Ecology, Ecosystem Analysis and Field Ecology - 2020

Types of Bio-geo chemical cycles

Roshan Panigrahi

Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture Vijayawada

Index
1: Introduction........................................................................................................................................

2: Ecological systems.............................................................................................................................

2.1: Reservoirs........................................................................................................................................

3: Types of Biogeochemical Cycles.......................................................................................................

3.1: Carbon cycle....................................................................................................................................

3.2: Nitrogen cycle.................................................................................................................................

3.3: Oxygen cycle...................................................................................................................................

3.4: Water Cycle.....................................................................................................................................

3.5: Phosphorus Cycle.............................................................................................................................

3.6: Sulphur Cycle..................................................................................................................................

4: Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................

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1: Introduction:
In ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover or cycling of substances is a pathway by which a
chemical substance moves through biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth.
There are biogeochemical cycles for the chemical elements calcium, carbon, hydrogen, mercury, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,
selenium, and sulfur; molecular cycles for water and silica; macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle; as well as human-induced
cycles for synthetic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance
remains for a long period of time.
2: Ecological systems:
Ecological systems have many biogeochemical cycles operating as a part of the system, for example the water cycle, the carbon cycle,
the nitrogen cycle, etc. All chemical elements occurring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles. In addition to being a part of
living organisms, these chemical elements also cycle through abiotic factors of ecosystems such as water (hydrosphere), land
(lithosphere), and/or the air (atmosphere).
The living factors of the planet can be referred to collectively as the biosphere. All the nutrients
as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—used in ecosystems by living organisms are a part of a closed system; therefore,
these chemicals are recycled instead of being lost and replenished constantly such as in an open system.
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is an open system; the sun constantly gives the planet energy in the form of light while it is
eventually used and lost in the form of heat throughout the trophic levels of a food web. Carbon is used to make carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins, the major sources of food energy. These compounds are oxidized to release carbon dioxide, which can be captured by
plants to make organic compounds. The chemical reaction is powered by the light energy of the sun.
Sunlight is required to combine carbon with hydrogen and oxygen into an energy source, but ecosystems in the deep sea, where no
sunlight can penetrate, obtain energy from sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide near hydrothermal vents can be utilized by organisms such as
the giant tube worm. In the sulfur cycle, sulfur can be forever recycled as a source of energy. Energy can be released through
the oxidation and reduction of sulfur compounds (e.g., oxidizing elemental sulfur to sulfite and then to sulfate).
2.1: Reservoirs:
The chemicals are sometimes held for long periods of time in one place. This place is called a reservoir, which, for example, includes
such things as coal deposits that are storing carbon for a long period of time. When chemicals are held for only short periods of time,
they are being held in exchange pools. Examples of exchange pools include plants and animals.
Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium. Generally,
reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals
in comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place is called its residence time.
3: Types of Biogeochemical Cycles:
Broadly, the biogeochemical cycles can be divided into two types, the gaseous biogeochemical cycle and sedimentary biogeochemical
cycle based on the reservoir. Each reservoir in a nutrient cycle consists of an abiotic portion and an exchange pool, where there is a
rapid exchange that occurs between the biotic and abiotic aspects.
Gaseous Biogeochemical Cycle
Gaseous cycles include those of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and water. Gaseous cycles tend to move more rapidly than do sedimentary
ones and to adjust more readily to changes in the biosphere because of the large atmospheric reservoir. Local accumulations of carbon
dioxide, for example, are soon dissipated by winds or taken up by plants. Extraordinary disturbances such as global warming and
more-frequent local disturbances such as wildfires and storm-driven events can, however, seriously affect the capacity for self-
adjustment.
Sedimentary biogeochemical cycle
Sedimentary cycles include those of iron, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, and other more-earthbound elements. Sedimentary cycles vary
from one element to another, but each cycle consists fundamentally of a solution (or water-related) phase and a rock (or sediment)
phase. In the solution phase, weathering releases minerals from Earth’s crust in the form of salts, some of which dissolve in water,
pass through a series of organisms, and ultimately reach the deep seas, where they settle out of circulation indefinitely. In the rock
phase, other salts deposit out as sediment and rock in shallow seas, eventually to be weathered and recycled.
The most well-known and important biogeochemical cycles are
 Carbon cycle
 Nitrogen cycle
 Oxygen cycle
 Water cycle
 Phosphorus cycle
 Sulfur cycle

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3.1: Carbon cycle:

