Highway by Saydul

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur
traffic) or long-term (estimating the impacts of proposed

commercial/residential developments on traffic patterns).
Increasingly, traffic problems are being addressed by
Chapter -1 developing systems for intelligent transportation
Transportation Engineering systems, often in conjunction with other engineering
1.1 Definition of Transportation Engineering disciplines, such as computer engineering and electrical
Transportation engineering or transport engineering is engineering.
the application of technology and scientific principles to 1.3 Other important disciplines
the planning, functional design, operation and 1.3.1 Public transportation: Public transportation or
management of facilities for any mode of transportation mass transportation deals with study of the
in order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, transportation system that meets the travel need of
comfortable, convenient, economical, and several people by sharing a vehicle. Generally this
environmentally compatible movement of people and focuses on the urban travel by bus and rail transit. The
goods transport. major topics include characteristics of various modes;
1.2 Major parts of Transportation Engineering planning, management and operations; and policies for
Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of promoting public transportation.
the four major parts: 1.3.2 Financial and economic analysis: Transportation
1. Transportation Planning 2. Geometric Design facilities require large capital investments. Therefore it is
3. Pavement Design 4. Traffic Engineering imperative that who ever invests money should get the
1.2.1. Transportation planning: The planning aspects of returns. When government invests in transportation, its
transportation engineering relate to elements of urban objective is not often monetary returns; but social
planning, and involve technical forecasting decisions benefits. The economic analysis of transportation project
and political factors. Technical forecasting of passenger tries to quantify the economic benefit which includes
travel usually involves an urban transportation planning saving in travel time, fuel consumption, etc.
model, requiring the estimation of trip generation 1.3.3 Environmental impact assessment: The depletion
(number of purposeful trips), trip distribution of fossil fuels and the degradation of the environment
(destination choice, where the traveler is going), mode has been a severe concern of the planners in the past few
choice (mode that is being taken), and route assignment decades. Transportation; in spite of its benefits to the
(the streets or routes that are being used). society is a major contributor to the above concern. The
1.2.2 Geometric design: Geometric design deals with environmental impact assessment attempts in
physical proportioning of other transportation facilities, quantifying the environmental impacts and tries to
in contrast with the structural design of the facilities. The evolve strategies for the mitigation and reduction of the
topics include the cross-sectional features, horizontal impact due to both construction and operation. The
alignment, vertical alignment and intersections. primary impacts are fuel consumption, air pollution, and
1.2.3 Pavement Design: Pavement design deals with the noise pollution
structural design of roads, both (bituminous and 1.3.4 Accident analysis and reduction: One of the silent
concrete), commonly known as (flexible pavements and killers of humanity is transportation. Several statistics
rigid pavements) respectively. It deals with the design of evaluates that more people are killed due to
paving materials, determination of the layer thickness, transportation than great wars and natural disasters. This
and construction and maintenance procedures. discipline of transportation looks at the causes of
1.2.4 Traffic engineering: Traffic engineering projects accidents, from the perspective of human, road, and
involve designing traffic control device installations and vehicle and formulate plans for the reduction.
modifications, including traffic signals, signs, and 1.3.5 Intelligent transport system with advent to
pavement markings. However, traffic engineers also computers, communication, and vehicle technology, it is
consider traffic safety by investigating locations with possible in these days to operate transportation system
high crash rates and developing countermeasures to much effectively with significant reduction in the
reduce crashes. Traffic flow management can be short- adverse impacts of transportation. Intelligent
term (preparing construction traffic control plans, transportation system offers better mobility, efficiency,
including detour plans for pedestrian and vehicular
Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

and safety with the help of the state-of-the-art- the most important should be constructed first
technology. with the available fund and within the plan
Transportation engineering is a very diverse and period.
 Planning is also helpful to work out financing
multidisciplinary field. This profession carries a distinct
system of roads.
societal responsibility. Transportation planners and
1.5.3 Road Planning Surveys
engineers recognize the fact that transportation systems
constitute a potent force in shaping the course of
regional development. Planning and development of
transportation facilities generally raises living standards
and enhances the aggregate of community values.
N.B: This includes railway engineering, port and harbor
engineering, and airport engineering.
1.4 Transportation System: A transportation system is
an infrastructure that serves to move people and goods
efficiently. The transportation system consists of fixed
facilities, flow entities and a control component
1.5.4 Urban Transportation Planning (UTP)
1.5.5 Transportation Planning period:

 Short Term (Action Plan):
 Review matters that can be computed within
three years and involve high costs.
 Example: Program an engineer to optimize the
1.5 Transportation Planning (TP): Transportation use of existing transportation system by
Planning is a methodological process of preparing installing various traffic control devices such
physical facilities and services of all modes for future as sign and signals.
transportation needs.  Long Term ( ≥ 5 years)
The process must be flexible enough to be applicable to  This type of planning is more structured and
any transportation project or system, because the kinds  complicated and it must be designed better
of problems that transportation engineers work on will  than short term planning
vary over time.  urban transportation planning process
1.5.1 Objectives of Transportation Planning TP  involves planning the next 20 to 25 year
To provide efficient and safe levels of mobility required 1.6 Elements of Transportation Planning
to support a wide range of human needs for a
heterogeneous variety of social groups.
1.5.2 The planning of highway is done to achieve the
following objects:
 To provide a most suitable type of road, of
maximum length, with the available funds
 To plan road systems for future anticipated
requirements by constructing and improving the
existing ones.
 If, with available funds, required road system
cannot be constructed, phased programmer for
road development may be planned.
 Highway planning helps fix priorities of roads.
If all the required roads cannot be constructed,

1.6.1 Organization Chapter-2
Highway Geometric Design
2.0 Introduction:
Geometric design of a highway deals with the
dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway
such as horizontal and vertical alignments, sight
distances and intersections.
The geometrics of highway should be designed to
provide efficiency in traffic operations with maximum
1.6.2 Inventory safety at reasonable cost.
 include the establishment of the data for the 2.1 Factors affecting on geometric design
evaluation of the existing travel demand and 1. Design speed
existing travel capacity 2. Topography
 will involve 2 main task which is collecting and 3. Environmental factors.
processing data. 4. Economical factors.
1.6.3 Identify system deficiencies or opportunities 5. Vehicles properties (dimensions, weight, operating
TP identifies and prioritizes those elements of the system characteristics, etc.).
where problems exist today or where problems will exist 6. Humans (the physical, mental and psychological
in the future given present growth in travel. characteristics of the driver and pedestrians like the
reaction time).
Seven mathematical models are used for this purpose:
2.2 Geometric design of highways deals with
•Population model
following elements:
•Economic model
a. Cross section elements
•Land use model
b. Sight distance consideration
•Trip Generation model
c. Horizontal alignment details
•Trip Distribution model Transport demand
d. Vertical alignment details
•Modal split model forecasting model
e. Intersection elements
•Traffic Assignment model
1.6.4 Development of alternative plans: Once the 2.3 Cross section elements
planning process has identified areas where i. Pavement surface characteristics
ii. Width of Pavement or Carriageway
improvements are needed, transportation planners define
iii. Cross Slope or Camber
different strategies that could solve the problem. Some iv. Median or Traffic Separator
of the strategies could be: v. Kerbs vi. Road Margins vii. Width of Formation
 Adding new lane
 Improving traffic control through signal
 Application of ITS and so on.
1.6.5 Evaluate alternatives: Evaluation brings together
all the information gathered on individual alternatives
and provides a framework to compare worth of the
alternatives. One of the most used approaches is the
Figure 2.1: Cross-Section of road & its elements
benefit/cost ratio, which identifies the most
economically efficient alternative.
1.6.6 Implement Plan: Assigned on the basis of a
benefit/cost methodology (e. g., those projects having
the best benefit/cost outcome are implemented first.
1.6.7 Monitoring System: TP is a process that
continually examines the performance and condition of
the transportation system to identify where
improvements can be made. Therefore, some means of
monitoring system performance is necessary to
systematically identify areas where improvements might
Figure 2.2: Cross-Section of road with cross slop
occur.
2.5 m 2.5 m
Figure 2.3: Cross-Section of road in 3D view 500mm 1m 500mm

625mm
i. Pavement surface characteristics: The important
surface characteristics of the pavement are:
Figure 2.5: Carriageway of single lane and double lane
1. Friction 2. Unevenness
3. Light reflecting characteristics  Cross-section Width According to Roads and
4. Drainage of surface water Highway Department (Bangladesh)
ii. Width of Pavement or Carriageway: It is total width
of road on which vehicles are allowed to move. The
width of pavement depends on width of traffic lane and
number of lanes. Width of lane is decided based on
maximum width of heavy commercial vehicle (HCV)
which is legally permitted to use the roadway.
Figure 2.4: Carriageway of road
The widths of carriageway for various classes of roads

standardized by Indian Roads Congress (IRC) are given
below:
Class Of Road Width Of Carriageway (m)
Single lane road 3.75
Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7
Figure 2.6: Crest width of road
Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.5
Intermediate Carriageway 5.5 iii. Cross Slope or Camber: Cross slope or camber is the
Multi-lane pavements 3.5 per lane slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from the road
surface.
 Drainage and disposal of water from pavement
is considered important because of the following
reason:
a) To maintain stability, surface condition and
2.5m increase life of pavement.
3.75m
3.75m
b) To prevent stripping of bitumen from
625mm 625mm aggregates.
3.75m

c) To prevent slipping of vehicles running at

high speed.
 The rate of camber or cross slope is usually
designated by 1 in n or may also be expressed as
a percentage.
 The required camber of a pavement depends on
type of pavement surface and amount of rainfall.
 The values of camber recommended by IRC for
different types of road surfaces are given below:
Sl.No Type of Road Range of camber in
Surface areas of
Heavy Low Figure 2.9: Median or Traffic Separator in real image
rainfall rainfall
1 Cement concrete and 1 in 50 or 2 1 in 60 or v. Kerbs: Kerb indicates the boundary between the
thick bituminous % 1.7 % pavement and median or foot path or shoulder.
surface Kerbs may be mainly divided into three groups based on
2 Thin bituminous 1 in 40 or 1 in 50 or their functions:
surface 2.5% 2% a) Low kerb
3 Water bound 1 in 33 or 1 in 40 or b) Semi-barrier type kerb
macadam and gravel 3% 2.5 % c) Barrier type kerb
pavement
4 Earth road 1 in 25 or 1 in 33 or
4% 3%
Figure 2.10: Kerb

Mountable kerbs: These kerbs are indicator between
the boundary of a road and shoulder . The height of the
kerb is such that driver find no difficulty in crossing
these kerbs and use the shoulder in case of emergency.
Its height is kept on 10cm above the pavement edge.
Semi-barrier kerbs: It prevents encroachment of slow
speed or parking vehicles to the footpath But at
emergency vehicle can climb over and can be parked on
footpath or shoulder.
Figure 2.7: Shape of Cross Slope Its height is 15 to 20cm
iv. Median or Traffic Separator: Median is provided Barrier kerbs: They are mainly provided to cause
between two sets of traffic lanes intended to divide the obstruction to the vehicles leaving the carriage way
traffic moving in opposite directions. under emergency.
Its height is 23 to 45cm
 The main function of the median is to prevent Generally, such kerbs are provided on hills bridges etc.
head-on collision between vehicles moving in
opposite directions on adjacent lanes.
 The traffic separators used may be in form of
pavement markings, physical dividers or area
separators.
Figure 2.11: Types of Kerbs

