01.3 ENSTP - 2019 General Overview

Road Infrastructures Design
L1.3 – General overview
ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

DES TRAVAUX PUBLICS
Davide Dalmazzo, PhD
UNIVERSITY OF PADUA
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT, LAND AND DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ARCHITECTURAL AND
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Highway construction project
Phases of design and construction of road infrastructures
Planning
• Pre-feasibility study
• Feasibility study
Design
• Preliminary design
• Final design
• Executive design
Construction
• Award of contract (bid process, enterprise competition, works
adjudication and delivery)
• Execution of works
• Measurements and accounting
Final acceptance
L1.3 - General overview 2
Road authorities are normally the owners and operators of road networks.
If capacity- or safety-related problems in the network are identified, a study need to be
carried out (pre-feasibility study) to quantify the problem and identify potential
improvements.
• simple solutions (additional road markings, pavement reconstruction, improve
public transport)
• complex solutions (the construction of a complex urban motorway)

The need for a major road must be justified by the transport planning process (the
process of regulating and controlling the provision of transport to meet the needs
generated by people at the lowest social cost).
If the road-base solution (new construction or reconstruction) is considered the optimal
one the client authority request that a feasibility study be carried out.
Best solutions are put to the public (transportation and planning authorities, public
bodies, …) for their consideration.
Considered the response of the public the client authority takes the preferred solution,
and this is published.

A designer (public or private body) is commissioned to prepare a preliminary design
of the proposed road based on preliminary topographical and geotechnical surveys
(contours of the land and soil composition along the feasible alignments).
Options that are too costly or too difficult to build are discarded.
Assessment of impacts on side roads and accesses and the need for land purchasing
need to be considered at this stage also.

The preliminary design is used to obtain planning permission after publication to
allow interested parties (people who do not whish the road) to register their objections.
If the objections cannot be met a Public Inquiry may be needed.
Once a road proposal has gained planning permission the preparation of the final
design can begin.
A greater level of detailed information are required and the detailed design of bridges
and other structures, the drainage and the road pavement design are made.

The plan show the centerline with all the geometrical information and the limits of the
right-of-way and all important features on it, such as fences, buildings, streams,
railroads, and other structures.
Points along a highway route are identified by stations.

One station is equivalent to:
- 1 km (under the metric system) 6 + 375.218 → 6375.218 m
- 100 ft (under the system of conventional U.S. units) 32 + 00.00 → 3200.00 ft

The profile (horizontal scale same as for
the plan, vertical scale distorted) show
the profile of the existing ground line and
the profile of the proposed centerline
with tangents and vertical curves.
All existing drainage structures are
shown on the plan and profile views.
To complete the final plans:

1. Plotting the cross sections
2. Computing earthwork quantities
3. Preparing construction details for
bridges, culverts, guardrails, and
other items
4. Preparing summaries and estimates
of quantities
5. Preparing specifications for the
materials and methods of
construction
New construction
In the establishment of new highways (or in the relocation or reconstruction of new
ones), surveys are necessary for the development of project plans and the estimation of
costs.
Alternative alignments are compared for suitability in terms of design capacity,
safety, road user costs, construction costs, maintenance costs, effects of the roadways
on the environment. A preliminary alignment is chosen.
The design of the final alignment is a trial-and-error process by which the most
suitable alignment is obtained. The final alignment, composed by tangent lengths,
transition spirals, and simple and compound curves, is satisfactory in terms of grade,
curvature, cross sections, drainage, and stream crossings.
In the final location survey the alignment is materialized on the field by direct
chaining.
New construction
The selection of the route location is a hierarchically structured decision process to
find the best alignment that meets traffic desire lines at an economical cost.
Location process:
1. Fix the end termini and define a region (A) that
include all feasible routes between these two
points.
2. Identify broad bands (B and C) using
reconnaissance techniques
3. Refined searches in broad bands to select
corridors (D, E and F)
4. Choose the best corridor by comparison (E) and
generate the route (G) within it by creating one or
more alignments
5. Select by comparison the most suitable
alignment for structural design and construction
purposes.

New construction
Decisions are based on:
Tangible considerations that include
topographic, soil and geological survey data, land
usages, population distribution, travel demand,
road user costs, construction and maintenance
costs, safety factors.
Intangible considerations are non-engineering
issues of a political, social and environmental
nature which require public consultation
A desk study of the area consists in collecting all

the available data.