Definition - Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged among the biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.
Carbon Cycle Steps - Following are the major steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle:
1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis
2. These plants are then consumed by animals, and carbon gets bio accumulated into their bodies
3. These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing, carbon is released back into the atmosphere
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually become fossil fuels
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pumps more carbon back into the atmosphere

Carbon Cycle on Land - Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon enters the atmosphere
through natural processes such as respiration and industrial applications such as burning fossil fuels. The process of photosynthesis
involves the absorption of CO2 by plants to produce carbohydrates. Carbon compounds are passed along the food chain from the
producers to consumers. The majority of the carbon exists in the body in the form of carbon dioxide through respiration. The role of
decomposers is to eat the dead organism and return the carbon from their body back into the atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle on Ocean - Ecologically, oceans take in more carbon than it gives out. Hence, it is called a “carbon sink.”
Marine animals convert carbon to calcium carbonate and these forms the raw building materials required to create hard shells, similar
to the ones found in clams and oysters.
When organisms with calcium carbonate shells die, their body decomposes, leaving behind their hard shells. These accumulate on the
seafloor and are eventually broken down by the waves and compacted under enormous pressure, forming limestone. When these
limestone rocks are exposed to air, they get weathered and the carbon is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

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3.2: Nitrogen cycle:

Definition - Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert nitrogen present in the atmosphere to a more
usable form for living organisms. Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many forms,
consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle Stages - Process of Nitrogen Cycle consists of the following steps – Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification,
Assimilation, Ammonification, and Denitrification. These processes take place in several stages and are explained below:
Nitrogen fixation - It is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle. Here, Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) which is primarily available in an inert
form is converted into the usable form -ammonia (NH3). During the process of Nitrogen fixation, the inert form of nitrogen gas is
deposited into soils from the atmosphere and surface waters, mainly through precipitation. Later, the nitrogen undergoes a set of
changes (by symbiotic bacteria), in which two nitrogen atoms get separated and combines with hydrogen to form ammonia (NH4+).
Nitrification - In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in the soil. Nitrites are formed by the
oxidation of Ammonia with the help of Nitrosomonas bacterium species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into nitrates by
Nitrobacter. This conversion is very important as ammonia gas is toxic for plants.
Assimilation - Primary producers plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with the help of their roots, which are available
in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins.
Ammonification - When plants or animal die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released back into the soil. The
decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil, convert the organic matter back into ammonium.
Denitrification - Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds makes its way back into the atmosphere by
converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). This process of the nitrogen cycle is the final stage and occurs in the absence of
oxygen. Denitrification is carried out by the denitrifying bacte rial species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas, which will process nitrate
to gain oxygen and gives out free nitrogen gas as a by product.

Nitrogen Cycle in Marine Ecosystem - The process of the nitrogen cycle occurs in the same manner in the marine
ecosystem as in the terrestrial ecosystem. The only difference is that it is carried out by marine bacteria. The nitrogen-containing
compounds that fall into the ocean as sediments get compressed over long periods and form sedimentary rock. Due to the geological
uplift, these sedimentary rocks move to land. Initially, it was not known that these nitrogen-containing sedimentary rocks are an
essential source of nitrogen. But, recent researches have proved that the nitrogen from these rocks is released into the plants due to the
weathering of rocks.

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3.3: Oxygen cycle:

Definition - The
he process by which oxygen released into the atmosphere by photosynthetic organisms is taken up by aerobic
organisms while the carbon dioxide released as a by
by-product
product of respiration is taken up for photosynthesis. This biogeochemical cycle
explains the movement of oxygen gas within the atmosphere, the ecosystem, biosphere and the lithosphere. The oxygen cycle is
interconnected with the carbon cycle.
Oxygen Cycle Stages - The steps involved in the oxygen cycle are:
Stage-1- Photosynthesis:: All green plants during the process of photosynthesis, release oxygen back into the atmosphere as a by-
product.
Stage-2- Respiration:: All aerobic organisms use free oxygen for respiration.
Stage-3-Repeat:: Animals exhale Carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere which is again used by the plants during photosynthesis.
Now oxygen is balanced within the atmosphere.

The oxygen cycle describes the various forms in which oxygen is found and how it moves through different reservoirs on Earth. There
are three major reservoirs of oxygen: the atmosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere. Some peo
people
ple also consider the hydrosphere, a
subdivision of the biosphere, to be the fourth reservoir.

