTAIN SPECIES ARE NON-MOTILE
 EXIST IN AN INFINITE VARIETY OF
SHAPES BECAUSE THEY HAVE NO CELL
WALL
 MANY SPECIES CAUSES HUMAN
DISEASES AS MALARIA, SLEEPING
SICKNESS, DYSENTERY, AND
TOXOPLASMOSIS
 ALGAE MEANS PLANT-LIKE
 VIRUSES
- AN ULTRAMICROSCOPIC BITS OF
GENETIC MATERIAL EITHER DNA
OR RNA ENCLOSED IN A PROTEIN
SHELL AND, SOMETIMES, A
MEMBRANOUS ENVELOPE.
- HAVE NO METABOLISM
 - DIFFICULT TO USE DRUGS TO FOUND IN A GIVEN AREA OF THE BODY
INTERFERE WITH THEIR AT A GIVEN AGE
STRUCTURES OR ACTIVITIES.  TRANSIENT FLORA
- MULTIPLY IN LIVING CELLS - ORGANISMS INHABIT THE SKIN AND
- DESTROY THE CELL IN THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE TEMPORARILY
PROCESS OF REPLICATING FOR HOURS, DAYS, OR WEEKS AND ARE
 NOMENCLATURE OF DERIVED FROM THE ENVIRONMENT.
MICROORGANISMS NORMAL MICROBIOTA OF THE SKIN
- THE SYSTEM FOR NAMING ALL
LIVING THINGS  SKIN IS THE HUMAN BODY’S
- ESTABLISHED BY LINNAEUS LARGEST ORGAN
- ALL ORGANISMS ARE PLACED
ORGANISM REMARKS
INTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM,
STAPHYLOCCOCUS MAJOR SKIN
AND EACH ORGANISM IS GIVEN A EPIDERMIS INHABITANT,
BINOMIAL NAME. COMPRISING
- BINOMIAL NAMES CONSISTS OF APPROXIMATELY
TWO NAMES 90% OF THE
- THE FIRST NAME IS THE GENUS RESIDENT AEROBIC
WHICH THE ORGANISM BELONGS FLORA
- THE SECOND NAME IS A STAPHYLOCCOCUS MOST COMMONLY
MODIFYING ADJECTIVE CALLED AUREUS FOUND IN NOSE AND
SPECIES MODIFIER PERINEUM
MICROCOCCUS ACCOUNTS FOR 20-
- IN WRITING, THE FIRST LETTER
SPECIES 80% OF THE SKIN
OF THE GENUS NAME IS
DIPTHEROIDS -LIPOPHILIC
CAPITALIZED AND THE (CORYNEFORMS) (COMMON IN
REMAINDER OF THE GENUS AXILLA)
NAME AND THE COMPLETE -NON-LIPOPHILIC
SPECIES MODIFIER ARE -ANAEROBIC
WRTITTEN IN LOWERCASE DIPTHEROIDS
LETTERS. (PROPIONIBACTERIU
- EXAMPLE. ESCHERICHIA COLI (E. M ACNES)
coli) PROPIONIBACTERIU
M
CU 2: NORMAL ACINETOBACTER
FLORA OF THE
HUMAN BODY
NORMAL MICROBIOTA OF MOUTH AND UPPER
 HUMAN BODY IS EXPOSED TO RESPIRATORY TRACT
MICROORGANISMS IN THE
 NOSE
ENVIRONMENT
- FLORA OF THE NOSE CONSISTS OF
I. NORMAL FLORA PROMINENT CORYNEBACTERIA,
- CONSISTS OF THE GROUP OF STAPHYLOCOCCI AND
ORGANISMS THAT INHABIT THE BODY STREPTOCOCCI.
OF A NORMAL HEALTHY INDIVIDUAL IN INFANT LABOR
THE COMMUNITY - VAGINALLY DELIVERED INFANTS
HARBOR BACTERIAL COMMUNITIES
2 TYPES OF NORMAL FLORA - C-SECTION LACK BACTERIA FROM
THE VAGINAL COMMUNITY
 RESIDENT FLORA  INFANTS DELIVERED VIA C-
– ORGANISMS THAT ARE RELATIVELY SECTION – HARBOR
FIXED TYPES AND ARE REGULARLY BACTERIAL COMMUNITIES
THAT ARE MOST SIMILAR TO
 THE SKIN COMMUNITIES OF
THE MOTHERS (EG,
STAPHYLOCOCCUS,
CORYNEBACTERIUM)
THE PREDOMINANT ORGANISMS IN THE UPPER
RESPIRATORY TRACT, PARTICULARLY THE
PHARYNX ARE:
 NON-HEMOLYTIC
 A-HEMOLYTIC STREPTOCOCCI
 NEISSERIAE
NORMAL MICROBIOTA OF THE INTESTINAL
TRACT
THE INTESTINAL MICROBIOTA OF
BREASTFEED CHILDREN IS DOMINATED
BY BIFIDOBACTERIA (A GROUP OF
BACTERIA CALLED PROBIOTICS THAT
NORMALLY LIVE IN YOUR INTESTINES AND
STOMACH. THEY HELP YOUR BODY
PERFORM ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS SUCH AS
DIGESTION AND STAVING OFF HARMFUL
BACTERIA.)