Reconstruction
Roadways are re-built primarily along the existing alignment within the same
general right-of-way corridor.
Reconstruction normally involves:
• full-depth pavement replacement,
• new lanes adjacent to an existing alignment,
• roadway conversion (e.g., a two-lane highway to a multi-lane divided arterial),
• reconfiguration of intersections and interchanges.
Reconstruction may also include substantial alignment changes to an older highway
to eliminate safety and accident problems.
EXAMPLE: The Eton Range Realignment Project

in Australia will upgrade the existing road
infrastructure to provide a split carriage way, with
two lanes in each direction.
The new alignment will have a reduction in grade to
improve safety for heavy vehicles, and other
measures to help control approach and departure
speeds.
Bid process
Practically all highway construction projects are public works (public funds) done by
contract.
The authorizing authority may be a state, municipal or county governmental unit.
Under the contract system, plans and specifications are prepared and are submitted for
competitive bids (tendering process) usually on a unit price basis.
In the unit price system, the number of units of each type of work and the price for
each unit are defined. Based on the plans an estimate of the quantities is done, but the
system allows adjustments during construction. The units are described in the
specifications. Some piece of work are done on a lump-sum basis or on a force-
account basis.

Contractual documents
The advertisement or invitation for bids is a written notice on newspaper or magazine
to inform that bids are requested for a certain type of work with the information needed
by the prospective bidder (a brief description of the work; the instructions to bidders).
Contractors prepare their estimates and make a proper bid in the form of a proposal.
The proposal state:
• all the items of work and the quantities with prices
• that the bidder agrees to do the work as detailed in the plans and specifications
• that the bidder agrees to do the work in the time proposed (programme of work).
A Bid Board is established to open the sealed proposals and ranking the bidders based
on guidelines. The client authority take the decision regarding the awarding of the
contract.
Contractual documents
The client award the contract to the successful bidder (the contractor).
The contract or agreement includes:
• the name of the parties, their legal residence and the date of execution of the
agreement
• the description of the work to be done with quantities and prices with reference to
the plans, specifications and proposal (executive project)
• the starting date and the time for completion
• signatures
Plans are approved drawings pertaining to the work covered by the contract.
Specifications are the written instructions that supplement the plans and cover the
quality of materials, workmanship and other technical data.
The contractor may sublet a part of the work contracted for by means of subcontract.
Usually the subcontractor need to be approved by the authorizing agency.
Right-of-way agreements are contracts between the client authority and a property
owner to obtain the land needed for highway construction purpose.
Executive project
The executive project represents the engineering of all the interventions envisaged in
the previous design phases in every detail, representing the technically more defined
phase of the entire design process and consists of the following elements:
• General report
• Specialty reports
• Drawings (including structures, utilities, environmental remediation)
• Calculations for structures and utilities
• Maintenance plan
• Safety and coordination plans
• Bill of quantities and economic evaluation
• Timetable
• Unit prices and related analyses
• Technical Specifications
Links infrastructure design to its construction

Supervision of construction
The supervision of the work made by the contractor is under the responsibility of the
Project Engineer (or Resident Engineer) employed by the Client Authority and
assisted by a number of trained persons (surveyors, inspectors, engineers and others)
depending on the project size and complexity.
PE duties:
• to see that all phases of the work are carried out in accordance with plans and
specifications.
• to prepare reports required by the Road Agency to prepare estimates for payments
• inspection or testing of all materials used in the project
• to finally agree that the work has been carried out in an acceptable manner

FROM DESIGN ….
LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
TRANSVERSE SECTION

EMBANKMENT
CUT SECTION
… TO CONSTRUCTION
PAVEMENT
Specifications for roadworks
Specifications are the part of the contract that deals with how the road is
to be constructed.
Typical structure (Italian case):
Part 1 – Description of works and contractual aspects
Part 2 – Technical specifications
Part 3 – Measurement and control
Part 4 – Unit prices
Agencies usually have General Specifications which can be adapted to

specific projects.

Technical specifications
Characterization and
qualification of component materials
Construction and
placement of materials
Control during construction and

on completed works (QC/QA)
Reference to relevant standards, advice notes or codes of practice.