3.4: Water Cycle:

Definition - The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, describes the continuous movement of
water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. During this process, water changes its state from one phase to another, but the tot
total
number of water particles remains the same.
Water Cycle Stages - Water changes its state through a variety of processes from eva
evaporation,
poration, melting and freezing, to sublimation,
condensation, and deposition. There are many processes involved in the movement of water. Listed below are different stages of the
water cycle.
Evaporation - Evaporation generally happens when water molecules at the surface of water bodies become excited and rise into the air.
These molecules with the highest kinetic energy accumulate into water vapour clouds. Another process called evapo
evapo-transpiration occurs
when evaporation occurs through the leaves of plant
plants.
s. This process contributes to a large percentage of water in the atmosphere.
Sublimation - Sublimation occurs when snow or ice changes directly into water vapour without becoming water. Sublimation can be
observed on mountain peaks, where the air pressure is quite low. The low air pressure helps to sublimate the snow into water vapour as
less energy is utilised in the process.
Condensation - The water vapour that accumulated in the atmosphere eventually cools down due to the low temperatures found at high
altitudes. These vapours become tiny droplets of water and ice, eventually coming together to form clouds.

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Precipitation - Above 0 degrees centigrade, the vapours will condense into water droplets. When enough droplets merge, it falls out of
the clouds and on to the ground below. This process is called precipitation (or rainfall). In particularly cold weather or extremely low air
pressure, the water droplets freeze and fall as snow or hail.
Infiltration - Rainwater gets absorbed into the ground through the process of infiltration. Groundwater can either follows streams or
rivers. But sometimes, it might just sink deeper, forming aquifers.
Runoff - If the water from rainfall does not form aquifers, it follows gravity, often flowing down the sides of mountains and hills;
eventually forming rivers. This process is called runoff. In colder regions, icecaps form when the amount of snowfall is faster than the
rate of evaporation or sublimation.

3.5: Phosphorus Cycle:

Definition - Phosphorus cycle is a biogeochemical process that involves the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere. Phosphorus cycle is a very slow process. Various weather processes help to wash the phosphorus present
in the rocks into the soil. Phosphorus is absorbed by the organic matter in the soil which is used for various biological processes.
Phosphorus Cycle Steps - Since phosphorus and phosphorus-containing compounds are present only on land, atmosphere plays
no significant role in the phosphorus cycle. Following are the important steps of phosphorus cycle.
Weathering - Phosphorus is found in the rocks in abundance. The phosphate salts are broken down from the rocks. These salts are
washed away into the ground where they mix in the soil.
Absorption by Plants - The phosphate salts dissolved in water are absorbed by the plants. That is why the farmers apply phosphate
fertilizers on agricultural land. The aquatic plants absorb inorganic phosphorus from lower layers of water bodies. Since phosphate
salts do not dissolve in water properly, they affect plant growth in aquatic ecosystems.
Absorption by Animals - The animals absorb phosphorus from the plants or by consuming plant-eating animals. The rate of the
phosphorus cycle is faster in plants and animals when compared to rocks.
Return of Phosphorus Back to the Ecosystem - When the plants and animals die they are decomposed by microorganisms During
this process, the organic form of phosphorus is converted into the inorganic form, which is recycled to soil and water. Soil and water
will end up in sediments and rocks, which will again release phosphorus by weathering. Thus, the phosphorus cycle starts over.
Human Impact on Phosphorus Cycle - A number of human activities, use of fertilizers, artificial eutrophication, etc. has a
great impact on the phosphorus cycle. The phosphorus fertilizers increase the level of phosphorus in the soil. Overuse of these
fertilizers reduces the fertility of the soil and is also harmful to the microorganisms present in the soil. When these are washed away
into the nearby water bodies, they are hazardous to aquatic life.

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3.6: Sulphur Cycle:

Definition - Circulation of sulfur in various forms through nature. Sulfur occurs in all living matter as a component of certain
amino acids. It is abundant in the soil in proteins and, through a series of microbial transformations, ends up as sulfates usable by
plants. Sulphur is one of the most abundant elements on the earth. It is a yellow, brittle, tasteless, odourless non-metal. Sulphur is
present in all kinds of proteins. Plants directly absorb sulphur-containing amino acids such as methionine, cystine, and cysteine.