Figure 2.8: Median or Traffic Separator
Figure 2.14: Drive Way
vii. Width of Formation or Roadway: Width of

formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavement
or carriageway including separators, if any and the
shoulders.
Figure 2.15: Width of Formation or Roadway

Figure 2.12: Kerbs in real image
Right of way: Right of way is the area of land acquired
vi. Road Margins: The various elements included in the for the land, along its alignment. It is the distance
road margins are: between boundary stones of road on either side of road.
a) Shoulder b) Guard rail
c) Foot path d) Drive way
e) Cycle track f) Parking lane
g) Embankment slope.
Figure 2.16: A typical right of way
2.4 Sight distance consideration

There are 4 sight distances:
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
 Intermediate Overtaking Sight Distance (ISD)
 Crossing Sight Distance (CSD)
2.4.1 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): There is the
visibility distance necessary for a driver to be able to see
Figure 2.13: Guard rail an obstruction in the time to bring the vehicle to a halt
without a collision. This is a basic minimum standard for
two-lane single carriageway roads. It is assumed that the

driver‟s eye height is 1.2m and the height of the Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):
obstruction is at least 0.15m above the road surface. Concept-
Objective: To provide sufficient length of road to driver SSD = lag distance + Braking distance
to observe the object and stop the vehicle before Lag distance = distance travelled by vehicle during
colliding with object. reaction time.
LD = Reaction time ×Velocity of vehicle
Braking distance = Distance travelled by vehicle during
braking operation
In braking operation, it is assumed that whole kinetic
energy dissipated by application of break therefore,
Work done by vehicle = Kinetic energy of vehicle
When slope is zero
𝑓
Figure 2.17: Stopping Sight Distance 𝑔
Factors affecting SSD:
 Efficiency of brakes 𝑔𝑓
 Frictional resistance between the road and tyres 𝑎𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡
 Slope of the road surface
 Total reaction time of the driver 𝑆𝑆𝐷= +𝑑 𝑡
Reaction time For a sloping surface

𝑛
(𝑓 )
𝑔
Perception 𝑆𝑆𝐷 𝑡
Brake 𝑔 𝑓 𝑛
reaction time time If V is taken kmph and g is 9.8 m/sec2, then
𝑆𝑆𝐷 𝑡
The time taken by The time taken by 𝑓 𝑛
the driver of vehicle the driver of vehicle Where,
for the application of to realize that brake W = total weight of vehicle
brake reaction time is to be applied f= coefficient of friction
L= braking distance in m
V = speed kmph and v in m/sec
2.4.2 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD):
PIEV theory
This is the visibility distance necessary for a driver to be
able to see whether the road ahead is sufficiently clear to
The perception is the time required for the
sensations received by the eyes or ears. In enable him to overtake a vehicle in front-even if an
other words, it indicates the time required oncoming appears after he has started the overtaking
to perceive an object or situation maneuver. It is a very long distance, especially at the
higher speeds, and it can be difficult to achieve.
The intellection time is the time required The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of
PIEV for understanding the problem or situation. a vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with
theory safety against traffic of opposite direction is known as
The emotion time is the time which is minimum overtaking sight distance or safe passing sight
passed during emotional sensations and distance available.
disturbances such as fear, anger etc. Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD): This is the
visibility distance necessary for a driver to be able to see
The volition time is the time taken for final whether the road ahead is sufficiently clear to enable him
action. to overtake, assuming that he will abort the maneuver if
an oncoming vehicle appears before he has got level
with the slower vehicle. ISD is much less than OSD yet

it permits reasonably safer overtaking. ISD is about The distance covered by the slow vehicle B travelling at
twice SSD. It is assumed that the observer and a speed of „vb‟ (m/s) in time „T‟ (sec) is,
obstruction are at eye height 1.2m. b = vb × T
The overtaking time „T‟ (sec) is calculated as;
d2 = s + b + s = 2s + b b = vbT
or, vbT + 0.5aT2 = 2s + b
or, vbT + 0.5aT2 = 2s + vbT
or, 0.5aT2 = 2s
or, T=√
so, d2 = √
Figure 2.18: Overtaking Sight Distance From C1 to C2, distance travelled by vehicle C moving at
Objective: –To provide the sufficient distance to the design speed „v‟(m/s) during time „T‟(sec) is given by,
driver to overtake the slow moving vehicle ahead safely d3=v × T
against the traffic in opposite direction. Thus overtaking sight distance (OSD) is,
= d1 + d2 + d3
Factors on which overtaking sight distance depends: OSD = (vb×t) + ( ) + (v × T)
Minimum OSD required for the safe overtaking depends
on: If speed is in kmph,
a) Speed of overtaking, overtaken vehicle and OSD = (0.278Vb×t) + ( ) + (0.278V × T)
vehicle coming from opposite direction if any.
b) Skill and reaction time of the driver. Where,
c) Distance between overtaking and overtaken s = spacing of vehicles
vehicles. t = reaction time of driver =2sec
d) Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle v = design speed in m/sec
e) Gradient of the road if any. V= design speed in kmph
Analysis of OSD on a two lane road with two way vb = initial speed of overtaking vehicle in m/sec
traffic: Vb = initial speed of overtaking vehicle in Kmph
T=√ √
A=average acceleration in kmph/sec
a=average acceleration in m/sec2
Example 1: Calculate the safe stopping sight distance
for design speed of 60 kmph for
i) Two way traffic on two way road
ii) Two way traffic on a single lane road
Figure 2.19: Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance Assume f= 0.38 and t= 2.5 sec
From A1 to A2, the distance „d1‟ (m) travelled by Solution: i) Stopping sight distance when there are two
overtaking vehicle A at reduced speed „vb‟ (m/s) during ways traffic on two way road: Here,
reaction time „t‟(sec), Velocity of Vehicle,
We know that,
d1 = vb×t v = 60 kmh
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = 16.67 m/sec
IRC suggest reaction time t of driver as 2 sec,
d1 = 2vb = Lag Distance + Braking Distance Reaction time, t = 2.5 sec
From A2 to A3, vehicle A starts accelerating, shift to Also get, Coefficient of friction= 0.38
adjoining lane, overtakes vehicle B, and shift back to its Lag Distance (LD) = Reaction time × Velocity of
original lane during overtaking time „T‟ (sec) and travel vehicle
distance „d2‟(m). 𝑑 𝑡
FromA2 to A5, the distance „d2‟ (m) is further split into And Braking Distance,
three parts viz;
d2 = (s+b+s) = (b+2s)
The minimum spacing „s‟ (m) between vehicles depends
on their speed and is given by empirical formula,
Now Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = d + l
s = (0.7vb+6)
Dhaka University of Engineering & Techno

= 41.67 + 37.27 Example 4: Speeds of overtaking and overtaken
= 78.94 m (Ans) vehicles are 80 and 65 kmh respectively on a road. If
ii) We Know, Stopping sight distance when there are the acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 3.6 kmh per
two way traffic on a single lane road, second. Calculate OSD for
SSD = 2 Stopping sight distance when there are i) One way traffic
two way traffic on two way road ii) Two way traffic
= 2 79 = 158 m (Ans) Solution: Given,
Example 2: Compute the minimum sight distance Speeds of overtaking vehicle, va = 80 kmh = 22.22m/sec
required to avoid a head on collision of two buses Speeds of overtaken vehicle, vb = 65 kmh = 18m/sec
approaching from the opposite perception and brake Acceleration of overtaking vehicle, a = 3.6 kmh per
reaction time of 2.5 secs. Coefficient of friction is 0.40, second = 1 m/sec2
speed 70 kmph and brake efficiency 50%. Here, d1 = 2vb Here, s = 0.7vb + 6
Solution: Given, And, d2 = s + b + s = 2s + b b = vbT
Velocity of buses, v = 70 kmph = 19.44 or, vbT + 0.5aT2 = 2s + b
m/sec or, vbT + 0.5aT2 = 2s + vbT
Brake reaction time, t = 2.5 sec or, 0.5aT2 = 2s
Brake efficiency = 50%
Coefficient of friction = 0.4 or, T=√
Stopping Distances for both buses (SD) = 𝑡 so, d2 = √

Also d3 = vaT
i) For one way traffic
Minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on
collision of two buses Overtaking sight distance, OSD = d1 + d2
= SD1 + SD2 = 2vb + √
= 145 + 145 = 290m (Ans)
Example 3: Calculate the safe stopping sight distances
= 2 × 18 + 2×(0.7×18+ 6) + 18×√
on a graded highway for a design speed of 90 kmh.
Assume f = 0.35 and t= 2.0 sec = 36 + 192.5 = 228.5m
ii) For two way traffic
i) When grade is 3% descending Overtaking sight distance, OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
ii) When grade is 3% ascending and
iii) When grade is zero. = 2vb + √ + vaT
Solution: Given, = 2 × 18 + 2×(0.7×18+ 6) + 18×√
Design speed, v = 90 kmh = 25m/sec
Coefficient of friction, f = 0.35; t = 2.0 sec +22.22×√
i) When grade is 3% descending
= 36 + 192.5 + 191.66
Now we get, = 420.2 m (Ans)
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = 𝑡
= 150m (Ans)
ii) When grade is 3% ascending
Now we get,
= 134m (Ans)
iii) When grade is zero.
Now we get,
= 141m (Ans)
2.5 Horizontal Alignment Where,