There are two main ways of specifying work in order to achieve the desired
result.
Method specifications (prescriptive)
Based on knowledge of positive outcome of previous works, similar in terms
of type and service conditions.
They refer to all phases of construction and include acceptance of materials,
production of mixtures, equipment, construction methods.
The Contractor is guided rigidly from materials’ selection to field placement.
Performance-based specification (end-product)

They refer to final performance of the infrastructure.
Performance is associated to control parameters that do not depend upon
employed materials and construction techniques (global control).
In order to be effective, performance-based Specifications need to be based
on fully reliable parameters, clearly linked to performance.

➢ PRESCRIPTIVE vs PERFORMANCE-BASED
Performance-based specifications have the

advantage/disadvantage of reducing the work of the
Project Engineer (no need of continuous testing) and in
giving the Contractor freedom in defining the most
profitable working strategies.
Performance evaluation eliminates the risk of litigations

during construction due to the different interpretation of
prescriptive Specifications.
Best option: ”hybrid” approach.

➢ PRESCRIPTIVE vs PERFORMANCE-BASED
Performance-based specifications require the use of

parameters which derive from advanced investigation
techniques (e.g. simulative full-scale testing,
mechanistically-based laboratory tests).
Mechanistically-based Full-scale field testing Full-scale field testing

laboratory tests (FWD, structural) (SCRIM, functional)

Quality control of materials and construction
Construction works are performed with the goal of building an infrastructure of
high quality
• Materials
• Works
QUALITY: Degree to which a set of inherent characteristics of a product, system
or process fulfills a set of requirements (specifications).
Quality Control (QC) - measurement and verification of the quality of a given
product or process. (Generally carried out by the producer/contractor)
Quality Assurance (QA) - system of scheduled activities carried out by a third
party to verify the QC process (Generally carried out by the Owner or by delegated
party)
− Which requirements? (characterization methods)

− How to verify requirements? (qualification regime)
− When are the requirements satisfied? (acceptance criteria)

Quality control of materials or construction works is made on small samples.

Interpreting the test results is very complex due to their high variability, but
the science of statistic can help to understand.
Total variability is the sum of several components
• Sampling (random variability linked to the procedures for selection
• Experimental tests (random variability linked to laboratory procedures)
• Materials/Construction (natural variability of the characteristics of
materials and production/placement operations)
S2QC/QA = S2c + S2l + S2m/c
Variability = sampling + laboratory + material/construction

Variability of characteristics of materials and works

The goal is to eliminate variability sources caused by sampling and experimental tests as to
evaluate only variability associated to materials and construction
S2QC/AC = S2c + S2l + S2m/c
S2QC/AC = S2m/c
Cannot be eliminated but can be

controlled/limited by means of reliable
procedures and methods

SAMPLING CRITERIA
Determination of a given characteristic referred to a quantity of product (lot) should
be performed on a limited number of samples
REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
ENTIRE LOT
SAMPLING PROGRAM
• Test frequency
• Location of samples
• Size of samples

STATISTICAL PARAMETERS
Mean Coefficient of variation
Sum of values divided by number of values Defines the degree of variability of
𝑛
1 measurements < 2% = very low variability
𝑋ത = ෍ 𝑋𝑖 𝜎 2 – 5% = low variability
𝑛 𝐶𝑉 = ⋅ 100
_ 5 – 10% = moderate variability
𝑖=1 𝑋 10 – 20% = high variability
> 20% = very high variability
Variation range X ± 3s
Difference between maximum and minimum

X ± 2s
value
R = XMAX – X MIN X ± 1s
Variance and standard deviation

Provides a measure of dispersion of values
_ 2
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 −𝑋
𝑆2 = 𝜎 = 𝑆2
𝑛−1

CONTROL CHARTS
Statistical tool for the verification of the correct functioning of a given system (whether it is «in
control» or not).
It can be considered as a sequence of normal distribution curves (vertical axis) as a function of
tested samples (in individual lots)
1. Target value (specification)

𝑋ത
Average of n measurements
2. Upper Warning Control Limit

UWCL = 𝑋ത + ( 2 (σ) / n1/2 )
3. Lower Warning Control Limit

LWCL = 𝑋ത - ( 2 (σ) / n1/2 )
4. Upper Action Control Limit

UCL = 𝑋ത + ( 3 (σ) / n1/2 )
5. Lower Action Control Limit

Lot number LCL = 𝑋ത - ( 3 (σ) / n1/2 )
30
L1.3 - General overview
GOAL OF CONTROL CHARTS