Sulphur is released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels, volcanic activities, and decomposition of organic molecules.
On land, sulphur is stored in underground rocks and minerals. It is released by precipitation, weathering of rocks and geothermal
vents.
The process - The sulphur is released by the weathering of rocks. Sulphur comes in contact with air and is converted into
sulphates. Sulphates are taken up by plants and microbes and are converted into organic forms. The organic form of sulphur is then
consumed by the animals through their food and thus sulphur moves in the food chain. When the animals die some of the sulphur is
released by decomposition while some enter the tissues of microbes.
There are several natural sources such as volcanic eruptions, evaporation of water, and breakdown of organic matter in swamps, that
release sulphur directly into the atmosphere. This sulphur fall on earth with rainfall.
Sulphur Cycle Steps -
Decomposition of Organic Compounds - Protein degradation releases amino acids that contain sulphur. Sulphates are reduced to
H2S by the action of Desulfotomaculum bacteria.
Oxidation of Hydrogen Sulphide to Elemental Sulphur - Hydrogen sulphide oxidises to produce elemental sulphur. Certain
photosynthetic bacteria from the families Chlorobiaceae and Chromatiaceae initiate the oxidation process.
Oxidation of Elemental Sulphur - Elemental sulphur present in the soil cannot be utilized directly by the plants. Therefore, it is
converted into sulphates by chemolithotrophic bacteria.
Reduction of Sulphates - Sulphates are reduced to hydrogen sulphide by Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. This occurs in two steps:

 Firstly, the sulphates are converted to sulphites utilizing ATP.

 Secondly, the reduction of sulphite to hydrogen sulphide.

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4: Conclusion:
This can be conclude that Biogeochemical cycles are important because they regulate the elements necessary for life on Earth by
cycling them through the biological and physical aspects of the world. Biogeochemical cycles are a form of natural recycling that
allows the continuous survival of ecosystems.
Repetition of the cycles is important. Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, making the air breathable. Plants also acquire
nutrients from sediment. Animals acquire nutrients from plants and other animals, and the death of plants and animals returns these
nutrients to the sediment as they decay. The cycle then repeats and allows other living things to benefit.
We will go briefly, how these biogeochemical cycles are affecting the environment and ecology-
The water cycle has a tremendous impact on the climate. For instance, the greenhouse effect will cause a rise in temperature. Without
the evaporative cooling effect of the water cycle, the temperature on earth would rise drastically. The water cycle is also an integral
part of other biogeochemical cycles.
Oxygen is an important element required for life, however, it can be toxic to some anaerobic bacteria (especially obligate anaerobes).
The oxygen cycle is mainly involved in maintaining the level of oxygen in the atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle is an important aspect of the survival of all life on earth. From an environmental perspective, carbon provides insulation
by trapping the sun’s heat. From a biological perspective, carbon is the building block of life and forms stable bonds with other
elements necessary for life.
Nitrogen constitutes many cellular components and is essential in many biological processes. For instance, the amino acids contain
nitrogen and form building blocks that make up various components of the human body such as hair, tissues and muscles. Plants need
nitrogen as this element is an important component of chlorophyll. Consequently, chlorophyll is vital for the process of
photosynthesis, so lack of nitrogen can cause deficiency disorders, stunted growth and other abnormalities.
Phosphorus is a key component of \text{DNA}DNA start text, D, N, A, end text and \text{RNA}RNA start text, R, N, A, end text and
is one of the main ingredients along with nitrogen in artificial fertilizers used in agriculture. See phosphorus cycle article for more
info.
Sulfur is key to protein structure and is released to the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels.

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References
[1] Lei Chou, Fred T. Mackenzie (1993) Interactions of C, N, P and S Biogeochemical Cycles and Global Change, : Springer.
[2] Katerina Dontsova, Zsuzsanna Balogh-Brunstad, Gaël Le Roux (2020) Biogeochemical Cycles: Ecological Drivers and
Environmental Impact Butcher, “Global biogeochemical cycles”
[3] Jerry M. Melillo, Christopher B. Field, Bedřich Moldan (2003) Bedřich Moldan, Interactions of the Major Biogeochemical
Cycles: Global Change and Human Impacts,
[4] O. Huteinger (1980) The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical Cycles
[5] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2016, June 16). Biogeochemical cycle. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/biogeochemical-cycle
[6] Intro to biogeochemical cycles (article). (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/biogeochemical-cycles/a/introduction-to-biogeochemical-cycles
[7] Admin. (2019, October 23). Biogeochemical Cycles - A Detailed Overview. Retrieved from
https://byjus.com/biology/biogeochemical-cycles/

Authors
Correspondence Author – Roshan panigrahi
Email address – theroshanmail@gmail.com
Contact number – 9040650406, 8249849040

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