 Super elevation P = centrifugal force in kg
 Extra widening W = Weight of the vehicle in kg
 Set back R = radius of the circular curve in m
Design of Horizontal Alignment: v = speed of the vehicle in m/s
Various design elements to be considered in the g = acceleration due to gravity=9.8 m/s2
horizontal alignment are:  P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the
a) Design speed impact factor. The centrifugal ratio is thus equal
b) Horizontal curve to v²∕gR.
c) Super elevation  The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle
d) Type and length of transition curves negotiating a horizontal curve has two effects:
e) Widening of pavement on curves - Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards
f) Set-back distance about the outer wheels
2.5.1 Design speed: - Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally,
 The design speed is the main factor on which outwards
geometric design elements depends. i. Overturning effect:
 The design speed of roads depends upon:
i) Class of the road
ii) Terrain
Table 2.2 Design Speed Types
Design type Design speed kmph
Plain Rolling
1-2 80-100 80 -
3 80 65 50
4 65 50 40
5-6 50 40 30
Figure 2.20: Over turning effect due to centrifugal force
Terrain Classification Cross Slope Of Country in  The equilibrium condition for overturning will
% occur when Ph = Wb/2, or when P/W =b/2h.
Plain 0-10  This means that there is danger of overturning
Rolling 11-25 when the centrifugal ratio P/W or v²/g R attains
Hilly >25 a value of b/2h.
Friction between the wheel and the pavement ii. Transverse skidding effect:
surface:  The equilibrium condition for the transverse skid
 It is a crucial factor in the design of horizontal resistance developed is given by
curves. P = FA+ FB= f(RA+RB) =fW
Since P = f W, the centrifugal ratio P/W is equal
 It affects the acceleration and deceleration
to „f „.
ability of vehicles.
 In other words when the centrifugal ratio attains
 Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or
a value equal to the coefficient of lateral friction
slipping of vehicles
there is a danger of lateral skidding.
- Skidding happens when the path travelled
along the road surface is more than the  „f‟ is less than „b/2h‟,the vehicle would skid and
circumferential movement of the wheels due not overturn.
to friction.  „b/2h‟ is lower than „f‟, the vehicle would
- Slip occurs when the revolves more than the overturn on the outer side before skidding.
corresponding longitudinal movement along  Thus the relative danger of lateral skidding and
the road. overturning depends on whether f is lower or
2.5.2 Horizontal curve: A horizontal highway curve is a higher than
curve in plan to provide change in direction to the 2.5.3 Super elevation (e):
central line of a road.  In order slope throughout the Dhaka
lengthUniversity
of the of Engineering &
 When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the horizontal curve.
centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards  This transverse inclination to the pavement
through the centre of gravity of the vehicle surface is known as Super elevation or cant or
 The centrifugal force is given by the equation: banking.
P = Wv²∕gR

 The Super elevation „e‟ is expressed as the ratio Therefore,
of the height of outer edge with respect to the Centrifugal ratio =P/W = tanө+f
horizontal width. P/W = e + f ……i
but P/W = v²∕gR ……ii
Therefore, the general equation for the design of super
elevation is given by,
e + f = v²∕gR
If „V‟ speed of the vehicle is in kmph,
e + f = V²∕ 127R
Where,
e=rate of Superelevation=tanӨ
f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
Figure 2.22: Super elevation in 3D view v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec²
Maximum Superelevation:
 Indian Roads Congress (IRC) had fixed the
maximum limit of Superelevation in plan and
rolling terrains and is snow bound areas as 7.0
%.
 On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum
Superelevation upto10% is recommended.
 On urban road stretches with frequent
intersections, it may be necessary to limit the
maximum Superelevation to 4.0 %.
Minimum Superelevation:
Figure 2.22: Superelevated pavement section
 From drainage consideration it is necessary to
have a minimum cross slope to drain off the
Analysis of Superelevation:
surface water. If the calculated superelevation is
equal to or less than the camber of the road
surface, then the minimum superelevation to be
provided on horizontal curve may be limited to
the camber of the surface.
Steps for Superelevation Design:
Step-I: The superelevation for 75 percent of design
speed is calculated, neglecting the friction.
e =(0.75v)²∕ gR …..if „v‟ is in m/sec
e =(V)²∕ 225R …..if „V‟ is in kmph
Step-II: If the calculated value of „e‟ is less than 7% or
0.07 the value so obtained is provided.
If the value of „e‟ exceeds 7% or 0.07 then provides
maximum superelevation equal to 7% or 0.07 and
Figure 2.23: Analysis of Superelevation proceed with step-III or IV.
For equilibrium condition, Step-III: Check the coefficient of friction developed for
P cosө=W sinө+FA+FB the maximum value of e =0.07 at the full value of design
P cosө=W sinө+ f.RA + f.RB speed.
P cosө=W sinө+f(RA+RB) f =v²∕ gR - 0.07 …..if „v‟ is in m/sec
P cosө=W sinө+f(W cos ө+P sin ө) f =V²∕ 127R - 0.07 …..if „V‟ is in kmph
P(cosө – f sinө)=W sinө+f Wcosө If the value of „f‟ thus calculated is less than 0.15, the
Dividing by Wcosө, super elevation of 0.07 is safe for the design speed. If
P/W(1- f tanө)=tanө+f not, calculate the restricted speed asDhaka
givenUniversity
in Stepof-IV.
Engineering & Te
Centrifugal ratio =P/W= tanө+f /(1-f tanө)

The value of coefficient of lateral friction „f‟ is taken as Step-IV: The allowable speed at the curve is calculated
0.15 and tanө i.e. super elevation seldom exceeds 7- by considering the design coefficient of lateral friction
10%. and the maximum superelevation.
e + f =0.07+0.15=va²∕ gR=Va²∕ 127R
e + f =0.22=va²∕ gR = Va²∕ 127R
Safe allowable speed (va or Va) is calculated as:
√ 𝑔 𝑠 E/2
√ 𝑕 Figure 2.26: Rotation about center line

E/2
If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher than
the design speed, then the design is adequate and
provides a superelevation of „e‟ equal to 0.07.
If the allowable speed is less than the design speed, the
speed is limited to the allowed speed calculated above Advantages
and appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation  Earthwork is balanced
sign are installed to restrict and regulate the speed.  Vertical profile of the C/L remains unchanged
Disadvantages
Attainment of super-elevation in the field: The
 Drainage problem: depressing the inner edge
attainment of super-elevation may be split up into two
below the general level
parts:
a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section 2nd Method: Rotation about the Inner edge
b) Rotation of pavement to attain full super-
elevation
Elimination of crown of the cambered section:
1st Method: Outer edge rotated about the crown
Disadvantages: E
i) Small length of road –cross slope less than camber.

ii) Drainage problem in outer half.
Level of Figure 2.27: Rotation about the Inner edge

Outer edge
Advantages
 No drainage problem
Outer edge
Disadvantages
 Additional earth filling
Figure 2.24: Outer edge rotated about the crown  Centre line of the pavement is also raised
(vertical alignment of the road is changed)
2nd Method: Crown shifted outwards Radius of Horizontal Curve:
Disadvantages: e + f = v²∕gR = V²∕ 127R
i) Large negative superelevation on outer half. If maximum Allowable superelevation rate has been
ii) Drivers have the tendency to run the vehicle along fixed as 7% and lateral friction f is 0.15 then,
shifted crown. 0.07 + 0.15 = v²∕gR = V²∕ 127R
0.22= v²∕gR = V²∕ 127R
If design speed is decided ruling and minimum radius is
calculated as,
Rruling = v²∕g(e + f) = V²∕ 127(e + f)
Rmin = vʹ²∕g(e + f) = V²∕ 127(e + f)
Where, e = rate of Superelevation
f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
v or V= design speed of the vehicle, m/sec or kmph
Figure 2.25: Crown shifted outwards
vʹ or Vʹ = minimum design speed of the vehicle,
m/sec or kmph Dhaka University of Engineering & T
Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation: g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec²
1st Method: Rotation about the Centre line
Example 1: Design the rate of superelevation for a
curve of radius 400m and speed of 80kmph.
Solution:
= (0.75 × 80)²∕ 127R or (V)²∕ 225R
Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch,eDUET
= 0.0708
= 1 in 14.12
Check the coefficient of friction developed for the Analysis of extra widening on horizontal curves:
maximum value of e =0.07 at the full value of design The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is
speed. divided into two parts:
f = V²∕ 127R - 0.07 (0.067) a. Mechanical widening/Off tracking
f = 0.059 Less than 0.07 or 0.067 (O. k) b. Psychological widening
a. Mechanical widening/Off tracking (Wm):
Example 2: A two lane road with design speed of 90
kmph has horizontal curve of radius 500 m. If the
pavement is rotated about the centre line and width
of pavement at curve is 7.5 m, Design the following
elements.
i)Rate of super elevation
ii)The rise of outer edge from centre of the
pavement
Solution:
For mixed traffic , e =( 0.75 × V)²∕ 127R
=0.0717
Figure 2.29: Off-tracking and mechanical widening on horizontal
Rise of outer edge = B×e/2= 7.5×1/(2 × 15) curves
= 0.25 m Consider
OA=R1=radius of the path traversed by the
2.5.4 Widening of pavement on horizontal curves: outer rear wheel,m
On horizontal curves, especially when they are OB=R2=radius of the path traversed by the outer
less than 300m radii, it is common to widen the front wheel,m
pavement slightly more than the normal width. Wm=mechanical widening due to off-tracking,
m l=length of wheel base,m
Widening is needed for the following reasons: R=mean radius of the horizontal curve, m
a. An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the
front wheels can be turned, when this vehicle takes a OB-OA= R2 - R1 =Wm
From Δ OAB, OA2=OB2-BA2
turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheel do R12 = R22 - l2
not follow the same path as that of the front wheels. This But , R1 = R2-Wm
phenomenon is called off tracking. (R2-Wm)2 = R22-l2
R22-2R2Wm+ Wm2 = R22-l2
l2 =Wm (2R2-Wm)
Wm = l2/ (2R2-Wm)
Wm = l2/ 2R
If road having „n‟ traffic lanes and „n‟ vehicles can travel
simultaneously, mechanical widening reqd. is given by,
Wm = nl2/ 2R
b. Psychological widening (Wps):

An empirical formula has been recommended by IRC for
deciding the additional psychological widening.
Figure 2.28: Widening of pavement on horizontal curves The psychological widening is given by the formula:
b. While two vehicles cross or overtake at
horizontal curve there is psychological tendency √
to maintain a greater clearance between the The total extra widening is given by,
vehicles for safety. We=Wm + Wps
c. For greater visibility at curve, the driver have l2 +
√
tendency not to follow the central path of the Where,
lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of n=no. of traffic lanes
the curve. l = length of wheel base =6.1 or 6 m
d. At higher speed superelevation and lateral V=design speed kmph
friction cannot counteract centrifugal force and R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
skidding may occur.