IN BOTTLE-FED CHILDREN, A MORE
MIXED FLORA EXISTS IN THE BOWEL, AND
LACTOBACILLI ARE LESS PROMINENT.
AS FOOD HABITS DEVELOP TOWARDS THE
ADULT PATTERN, THE BOWEL FLORA
CHANGES. IN A NORMAL ADULT COLON, 96-
99% OF THE RESIDENT BACTERIAL FLORA
CONSISTS OF ANAEROBES (AN ORGANISM
THAT GROWS WITHOUT AIR, OR REQUIRES
OXYGEN-FREE CONDITIONS TO LIVE.)
SIX MAJOR PHYLA PREDOMINATE ARE;
 BACTEROIDETES
 FIRMICUTES
 ACTINOBACTERIA
 VERRUCOMICROBIOTA
 FUSOBACTERIA
 PROTEOBACTERIA
NORMAL MICROBIOTA OF THE URETHRA
IN THE ANTERIOR URETHRA OF HUMANS;
FOUND FREQUENTLY:
 S. WPIDERMIDIDS
 ENTEROCOCCI
 DIPHTHEROIDS
FOUND OCCASIONALLY: (10 TO 30 PERCENT)
 E. COLI
 PROTEUS
 NEISSERIA
NORMAL MICROBIOTA OF THE VAGINA
 AFTER BIRTH
- AEROBIC LACTOBACILLI APPEAR IN
THE VAGINA AND PERSIST AS LONG
AS THE PH REMAINS ACIDIC
(SEVERAL WEEKS)
- WHEN THE PH BECOMES NEUTRAL, A
MIXED FLORA COCCI AND BACILLI IS
PRESENT.
 A PUBERTY
- AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC
LACTOBACILLI REAPPEAR IN LARGE
NUMBERS.
 AFTER MENOPAUSE
- LACTOBACILLI AGAIN DIMINISH IN
NUMBER, AND A MIXED FLORA
RETURNS.
NORMAL MICROBIOTA OF THE CONJUNCTIVA
 S EPIDERMIDIS
 NONHEMOLYTIC STREPTOCOCCI
 NEISSERIAE
 GRAM-NEGATIVE BACILLI
II. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL ASEPSIS
SEPSIS
- A CLINICAL CONDITION WHERE
INFECTIOUS AGENTS ARE SPREAD
THROUGHOUT THE BODY OF AN
INDIVIDUAL FROM A LOCALIZED
SITE OF INFECTION AND MANIFEST
SYMPTOMS OF ORGAN DAMAGE.
ASEPSIS
- THE ABSENCE OF A DISEASE-
PRODUCTIONING ORGANISMS AND IS
DIVIDED INTO A MEDIAL ASEPSIS
AND SURGICAL ASEPSIS.
MEDICAL ASEPSIS
- AIMED AT REDUCING THE NUMBER
OF A DISEASE-PRODUCING
ORGANISMS TO PREVENT ITS
SPREAD FROM HEALTHCARE
WORKERS TO THE PATIENTS AND
VICE VERSA
SURGICAL ASEPSIS
- AIMED AT THE TOTAL
ELIMINATION OF DISEASE-
PRODUCING ORGANISMS TO
PREVENT ITS SPREAD FROM
HEALTHCARE WORKERS TO THE
PATIENTS AND VICE VERSA
SOLUTIONS TO PREVENT THE SPREAD OF
INFECTIONS:
 HANDWASHING
 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
(PPE)
 UNIVERSAL PRECAUTIONS
 TRANSMISSION-BASED PRECAUTIONS
 EDUCATE THE PUBLIC
 THE CENTER FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND
PREVENTION ISOLATION GUIDELINES
TIER ONE: STANDARD PRECAUTIONS FOR USE
WITH ALL PATIENTS
TIER TWO: TRANSMISSION-BASED
PRECAUTIONS FOR USE WITH SPECIFIC TYPES
OF PATIENTS.