Distinguish random variability from systematic variability (due to a specific problem,
can be eliminated)
There is a problem (the system is not under control any more) when:
• 𝑋ത varies, R constant
• 𝑋ത constant, R varies
• 𝑋ത and R vary
ABRUPT CHANGE TREND IRREGULARITY
Ex. Abrupt failure Ex. Progressive wear Ex. Continuous non necessary
adjustments
CONTROL CHARTS – Action criteria
Non random variability

=
Problem!!
Action to identify cause
Criteria more frequently used:

• Single point outside action limits
• Eight consecutive points above/below target

QUALITY CONTROL – Exercise

At a central mixing plant, tests are made on a bituminous mix yielding the
following percentage of aggregate passing the No. 30 sieve: 38.8, 38.7, 39.8,
39.6, 39.4, 38.5, 39.4, 38.6, 39.5, 39.5, 39.5.
Each of these values represents an average of five samples per lot .
The target value is 38.0 percent.
If the standard deviation is 𝜎 = 1.93 plot a control chart and determine if the
process is “in control”.

QUALITY CONTROL – Exercise
39.7
36.3

Structural elements of road infrastructure
The road structure is composed of several structural elements through which the
load generated by the vehicles is transmitted to the ground below.
ROAD STRUCTURE = PAVEMENT + SUBGRADE
The road structure consists of the pavement (part in direct contact with the
vehicles) and the subgrade (capping layer, embankment, trench, bridge, tunnel) that
connects it to the supporting ground.
Subgrade
Pavement
Road prism
Embankment
Natural ground foundation Anti-capillary layer
The pavement is the set of elements resting on the surface bordering the subgrade
called formation level, which carry out the road surface.
The pavement can be split into two

main parts:
Wearing surface: subject to traffic

and environmental actions, it must
ensure a smooth and safe rolling
surface.
Body structure: to support the

wearing surface, it must be able to
spread on the supporting soil
(subgrade) the actions of the vehicles
(reducing deformations).

The performance of the entire road structure depends on those of each individual
component, which will then need to be properly designed.

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Road Infrastructures Design

L1.3 – General overview

ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

Davide Dalmazzo, PhD

Phases of design and construction of road infrastructures

L1.3 - General overview 3

L1.3 - General overview 4

L1.3 - General overview 5

L1.3 - General overview 6

Points along a highway route are identified by stations.

L1.3 - General overview 7

To complete the final plans:

L1.3 - General overview 10

A desk study of the area consists in collecting all

L1.3 - General overview 11

EXAMPLE: The Eton Range Realignment Project

L1.3 - General overview 13

Links infrastructure design to its construction

L1.3 - General overview 16

L1.3 - General overview 17

L1.3 - General overview 18

Agencies usually have General Specifications which can be adapted to

L1.3 - General overview 20

Control during construction and

Reference to relevant standards, advice notes or codes of practice.

L1.3 - General overview 21

Performance-based specification (end-product)

L1.3 - General overview 22

Performance-based specifications have the

Performance evaluation eliminates the risk of litigations

Best option: ”hybrid” approach.

L1.3 - General overview 23

Performance-based specifications require the use of

Mechanistically-based Full-scale field testing Full-scale field testing

L1.3 - General overview 24

− Which requirements? (characterization methods)

− When are the requirements satisfied? (acceptance criteria)

L1.3 - General overview 25

Quality control of materials or construction works is made on small samples.

S2QC/QA = S2c + S2l + S2m/c

Variability = sampling + laboratory + material/construction

L1.3 - General overview 26

Variability of characteristics of materials and works

S2QC/AC = S2c + S2l + S2m/c

Cannot be eliminated but can be

L1.3 - General overview 27

L1.3 - General overview 28

Difference between maximum and minimum

Variance and standard deviation

L1.3 - General overview 29

1. Target value (specification)

2. Upper Warning Control Limit

3. Lower Warning Control Limit

4. Upper Action Control Limit

5. Lower Action Control Limit

GOAL OF CONTROL CHARTS

CONTROL CHARTS – Action criteria

Non random variability

Action to identify cause

Criteria more frequently used:

• Eight consecutive points above/below target

L1.3 - General overview 32

QUALITY CONTROL – Exercise