The extra width recommended by the Indian Road Objects of providing transition curve: A transition
Congress for single and two lane pavements are given in curve which is introduced between straight and a circular
below: curve will help in:
a. Gradually introducing centrifugal force.
b. Gradually introducing designed superelevation.
c. Gradually introducing extra widening.
d. To enable the driver turn steering gradually for
his own comfort and safety.
Length of transition curve:
The length of transition curve is designed to
fulfill three conditions:
Figure 2.30: Extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves
a. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be
Types of Horizontal Curves: developed gradually
1) Circular Curve b. Rate of introduction of designed superelevation
2) Transition Curve c. Minimum length by IRC empirical formula
Rate of Change of centrifugal acceleration:
The length of transition curve is calculated as:
𝑠 ………..if „v‟ is in m/sec
𝑠 ………..if „V‟ is in kmph
Where,
Where, Ls=length of transition curve, m
C=allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration
V = design speed in kmph
v = design speed in m/sec
R = radius of the circular curve, m
Rate of introduction of superelevation:
Figure 2.31: Types of Horizontal Curves If the pavement is rotated about the center line:
2.5.5 Horizontal Transition Curve: Ls=EN/2=e N/2(W + We)
A transition curve has a radius which decreases from If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge:
infinity at the tangent point to a designed radius of the Ls= EN= e N(W + We)
circular curve. The rate of change of radius of the where,
transition curve will depend on the shape of the curve W = width of pavement
adopted and the equation of the curve. We = extra widening
E=total raised pavement= e. B
B=total width of pavement=(W + We)
Rate of change of superelevation of 1 in N
N=150,100,60
Minimum Length by IRC empirical formula:
According to IRC standards:
a. For plane and rolling terrain:
Figure 2.32: Transition curve in horizontal alignment 𝑠
b. For mountainous and steep terrain:
𝑠
Shift of transition curve: If the length of transition
curve is „Ls‟ and the radius of the circular curve is „R‟,
the shift „S‟ of transition curve is given by;
𝑠
𝑆
Figure 2.33: Transition Curve

2.5.6 Set Back Distance:

 Set back distance is the distance from centre of
horizontal curve to an obstruction on inner side
of the curve.
 Set back distance is required to provide adequate
sight distance on the horizontal curve.
 Obstruction to the sight distance on horizontal
curve may be buildings, trees, cut slopes on the
inner side of curve.
 On narrow road, the sight distance is measured
along the centre line of road.
 On wider road, the sight distance is measured
along the centre line of inner side lane.
 Set back distance depends on:
Figure 2.35: Set back distance for a narrow road ( L>S)
a. Required sight distance, S
b. Radius of horizontal curve, R = S2/4
c. Length of the curve, Lc [2R – m = 2R]
For wider Road: 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

𝑆
𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑒𝑒
𝑑
Set back distance (m) for wider road is given by:
𝑐 𝑠
𝑑
Figure 2.34: Set back distance
Analysis of Set back distance:

Two cases are considered for the analysis:
a. When length of curve is more than Sight distance
(Lc>S)
b. When length of curve is less than Sight distance
(Lc<S)
Case I: When Lc>S:

For narrow Road: 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑆
𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑒𝑒
Set back distance (m) for narrow road is given by:
Figure 2.36: Set back distance for a Wide road ( L>S)
𝑐 𝑠
Where,
When S<L α =angle subtended by the arc
OA = OB =OC = R m=set back distance, m
AD AC= S/2 R=radius of curve, m
CD = m = Setback distance from obstruction S=Sight Distance, m
From 𝐷 d=distance between centre line of road and
OA2 = AD2 + OD2 center line of inner lane
= (S/2)2 + (R-m)2 Case II:When Lc<S:
= S2/4+ – 2Rm +m2 For narrow Road:
𝑐
𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑒𝑒 2.6 Vertical Alignment:

 The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile
Set back distance (m) for narrow road is given by: of the centre line of the road.
𝑆 𝑐
𝑐 𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛  The vertical alignment consists of grades and
vertical curves.
 The vertical alignment of a highway influences:
i) Vehicle speed
ii) Acceleration and deceleration
iii) Sight distance
iv) Vehicle operation cost
v) Comfort while travelling at high speeds
Figure 2.36: Set back distance for a narrow road ( L<S)
CD1 = m2, D1D2 = m2, m = m1 + m2, AʹBʹ = L,

ACB = S, 𝑑 , m1= AʹE = d
Since,
Sinθ =
m1 =
Figure 2.37: Vertical alignment in real image

2.6.1 Gradients:
=  Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the
For wider Road: length of road with respect to the horizontal.
𝑐  It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in n or also as
𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 percentage such as n%.
𝑑
𝑐 Types Of Gradients: Gradients are divided into four
𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑒𝑒 categories:
𝑑
a) Ruling gradient b) Limiting gradient
Set back distance (m) for wider road is given by:
c) Exceptional gradient d) Minimum gradient
𝑆 𝑐
𝑑 𝑐 𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 a) Ruling gradient:
Example: Find out the available setback from an  Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within
obstruction for 4 degree horizontal curve where sight which the designer attempts to design the
distance required is 350 m (550 m). The length of the vertical profile of a road.
curve is 600 m (400 m).  Ruling gradient is also knowaz b n as “Design
gradient”.
 For selection of ruling gradient factors such as
type of terrain, length of the grade, speed,
pulling power of vehicle etc. are considered.
b) Limiting gradient:
Steeper than ruling gradient. In hilly roads, it may be
frequently necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt
limiting gradient, it depends on
a) Topography b) Cost in constructing the road
c) Exceptional gradient:
 Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients
given at unavoidable situations.
 They should be limited for short stretches not
exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.

Type of terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional 2.6.2 What is a vertical curve?

gradient gradient gradient A parabolic curve is that is applied to make a smooth
Plain and rolling 3.3 % 5% 6.7 % and safe transition between two grades on a roadway or
1 in 30 1 in20 1 in 15 a highway.
Mountainous and steep 5% 6% 7%
having elevation more 1 in20 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3
than 3000 m above
MSL
Mountainous and steep 6% 7% 8%
having elevation more 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3 1 in 12.5
than 3000 m above
MSL
d) Minimum gradient:
Figure 2.38: Vertical curve
 This is important only at locations where surface
VPC : Vertical Point of Curvature
drainage is important.
VPI : Vertical Point of Intersection
 Camber will take care of the lateral drainage.
 But the longitudinal drainage along the side VPT : Vertical Point of Tangency
drains requires some slope for smooth flow of G1, G2 : Tangent grades in percent
water. A : Algebraic difference in grades
 Therefore minimum gradient is provided for L : Length of vertical curve
drainage purpose and it depends on the rainfall, When a vertical curve is applied?
type of soil and other site conditions.  At an intersection of two slopes on a highway or
 A minimum of 1in 500 may be sufficient for a roadway.
concrete drain and 1in 200 or 1 in 100 for open  To provide a safe and comfort ride for vehicles
soil drains. on a roadway.
Average gradient: K values:
Floating gradient: It is the slope of the road over which
Def: the horizontal distance in feet (meters) needed to
if a car or vehicle coming downward with a sudden
make 1% change in gradient. K= L/A
speed.
Application:
Grade Compensation:
1. To determine the minimum lengths of vertical curves
 When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced
2. To determine the horizontal distance from the VPC to
on a road which has already maximum
the high point of Type I or the low point of Type III
permissible gradient, then gradient should be Types of vertical curve:
decreased to compensate for loss of tractive i) Crest Vertical Curves:
efforts due to curve.  Minimum length of a crest vertical curve needs to
 This reduction in gradient at horizontal curve is satisfy the safety, comfort, and appearance criteria.
called grade compensation.  Minimum length of a crest vertical curve is equal 3
Grade compensation, % = (30+R)/R times the design speed (only for English Unit).
Example: While aligning a hill road with a ruling
gradient of 6% a horizontal curve of radius of 50 m is
encountered. Find the compensated gradient of the
curve.
Solution: Ruling gradient = 6%
Grade compensation, % = (30+R)/R = (30+50)/50 =
1.6%
Figure 2.39: Crest vertical curve
Minimum limit of Grade compensation = 75/R= 75/50=
1.5% General equation for the length of a crest vertical curve in
terms of algebraic difference in grades is:
Therefore compensated gradient = 6.0 – 1.5 = 4.5%
(Ans) a) When S is less than L
√ √
√ √
b) When S is greater than L 𝑆
IRC gave the following specification for the grade
compensation:
L: length of vertical curve, ft
1. Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter
S: sight distance, ft
than 4% because the loss of tractive force is negligible. A: algebraic difference in grades, percent
2. The maximum grade compensation is limited to 75/R%. h1: height of eye above roadway, ft (3.5ft)
Grade Ruling Compensated h2: height of object above roadway surface, ft (2ft)
= -
Compensation Gradient Gradient

These equations are often used to check the design speed of an K values can also be used when S > L because
existing vertical curve. K values are preferred to be used when there is no significant error between S>L and
design a new vertical curve because it provides a better safety S<L.
distance.
Page 272 AASHTO‟s A Policy on Geometric Design of
Design controls:
Highways and Streets 2004
 Design base on stopping sight distance
 Design base on passing sigh distance
Page 275 of AASHTO‟s A Policy on Geometric Design

 MUTCD passing sight distance of Highways and Streets 2004
 Decision sight distance ii)Sag vertical curve:
Stopping Sight Distance: Designs of a sag vertical curve need to satisfy at least
Definition: The total distances from when the driver decides to four difference criteria.
apply the break until the vehicle stop. a) Head light sight distance b) Passenger comfort
d= 1.47Vt+1.075V2/a c) Drainage control d) General appearance
Where,
t = break reaction time, (assumed 2.5s)
V = design speed, mph
a = deceleration rate, ft/s2
Figure 2.40: Sag vertical curve
General equation:
When, S > L
When, S < L
𝐴𝑆 𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝐿 𝐿 𝑆
𝑕 𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 𝐴
Page 113 of AASHTO‟s A Policy on Geometric Design

L: length of sag vertical curve, ft
of Highways and Streets 2004
S: light beam distance, ft
A: algebraic difference in grades, percent
: Angle of light beam intersects the surface of the
roadway, degree (assumed 1°)
h1: head light height, (assumed 2ft)
Design Consideration:
a) The design length of a sag vertical curve is based on
the head light sight distance, but the head light sight
distance needs to be designed almost equal to the
stopping sight distance because of safety criterion.
Therefore, stopping sight distance values can be use for
Exhibit 3-72. Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance and for Crest Vertical Curves
S value in general equation. Therefore, K values can be
used to calculate the length of the curve.
 In Exhibit 3-72, K values are calculated by the b) For passenger comfort, the below equation can be
equation used.

c) Design of summit curve as a square parabola because

the rate of change of slope is decreasing always so more
L: length of sag vertical curve, ft
sight distance available at the top of curve.
A: algebraic difference in grades, percent
Equation of summit curve –
V: design speed, mph
c) Drainage of curbed roadways needs to retain a grade
at least 0.5 percent or sometimes 0.3 percent for outer
edges of the roadway.
d) For appearance, the minimum curve length can be
calculated by equation L=100A for small or intermediate
values of A.
Derivation of Equation of summit curve:
In exhibit 3-75, K values are calculated by equation

𝑆
𝑆
Page 277 AASHTO‟s A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets 2004 Here,
2.6.3 Summit or Apex or Crest Vertical Curve: G = g1 – (-g2) = g1 + g2
Objective – We know, 𝐺𝐿
at x=L, y=
To join 2 different grades of roads with smooth vertical y = ax ………….(1)
2
curve. Four different conditions for formation summit = aL2 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

curve which are shown below – 𝑔 𝐿 𝑔 𝐿
Or, 𝑎
Or, 𝑎 𝐿
𝑔 𝑔
𝐺𝐿
at, x=L/2, y = m
Concept-
Location of the highest point:
Figure 2.41: Summit Vertical Curve

𝐷 𝑔
a) Design of summit curve on the basis of sight distance. Differentiating both sides w.r.to xn
b) On summit curves, centrifugal force acting outwards
𝑔
hence the springs of vehicle is not compressed and
therefore passenger comfort is not an issue. 𝑔
h1 = 1.20m and h2 =0.15m
Then,
𝑆
Length of Summit vertical curve:
a) For Sight distance < Length of curve (S<L) ii) For Safe Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) or
i) For Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
b) For Sight distance > Length of curve (S>L)

i) For Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Sight distance, S = S1 + S2
We know,
𝑕 𝑆 Here,
S = S1 + L/2 + S2 [S = SSD]
𝑕
𝑆 √ --------- (1)
𝑕 𝑕
Similarly,
𝑔 𝑔
𝑕 𝑆 𝑑𝑆 𝑕 𝑕
𝑑𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝑕 𝑕 𝑕
𝑆 √
𝑔 𝑔
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 √𝑕 √𝑕
𝑔 𝑔
𝑕 𝑕
√ √ √𝑕 √𝑕
𝑔 𝑔
√ √𝑕
√𝑕 √𝑕 𝑔 𝑔
√𝑕
Again,
𝑆 √𝑕 √𝑕
G=𝑔 𝑔
𝑆
√𝑕
√𝑕 √𝑕 𝑔 𝑔
√𝑕
Here,
√𝑕
A or G or N = Algebraic sum of grades 𝑔
h1 = Height of driver‟s eyes above road surface √𝑕
= 1.20m or 1.07m (3.5ft or 3.7ft) √𝑕
h2 = Height of obstruction above road surface 𝑔
√𝑕 √𝑕
= 0.15m Putting g1, g2 values in equation (1)
L = Length of curve
If consider,
𝑕 √𝑕 √𝑕 𝑕 √𝑕 √𝑕
𝑆
√𝑕 √𝑕
√𝑕 √𝑕 √𝑕 √𝑕 √𝑕 √𝑕
𝑆
√𝑕 √𝑕
𝑆 √𝑕 √𝑕
√ √
𝑆
Here,
A or G or N = Algebraic sum of grades
h1 = Height of driver‟s eyes above road surface
= 1.20m or 1.07m (3.5ft or 3.7ft) Length of valley curve:
h2 = Height of obstruction above road surface a) When Length of curve > Sight Distance (L>S)
= 0.15m y = ax2
L = Length of curve
If consider,
h1 = 1.20m and h2 =0.15m
Then equation for L reduce to
𝑆
ii) For Safe Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) or
Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
𝑆
Valley Curve:
Objective: To join 2 different grades of roads with
smooth vertical curve. Four different conditions for
formation summit curve which are shown below: Where,
𝑎
h1 + S tanα = aS2
h1 + S tanα =
𝑆 𝑆
𝑕 𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑆
OR,
𝐷 𝐷
𝑆
𝑆
𝐷 𝐷
Figure 2.41: Valley Curve 𝑆
Concept: In day time, no problem of any sight distance
but in night time head light sight distance should be 𝑆
𝐷
sufficient for vehicle to stop before colliding with object.
In valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting But, 𝐷 𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛
downwards along with the weight of the vehicle. This = 2.5ʹ + 0.0175S
will result in jerking of the vehicle and cause discomfort So, 2.5ʹ + 0.0175S
to the passengers.
Equation of valley curve: The valley curve is made L=
fully transitional by providing two similar transition Where,
curves of equal length. Equation of transition curve: L = Total length of Valley curve
S = Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) –( )

h1 = Height of headlight of vehicle = 2.5ʹ or If L>OSD
0.75m and beam angle α = 1°
b) When Length of curve < Sight Distance (L<S)
Hence L>OSD its ok. Therefore L = 586m (Ans)
Example 6.17: A vertical summit curve is to be designed
when two grades+1/60 and -1/80 meet on a highway. The
SSD and OSD required are 200m and 700m respectively. But
due to restricted site conditions the length of vertical curve
has to be restricted to a maximum value of 500m if possible.
Calculate the length of summit curve needed to fulfill the
requirements of (I) SSD and (I) OSD or at least ISD.
Solution: ( )
(I) SSD = 200m
Assume L>SSD
Here, As this SSD<L<500m it is safe.

AE = 2.5ʹ = Height of headlight Therefore L= 256.2 m (Ans)
AF = L/2 (II) OSD = 700m
Assume L>OSD
FDʹ = S – L/2
𝑆
AD = Length of curve
ADʹ = Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = S 𝑠𝑎
DʹBʹ = G(S – L/2) Here L>OSD but L>500m also
Again, So it is not possible to provide the required OSD of
DʹBʹ = 2.5ʹ + S tanα 700m.
Hence to provide limited opportunities for overtaking
(𝑆 ) 𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛 intermediate
Sight distance (ISD) equal to twice the SSD of 200 × 2=400 may
(𝑆 ) 𝑆 be provided if possible.
If L>ISD
𝑆
Example 6.15: A vertical summit curve is formed at
Here ISD<L<500m, It is possible to provide the ISD to allow limited
the intersection of two gradients +1% and -4%. Design
overtaking operations.
the length Of summit curve provide a stopping sight
Example 6.18. A valley curve is divided by aMd. Saydul Islam, (ID-1610
distance for a design speed of 100 kmph. Assume other
data suitably. descending grade of 1 in 30 meeting an ascending
Solution: grade of 1 in 25. Design the length of valley curve to
Assume fulfil both comfort condition and head light sight
SSD = 0.287Vt + t = 2.5sec distance requirement for a design speed of 80 kmph.
SSD = 0.287×100×2.5 + f = 0.4 Assume allowable rate of change of centrifugal
= 168m V = 100kmph acceleration C=0.6 m/sec3.
Deviation angle G = 0.02 – (- 0.04) = 0.06 Solution: Head light sight distance condition.
Assume L>SSD
Neglecting the ascending and descending gradients at the
We know, valley curve use equation
Stop sight distance, SSD = 𝑡 Assume

t = 2.5 sec
= 384.2 m = 385 m (say)
Since L>SSD. Therefore the length of summit curve, SSD = f = 0.25
L= 385m (Ans) v = 80 kmph
If L>SSD = 22.2 m/sec
Example 6.16: An ascending gradient of 1 in 80 meets a
descending gradient of 1 in 100. A summit curve is to be G = -1/30-1/50
designed for a speed of 100 kmph so as to have an OSD Of 500
in. = -11/150
= = 256.4m
Solution: here, g1 = +1/80, g2 = -1/100
Hence L>SSD. Therefore L = 256.4m (Ans)
Other Design considerations for Vertical Curve Table: Road Network Classification with Definition
Designs: Sl. Type Definition Ownership
and
Paying more attention to the drainage design when value No
Responsibility
of K >167 1. RHD
The length of vertical curve can be computed by using National Highways connecting National
Highway capital with Divisional HQs or
K values in both crest and sag vertical curves.
sea ports or land ports or Asian
Minimum length of a crest vertical curve is equal 3 Highway
time the design speed (only for English Unit).
2. Regional Highways connecting District RHD
The “roller-coaster” or the “hidden up” type of profile
Highway HQs or main river or land ports or
should be avoided. with each other not connected by
Two vertical curves in the same direction separated by national Highways.
a short section of tangent grade should be avoided. 3. Zila Roads connecting District HQ/s RHD
On long grades, the steepest grades should be placed Road with Upazila HQ/s or connecting
at the bottom of the curve and flatten the grades near the one Upazila HQ to another
top of ascent. Upazila HQ by a single main
It is desirable to reduce the grade through the connection with National/
intersection where at-grade intersections occur on Regional Highway, through
roadway sections with moderate to steep grades. shortest distance/ route.
Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless 4. Upazila Roads connecting Upazila HQ/s LGED/
Road with Growth Center/s or one LGI**
adequate drainage can be provided.
(UZR) Growth Center with another
The stopping sight distance for trucks is not necessary Growth Center by a single main
to be considered in designing vertical because the truck connection or connecting Growth
driver able to see farther than passenger car. For that Center to Higher Road System,*
reason, the stopping sight distance for trucks and through shortest distance/route.
passenger cars is balance. (Former Feeder Road Type-B)
Most of cases the stopping sight distance will be used 5. Union Roads connecting union HQ/s LGED/ LGI
for vertical design length, but engineering judgments Road with Upazila HQs, Growth
also get involve in decision making. (UNR) Centers or local markets or with
each other. (Former Rural Road
Class-1 (R1)
6. Village Roads connecting Villages with LGED/ LGI
Road Union HQs, local markets, farms
Chapter -03 (VR) and ghats or with each other.
Roadway Types (Former Rural Road Class-2 (R2)
A. Geographical area or location wise b) Roads within a Village.
(Former Rural Road Class-3 (R3)
•Rural Road •Urban Road
Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in
the country. Highways are of two types – rural highways
and urban highways. Rural highways are those passing
through rural areas (villages) and Urban highways are
those passing through large cities and towns, i.e. urban
areas.
B. Function wise
•Rural Road
i) National Highway ii) Regional Highway
iii) Feeder Road A iv)Feeder Road B
•Urban Road
i) Primary/Main/Arterial Road
ii) Secondary Road ii)Local Road

C. Standard wise
•Full access control, Expressway/Motorway with grade
separated junctions.
•Partial/No access control with at-grade intersection
Freeways: Freeways are access-controlled divided
highways. Most freeways are four lanes, two lanes each
direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more
lanes as they enter urban areas. Access is controlled
through the use of interchanges, and the type of
interchange depends upon the kind of intersecting road
way (rural roads, another freeway etc.)
Expressways: They are superior type of highways and
are designed for high speeds ( 120 km/hr is common),
high traffic volume and safety. They are generally
provided with grade separations at intersections.
Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian
traffic is not allowed on expressways.
Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily
meant for through traffic usually on a continuous route.
They are generally divided highways with fully or
partially controlled access. Parking, loading and
unloading activities are usually restricted and regulated.
Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at
intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.
Collector streets: These are streets intended for
collecting and distributing traffic to and from local
streets and also for providing access to arterial streets.
Normally full access is provided on these streets. There
are few parking restrictions except during peak hours.
Local streets: A local street is the one which is
primarily intended for access to residence, business or
abutting property. It does not normally carry large
volume of traffic and also it allows unrestricted parking
and pedestrian movements.
D. Usage wise
i) Commuter road ii) All-purpose road
iii) By-pass iv) Distributor/Ring road

v) Feeder/Collector road vi) Slip/Access road 4.4.1 At Grade intersection:

vii) Service road vii) Frontage road An intersection is a junction where two or more roads
E. Operation wise meet or cross. Roads that cross each other at the same
i) Single Carriageway/Undivided road level or elevation are called At grade Intersections.
ii) Dual Carriageway/ Divided road iii) Two way
iv) One way v) Lane/non-lane based
F. Investment wise
i) Public road- free ii) Private: BOT-tolled road
Chapter – 04
Road Intersection
4.1 Definition of Road Intersection:
 When two or more roads intersect each other, it
is called Intersections or Road Junction. Figure 4.1 : At grade separation
 Road intersections should be designed to
provide safety to road users and free flow of 4.1.1 (i) Un- Channelized At Grade Intersections:
traffic. These are At-grade intersections without islands
 This area is designated for the vehicles to turn to for directing traffic into definite paths.
different directions to reach their desired These are simple in design and dangerous in traffic
destinations. operations.
 This is because vehicles moving in different These are classified into:-
direction want to occupy same space at the same a. Square junction
time. b. Skew junction or acute junction
4.2 The factors to be considered while making c. T- junction d. Y- junction
selection for a particular type of road junction are as e. Multiple junctions
follows:
 Availability of means of traffic control
a. Square junction
 Degree of traffic congestion
 Funds available
 Number of intersecting streets or roads
 Volume and nature of traffic
4.3 Following are the general principles to be
observed in the design of road junctions to minimize
the risks of accidents:
i) Angle of crossing ii) Camber
iii) Channelizing iv) Entry speeds
v) Gradient vi) Importance of roads
vii) Kerbs viii) Pedestrian traffic
Figure 4.2: Square junction
ix) Simplicity x) Visibility
4.4 Classification of Road Intersection: b. Skew junction or acute junction
Figure 4.3: Square junction

c. T- junction At these intersections islands are introduced to reduce

the total conflict area available. These islands are useful
to channelise the turning traffic, to control the speed and
angle of approach.
Channelized intersection
 Vehicles approaching an intersection are
directed to definite paths by islands, marking
etc. and this method of control is called
channelization.
 It provides more safety and efficiency.
 It reduces the number of possible conflicts by
reducing the area of conflicts available in the
carriageway
 The presence of traffic islands, markings etc.
Figure 4.4: T- junction
forces the driver to reduce the speed and
d. Y- junction becomes more cautious while maneuvering the
intersection.
 It also serves as a refuge for pedestrians and
makes pedestrian crossing safer.
Figure 4.5: Y- junction
e. Multiple junctions
Figure 4.8: Channelised intersection
4.4.3. Rotary Intersection:

 The rotary intersection of roads is also called as
traffic rotary which is nothing but enlarged
intersection of roads where vehicles cross roads
or change their direction without stopping.
 All vehicles coming from different roads move
in single direction around the central island and
diverges into required exit.
Figure 4.6: Multiple junctions
4.4.2. Channelised At Grade Intersections:
Figure 4.9: Rotary junctions

Figure 4.7: Channelised intersection

4.4.4 Grade Separated Intersection:  A pedestrian overpass allows pedestrians safe

 This are the intersections at which the vehicles crossing over busy roads without impacting
crosses at different levels. traffic.
 They cause less hazard and delay than grade  And Railway overpasses are used to replace at-
intersections. grade crossing as a safer alternative.
 The objective of this is to eliminate all grade  Overpasses allows for unobstructed rail traffic
crossing conflicts and to accommodate other flow from mixing with vehicular and pedestrian
intersecting maneuvers by merging, diverging traffic.
and weaving at low relative speed. 3. Trumpet Interchange:
 It increases the capacity of roads and reduces the  It is used where one highway terminates at
congestions. another highway.
1. Underpass:  They are trumpet shaped intersection.
 It is an underground passageway, completely  These involve at least one loop ramp connecting
enclosed except at the openings commonly at traffic either entering or leaving the terminating
each end. expressway with the far lanes of the continuous
 A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road highway.
traffic, for rail traffic.  Trumpets are suitable at the locations where the
 If an underpass is constructed for pedestrians side road exists on only one side of the freeway,
and/or cyclists beneath a road or railway, and traffic is relatively low.
allowing them to reach the other side in safety,  The principal advantages are low construction
then such a construction is termed as a Subway. cost and are useful for highways as well as toll
roads.
Figure 4.12: Trumpet Interchange
4. Diamond Interchange:
 It is the simplest form of grade separated
intersection between two roadways.
 The conflicts between through and crossing
Figure 4.10: Underpass
traffic are eliminated by a bridge structure.
2. Overpass:  The left turn crossing movement conflicts are
 It is also known as a flyover, is a bridge, road, considerably reduced by eliminating the conflict
railway or similar structure that crosses over with the traffic in opposite direction.
another road or railway.  It is suitable for locations where the volume of
left turn traffic is relatively low.
 It requires a minimum amount of land and is
economical to construct.
 The single point of exit from the major roadway
eases the problem of signing.
Figure 4.11: Overpass
Figure 4.13: Diamond Interchange

 Limitations
5. Cloverleaf Interchange: o high cost of construction
 A cloverleaf interchange is a two-level o It requires large amount of land
interchange in which left turns are handled by compared to the others.
ramp roads.
 To go left vehicles first continue as one road
passes over or under the other, then exit right
onto a one-way three-fourths loop ramp (270°)
and merge onto the intersecting road.
 The objective of a cloverleaf is to allow two
highways to cross without the need for any
traffic to be stopped by red lights, even for left
and right turns.
 The limiting factor in the capacity of a
cloverleaf interchange is traffic weaving.
Figure 4.16: Directional Interchange
4.5 TRAFFIC ISLANDS:

 When two or more roads of equal importance
intersect at a point traffic islands were
introduced and all vehicles are compelled to
move along the same direction only.
Figure 4.14: Cloverleaf Interchange
 There are different types of traffic islands. They
6. Partial Cloverleaf Interchange: are:
 It is a modification that combines some elements 1. Circular islands
of a diamond interchange with one or more 2. Turbine Island
loops of a cloverleaf to eliminate only the more
critical turning conflicts. 3. Rhombus Islands
 This is the most popular freeway -to- arterial 4. Tangent Island
interchange.
 Geometric Design of transportation facilities
 It is usually employed when crossing roads on
the secondary road will not produce must provide for the resolution of traffic
objectionable amounts of hazard and delay. conflicts.
 It provides more acceleration and deceleration  In general, these conflicts may be classified
space on the freeway. as:
- Merging conflicts
 Occurs when vehicles enter a traffic stream.
Merging
Figure 4.15: Partial Cloverleaf Interchange - Diverging conflicts

7. Directional Interchange: • Occurs when vehicles leave the traffic stream
 A Directional interchange provides direct paths
for left turns.
 These interchanges contain ramps for one or
more direct or semi direct left turning Diverging
movements. - Weaving conflicts
 They are the basic patterns that use the least
• Occurs by merging then diverging
space, have the fewest or least complex
structures, minimize internal weaving and
appropriate for the common terrain and traffic
conditions. Weaving

- Crossing conflicts 9. Camber and Super Elevation

• Occurs when they cross paths directly  If the vehicle is changing its direction to its
opposite side, the vehicle may over turn or slip,
to overcome this, minimum cross slope is
provided which is nothing but camber.
 This camber acts as super elevation in case of
Crossing rotary roadways.
4.6 Design elements:

Chapter – 05
1. Design Speed Traffic engineering
 It should be passed with low speeds which will 5.1 Definition of traffic engineering:
results the safety without any collision. Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that
 Speed restriction board should be provided on uses engineering techniques to achieve the safe and
the road towards rotary intersection. efficient movement of people and goods on roadways.
2. Shape of Central Island (Traffic engineering is that branch of engineering which
 The shape of Central Island should not contain deals with planning and geometric design of streets,
any corners. highway, abutting lands, and operating traffic systems
 It should be formed by curves to allow the to achieve safe, economical, convenient and efficient
comfortable rotations around it. movement of persons and goods)
 The shape is dependent upon number of roads 5.2 History:
meeting at that junction.  Traffic Engineering as it is known today has
 The shapes generally provided are circular, evolved gradually with increase in traffic
elliptical, turbine and tangential. (vehicle & pedestrian)
3. Radius of Rotary Roadway  Initially it was limited to application of simple
 The radius of roadway is dependent upon the rules and regulations such as left driving rule,
shape of Central Island and the frictional force. road signs, marking, and intersection control by
 If it is circular shape, radii are similar at all flag etc.
points and if it is elliptical or tangent radii is  Subsequent analysis of traffic operations and
different at different points. road accidents led to the realization the traffic
4. Weaving Angle and Weaving Distance regulations and other methods of traffic control
 The weaving angle should be small but should be based on proper engineering studies.
minimum of 15ois maintained.  In consequence as extension of traffic
 The weave length should be at least four times regulations - many new traffic control and
the width of weaving section. management techniques were devised viz. speed
5. Width of Carriageway at Entry and Exit zoning, traffic signals, turn restrictions, parking
 The width of carriage way at entry and exits is restrictions, bus priorities, one-way street etc.
dependent of volume of traffic in that particular  Eventually it become evident that the planning
region or area. and design of efficient road network largely
 Minimum width of 5.0 meters should be depends upon the integrated land-use &
maintained for rotary intersections. transport policies and effective demand
6. Width of Rotary Roadway management (road pricing to control &
distribution peak hours)
 The width should be equal to the effective width
 Modern traffic engineering measures are mostly
of weaving section.
restrictive and dynamic in nature and largely
7. Curves at Entrance and Exit
depend on public transport facilities and
 Entry curve radius can be provided as same as
information technology (IT).
radius of central island.
5.2 Major sections of traffic Engineering:
 The vehicle accelerates at exits hence the radius Traffic Engineering includes:
of curve at exit should be greater than the radius  The study of regulations for traffic
of curve at entrance.  Characteristics of traffic
8. Sight Distance  Controlling and guiding measures for traffic
 The sight distance provided at rotary  Flow of traffic at junctions
intersections should be as higher as possible and  Parking areas
value must be less than the stopping sight  Traffic survey
distance.
 Engineering elements of road system affecting  General data such as time, date, person involved,
traffic operation etc.
 Improvement of traffic facilities in existing  Location of the accident
towns and so on.  Nature of accident including injuries, damages
Traffic engineering includes etc.
 studies and analysis of traffic characteristics and flow  Primary causes of accident
parameters
 geometric design (mainly improvement)  Road and traffic conditions at the site of accident.
 planning of regulatory measures Causes of Road Accident
 design and application of control devices  Defective vehicles
 functional planning of road network  Drivers
5.3 Objects of Traffic Engineering:  Moving of animals
 To achieve smooth and easy flow of traffic at  Passengers
intersections  Pedestrians
 To develop methods for improvement in general  Road design
and for solving specific problems in particular  Traffic Volume
 To have safe, convenient, rapid and economic  Weather
transport of persons and goods
 To improve the speeds of vehicles The problems of traffic on road result from the
 To increase the traffic carrying capacity of roads performance and requirements of the following three
components:
 To make the streets safe for the movement of
both, pedestrians and vehicles  Fixed facilities for the accommodation of traffic
 To reduce delays in road journeys on the road
 Human beings using the road
 To reduce the chances of road accidents to a
minimum  Vehicles on the road
 To remove traffic congestion All the traffic controls and improvements can be
Objectives reduced to the behavior of the above three components.
 to improve overall roadway capacity
It has been slightly said that the traffic control methods
 to ensure safety
 since both vehicle-vehicle and vehicle-pedestrian conflicts can be expressed by three E‟s i.e Education,
reduce roadway capacity and cause accident risk -overall Enforcement and Engineering.
objective is to minimize these conflicts so as to make the i) Educational methods include training of public
most economic use of the existing roadway facilities opinion for respecting traffic rules and regulations by
5.4 Traffic Survey or Study: means of lectures, films, posters, radio talks, articles in
5.4.1 Aims of traffic survey: newspapers, safety drive programmers, etc.
 To analyse the road accidents and to find out ii) Enforcement methods include framing of a proper
road elements contributing to their occurrence traffic code, appointing an authority to supervise the
 To determine the facilities provided on road and road traffic and punishing the defaulters of traffic code,
to suggest the measures to improve the introducing proper signal system, medical check up of
 To get data for suitable geometric design of drivers, special precautions for commercial vehicles,
various components of roads speed control, etc.
 To obtain the knowledge of the nature of traffic iii) Engineering methods include suitable street
at present and to forecast its future trend systems, proper design of junctions, land use zoning,
 To provide suitable parking facilities location of public bus stops, physical features of road,
 To suggest controlling measures for speed parking facilities, proper road lighting, etc.
For the safety of pedestrians on road, the following
5.4.2 Types of Traffic Survey: measures may be taken:
 Accident survey 1) The fencing and railing is provided
 Origin and destination survey 2) The pedestrians are completely segregated at
 Parking survey road junctions and they are not allowed to enter
 Spot speed survey the road intersections.
 Speed and delay survey 3) The traffic islands with proper markings
 Traffic volume survey 4) The shopping entrances on roads are provided
a) Accident Survey with telescopic railing.
The investigations to be carried out during an accident 5) The vehicles are allowed to move in the urban
survey include the following items: areas at certain restricted speeds.
 Details of vehicles such as registration number,
type of vehicle, loading details.
 Estimation of cost of accident
b) Origin and Destination Survey  Household-based is most expensive yet offer more
The O and D studies of vehicular traffic determines their useful data.
number, their origin and destination in each zone under study.  Measures only average, not individual behavior.
The data of number of passengers in each vehicles, purpose of
 Only part of the individual‟s movements can be
trip, intermediate stops made and reasons, actual direction of
travel, selection of routes and length of trip etc. also collected. investigated.
 Information is poorly estimated by the interviewee.
The details collected during O & D survey help in 2. License plate method:
taking decisions with respect to the following items:  License (registration number) plate survey consists
1) Establishing preferential routes for various of noting the registration number of vehicles
categories of vehicles entering or leaving an area by manually or using
2) The location of new bridge or tunnels as per video camera at survey points located on the cordon
demand and intensity of traffic line.
3) The location of new proposed roads  By matching the registration number of the vehicles
4) The location of parking places at the point of entry and exit from the area, one is
5) The necessity of making one way street enabled to identify two points on the paths of the
6) The necessity and usefulness of new roads vehicles.
7) To regulate movement of heavy vehicles Advantages:
8) To stop the movement of slow moving vehicles  Work does not interfere with the traffic in any way.
during certain hours of day Disadvantages:
Most commonly adopted methods for O & D survey:  Large number of observers are needed
1) House interview method  Analysis of the results can be complicated.
2) License plate method  It is applicable for a small area.
3) Postal questionnaire method 3. Postal questionnaire method:
4) Route interview method Cards are handed to drivers as they pass the station.
5) Tag on car method Stations can be located where the vehicles have to
1. House interview method: proceed slowly (usually at junctions/bridge entrances
etc.)
 In this method random sample of 0.5 to 10% of the
 Cards should have prepaid postage and be self-
population is selected and the residences are visited
addressed
by the trained people who collect the travel data
 The number of question is limited to five or six
from each member of the household.
 Wording of questions should be very simple
 Detailed information regarding the trips made by
 Different colors may be used to distinguish between
the members is obtained on the spot.
census stations
 The data collected may be useful either for  Advance publicity is essential to ensure public co-
planning and road network and other roadway operations
facilities. Advantages:
Data collection:
 This method is simpler and cheaper than many
 Number of trip made
others.
 Their origin and destination
Disadvantages:
 Purpose of trip
 Response may not a good.
 Travel mode
4. Route interview method:
 Number of residents
Drivers are stopped with the help of police and
 Age
questioned about their
 Sex
 Origin, destination & trip length and purpose
 Vehicle ownership
 Route choice to reach destination
 Number of drivers
 Location of stops & purposes
 Family income
Advantages:
Advantages:
 Data is collected quickly in short duration
 The problem of stopping vehicles and consequent
difficulties are avoided.  Field organization is simple
Disadvantages:
 The present travel needs are clearly know and the
analysis is also simple.  The vehicles are stopped for interview and there is
delay to the vehicular movement
 Additional data including socioeconomic and other
5. Tag on car method:
details may be useful for forecasting traffic and
Pre-coded tags are placed on vehicles as they enter into
transportation growth.
the study area and removed as they leave the area. The
Disadvantages:
time, station and direction of travel are recorded on the  To develop systematic on-street parking facilities/
tags. regulations (i.e. road side management)
Advantages:  To improve existing on-street facilities (i.e.
 This method is simple and errors are not very updating parking regulations/time limits, fees etc.)
large.  To develop new off-street parking facilities (i.e.
Disadvantages: fixing type, size, location, regulation etc. of
 It is not possible to handle all the vehicle’s parking facilities)
sampling may be restored to done. Parking Studies Include
c) Parking Study  Supply Surveys - To know parking supply/space
Introduction available in the area under consideration by
 Parking studies mainly for car conducting:
 Usually conducted for urban areas with high  Space inventories - listing all the existing
demand for parking parking facilities and open spaces available for
 Parking is essential for business & commercial adopting as parking places as well as listing
activities areas where parking should be prohibited (viz.
 It should be an integral part of roadway system Bus stops, clear-ways, drive-ways/entrances,
and provision of off-street parking spaces should safety zones etc.).
be considered at the urban planning stage  Demand Surveys -To know parking demand
 It is roughly estimated that out of 8,760 hours in a including even who are searching for spaces by
year, the car runs on an average for only 400 hours conducting:
(4.5%), leaving 8,360 hours when it is parked.  Field observation - recording location, type of
 Parking control has potential to improve roadway vehicle, number of parking vehicles, duration
capacity and safety of parking etc.
Problems Associated with Uncontrolled On-street  Interview- questionnaire survey.
Parking: For proper implementation of a parking scheme, besides
 Reduce roadway capacity (as it reduces effective parking supply and demand, information regarding
width of road and parking/unparking maneuver roadway capacity and flow fluctuations in both
interrupts free flow of vehicles) and consequently directions of road is to be known.
 causes congestion Parking should be prohibited at:
 causes serious economic losses to the i. Intersections
community (due to increase of journey time, ii. Narrow streets
delay, vehicle operating cost, pollution etc.) iii. Driveways
 Encourage road side non-motor activities (increase iv. Pedestrian crossing
side frictions) v. Curvature and grade conditions
 Unmarked/uncontrolled parking leads less vi. Road bridges and tunnel
efficient use of road side spaces vii. Heavy pedestrian concentration areas
 Loss of revenue viii. Priority location-bus stops, fire hydrants etc.
 Makes roadway operation unsafe and haphazard Some of the terms used in the parking survey as
 in general on-street parking maneuver follows:
contribute to about 10% vehicular accidents 1) Parking accumulation: It indicates the number of
(due to reversing from angle park) and 8- vehicles which are parked in a specified area at a given
10%of pedestrian fatalities instant. During peak hours, the parking accumulation is
 common causes of parking related accidents from 70 percent to 90 percent of the traffic accumulated.
 searching parking space and stopping 2) Parking Duration: The length of time for which a
suddenly vehicle remains in the parked position is known as the
 moving out from stopped position and parking duration.
merging with main stream traffic 3) Parking load: The total sum of vehicle hours of
 due to reversing from parallel park (hitting parking is the parking load and its magnitude and
children at the rear end) distribution throughout the day will serve as a measure
 careless opening of the doors of parked of overall usage of the parking space which is provided.
vehicles 4) Parking turnover: The ratio of the number of
 pedestrian crossings near the parked vehicles parked during a period to the total parking
vehicles, etc. (obstruct sight distance) capacity is known as parking turnover. If the parking
Objectives of Parking Studies turnover is high, it indicates well utilization of parking
 To obtain information regarding supply and space.
demand of parking spaces
5) Parking volume: The actual number of different
vehicles which park is termed as the parking volume.
Types of Parking Facilities: The parking facilities
can be grouped in the following two categories:
i) Kerb or on-street parking
ii) Off-street parking
On-street/Kerb parking:
 vehicles parked along the curb
 usually for short stay
 very convenient for the people (less walking)
 preferably parallel method of parking Figure 5.1: Parallel parking
 may be of charged or free
Off-street parking 2. Right Angle (Perpendicular) Parking
 when parking places are provided away from the  The vehicles are parked at right angle to the
road curb road. It is an efficient system of parking.
 usually for long stay  Consumes Minimum kerb length is consumed.
 requires walking of quite a large distance to reach  Accommodates maximum no. of vehicles.
the destination
 preferably angle parking with common isle
 types:
i. back street (specially where there is no or
minimum through traffic movements)
ii. surface car parks/parking lots
iii. multi-storied car parks
 self-parking system - using ramps
 auto parking system - using elevators
iv. basement car parks - usually for private uses
v. Roof parks - Access ramps or Mechanical lifts
provide access to roofs.
Methods of Parking: Common Methods of Parking are:
1. Parallel parking
 Total space required for parking and unparking
Figure 5.2: Perpendicular parking
maneuvers is least
 Parked vehicle takes least roadway width but 3. Angle parking
consumes maximum curb length  Total space required for parking and unparking
 Maneuver is very difficult, as for proper maneuvers increases with increase in angle of
parking and unparking some forward and parking
backward movements are essential (especially  Parked vehicle takes more roadway width but
high skill is necessary to park between two consumes less curb length and it decrease as the
vehicles) angle of parking increases
 Relatively parking maneuver takes more time  Maneuver is more convenient/easier than
than unparking maneuver parallel parking
 Near-side door opening and get down from car  Relatively parking maneuver takes less time
using off-side is unsafe and need extra care than unparking maneuver and as such parking
 It is usually recommended for road with narrow maneuver causes less interference to through
width or with high volume of through traffic traffic than the parallel parking. Whereas,
 Consumes maximum Kerb length. unparking maneuver is not easily executed
 Width requirement is less. So preferably used in narrow because most of the reversing, car has to project
streets. into the traffic lane to get an unobstructed view -
 Parking & Unparking operations are difficult.
this produces more interruption to through
traffic and causes hazardous situation.
 It is usually recommended for off street parking
and on exceptionally wider road or road with
low volume of through traffic.
 Results in more accidents than parallel parking.
 As parking angle increases ,
 Length of streets required reduces.
 Width of streets required increases.
 Angle parking is more convenient than parallel
parking. Delay to traffic is minimum.
 Results in more accidents than parallel parking.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 5.3: (a) 60° Angle parking (b) 45° Angle parking (c) 30°
Angle parking
Design Parking Vehicle:
It is determined based on the dimension of 85th
percentile of cars being used in the study area. For bay
design there is a needed to add allowances for door
openings and for isle design space required for parking
and unparking maneuvers is to be considered. Suggested
bay sizes for curbside parking (AUSTRALIA):
Figure 5.4: Different Types of Parking Arrangements
Table 5.1: Angle of Parking Bay by Degree, Width (m)
and Length (m)
Degree Width (m) Length (m)
0° (Parallel) 2.3 6.7
30° 2.6 4.7
45° 2.6 5.3
60° 2.6 5.5
90° (Perpendicular) 2.6 5.9
For systematic development of parking facilities there

is a need to
 identify areas suitable for on-street parking and
mark them properly
 impose restriction on parking at unauthorized
places
 improve walking facilities
 introduce parking charge and time limit
 know demand elasticity
 develop off-street parking
Traffic Control Devices Traffic Signs
Introduction Introduction
The various aids and devices used to control, regulate Traffic signs are mainly used to
and guide traffic are:  inform drivers about regulations
 Signs  adjust their lane position, speed
 Signals  guide them to reach their points of interest
 Markings Classification
 Islands Various traffic signs have been recognized by the
Objectives government of India through motor vehicle act, 1939.
 to regulate As per IRC, there are three types of traffic signs
 to warn (Functional classes of traffic signs are):-
 to guide traffic movements and thereby 1. Regulatory or Mandatory signs
 to ensure safe and smooth flow of traffic 2. Warning signs
movements 3. Informatory signs.
General requirements 1. Regulatory or Mandatory signs:
Traffic control devices should:  These are meant to inform the road users of certain
 Fulfill a need - must be reasonable and appropriate laws, regulations and prohibitions;
for the traffic requirements at the locations used  The violation of the signs is a legal offence;
 Command attention & respect of drivers and  These are usually circular in shape with red
pedestrians - must not be used where it is not border, white background.
warranted; otherwise it will invite drivers to These sign gives orders. They tell drivers what they must
disregard and to have less respect for traffic control not do (prohibitory), or what they must do (mandatory).
devices in general Most of them take the form of a circular disc, although
 Convey a clear, simple meaning - legible at long two signs, the Stop sign and Give Way sign, have
range and understandable at a glance distinctive individual shapes.
 Be place so as to give users time for proper They are classified as:-
response  Stop and give way signs
 Be uniform in design and application - the size,  Prohibitory signs
shape, color of the device/letter/symbol, mounting  No parking or No stopping vehicles
height, siting and lighting should be uniform and  Speed limit and vehicle control signs
consistent  Restriction end signs
 Be visible both at day & night  Compulsory direction control signs
 Be maintained at high standard - to ensure
legibility and visibility
 Generally as some control devices impose
restriction on vehicle movements - it is
recommended that:
Stop and Give Way Give Way No Entry
 These should be use conservatively to avoided
disrespect by the drivers - if used in excess,
tend to lose their effectiveness.
 Moreover, these should not be used alone,
where enforcement is required to compel
drivers to obey them.
No Motor Vehicles No Trucks No Handcarts
How these requirements are met?
 Design
 Placement
 Uniformity
 Operation
 Maintenance
No Animal-Drawn Vehicles No Pedestrian No Rickshaws
General Color Coding

 Yellow –general warning
 Red –stop or prohibition
 Green –Direction guidance
 Orange –construction and maintenance warning
No Cycles No Tractors or Slow- No Vehicles Carrying
Moving Vehicles Explosives
Mandatory Signs (shall follow)
 Regulatory
 slow/slop
 keep right
 restriction on speed, size, weight
No Vehicles Over No Vehicles Over No Vehicles Over  one way traffic etc.
Length Shown Height Shown Width Shown  Prohibitory
 no right/left/U turn
 no entry for vehicle types
 no overtaking
 no horn
 no waiting/parking etc.
No Parking
No Vehicles Over Maximum Axle Weight
 Special mandatory signs for priority typed
Gross Weight Shown Limit
intersections
 STOP
 used when vision is obstructed
 USA/UK practice - octagonal, red
background, white border
 YIELD/GIVEWAY
No Stopping No Overtaking No Passing Without
Stopping
 used when vision is not obstructed and stop
is needed only when necessary
 USA/UK practice - triangular pointing down
ward
2. Warning Signs:
 Warning signs are used to warn the road users of
No U Turn
certain hazardous conditions that exist on the
No Right Turn No Left Turn
roadway.
 These signs are in the shape of equilateral triangle.
 They are having white background, red border and
black symbols.
 The side of triangle is45cm.
No Use Of Horn Special Speed Limit National Speed Limits Apply
These warn drivers of some danger or difficulty on the
road ahead. Most of them take the form of an equilateral
triangle with point upwards.
 These are known as safety signs
 Not always an offense if not complied with
 Usually equilateral triangle or diamond in shape
Temporary Stop Sign Temporary Go Sign
 These signs convey message to warn about
Restriction Ends
potentially hazardous conditions ahead and where
some caution/attention is required for examples:
 side road
 junctions
 level crossing
Ahead Only Turn Left Keep Left  zigzag/slippery road
 sharp bend
 road hump
 narrow bridge
 school, hospital, cinema hall etc.
Turn Left Ahead Small Round About Pass Either Side
One Way Traffic One Way Street Route For Route For Cycle Crossroads Major Road Ahead Side Road Right
(Rickshaws) Only Only (Crossroads) (Left in symbol reserved)
Staggered Junction T Junction Y Junction Uneven Road Slippery Road
(Symbol may be reserved)
Traffic Merges From Merge With Traffic Roundabout Road Hump Low Flying Aircraft Falling Rocks
Left From Right (symbol may be reversed)
Sharp Bend To The Right Hairpin Bend To Right Double Bend First Left Dangerous Dip Narrow Bridge Other Danger
(Left if symbol reversed) (Left if symbol reversed) (Right if symbol reversed)
Sharp Change Of Road Narrows On Both Road Narrows On The Checkpoint Road Works Loose Chippings
Direction To The Left Sides Right
(Right if chevrons reversed) (Left if symbol reversed)
Cycles And Rickshaws Dangerous Shoulder Ferry

Dual Carriageway Ends Traffic Signals Sleep Hill Downwards
Sleep Hill Upwards Two Way Traffic Blind Persons Railway Level Crossing Railway Level Crossing
Straight Ahead Without Gate Or Barrier With Gate Or Barrier
Count-down Location Of T Junction Chevron

Two Way Traffic Pedestrian Crossing Pedestrians In Road
Markers Railway Crossing (Turn Right Or Left Only)
Crosses One Way Road Ahead
Children Cattle Wild Animals Dangerous Obstruction Dangerous Obstruction Temporary Diversion
(Single sided) (Double sided) Ahead
Layout Of Temporary Direction Of Lane Closed To Traffic
Traffic Diversion Temporary Diversion Ahead (Temporary) Overnight First-Aid Post Hospital
Ahead Accommodation
Sharp Change Of Refreshments Restaurant Picnic Site

Flood Gauge
Direction (Temporary
Diversion)
3. Informatory or Guide Signs:

These signs are used to guide the road users along
routes, inform them about destinations and distances and
provide information to make travel easier, safe and
pleasant. Mosque Temple Church
Various Informatory signs are:
 Direction and place identification signs
 Facility information signs
 Parking signs
 Flood gauge
Recommended Route For
Most of these signs give drivers information to enable
Fire Station Toilets (Pedestrians, Cycles and Rickshaws)
them to find their way to their destination. It is a varied
group of signs, but they are all either square or
rectangular in shape.
 These signs show the direction of important places
of interests and are used to guide road users along
route to make the travel convenient, safe and
comfortable
 Used at a location where the motorist would be in Lane For (Cycles and Lane Ahead For Bus Stop
Rickshaws) (Cycles and Rickshaws)
doubt
 Informatory signs do not lose their effectiveness by
over-use and as such it is desirable to use them as
frequent as is necessary
 Usually rectangular in shape
 Examples
 route direction Taxi Park Police Station Toll Road Or Bridge
 points of interests
 mile stone/distance
Place Identification Exit From Built-up Pedestrian Route

Sign Area
(Entry to Built-up area)
No Through Road Pedestrian Crossing Parking Place
Advance Direction Advance Direction Advance Direction Sign

Sign (Map-type – Sign (Stack-type – (Stack-type – minor
National Highways) National Highways) routes)
Filling Station Breakdown Service Telephone
Advance Direction Sign Direction Sign
(Mounted Overhead) (National Highways)
Direction Sign Diversion Sign Route Confirmation Sign

(minor routes) (temporary diversion) (National Highways)
Placement of Signs
 should be located on the left side of the road
 for roads in open/rural area - not be more than 2m
from the near side of the carriageway
 for roads in built up area - not more than 0.5m
 for multilane highways, overhead sign is necessary
Height of Signs
Post height is measured from the pavement surface
 open area -1.5m
 built-up area-2.1m
Size of Lettering
Should be such that they can be easily read when
vehicles are moving
 USA practice - size is related to type of highway
 UK practice - based on empirical formula
New Trend
 increasing use of icons, logos and symbols instead of
using letters and words
 increasing use of Variable Message Signs (VMS)
VMS: Conventional signs are very rigid in the sense
that they carry fixed and limited information for all
road-traffic environments. Whereas, VMS display-
panels are used to display real time traffic
information. Capable of displaying graphics and/or
alphanumeric messages. They are more responsive
to the field conditions. Need electricity and data
communication facilities.
Display Types LCD, bulb/lamp matrix, LED
pixels, flip
Latest VMS wireless, with solar panels and
radio control.
Bangladesh
 absence of complete "Highway Manual"
 faulty designs (inconsistent size, color, wording,
incorrect height, placement etc.)
 absence of required signs at potentially hazardous Traffic Signals
locations Introduction
 misuse of signs,  These are provided at road intersections.
 obstructed signs  These are control devices which could alternatively
direct the traffic to stop proceed at intersections
 poor maintenance
using red and green light signals automatically.
 existence of misguiding signs  The main requirement of traffic signals is to draw
 lack of supplementary markings attention.
 presence of a large number of illiterate road users
 eventually all these above factors contributed to lost  it is a physical device which is used to control traffic
the respect & effectiveness of traffic signs as movement at the junction
controlling device and in consequence, with time a  it replaces the priority regulation of junction
tendency has developed among the road users to operation
ignore the signs  it assigns the right-of-way by splitting green time to
 as power failure is very common, use of retro- the various traffic movements
reflective signs/markings would be most appropriate Warrants
even within the city areas  when traffic flow at uncontrolled/priority-controlled
junction become high and thereby increases:
 traffic conflicts and overall delay;
 accidents probability;
 when manual operation of junction with the help of
traffic police become very difficult and expansive.
Advantages
 Maintain orderly flow of traffic.
 Reduce certain types of accidents especially right
angle and pedestrian.
 Improves safety and efficiency of movement of
vehicles.
 Pedestrians can cross the roads safety.
 More economical than manual control.
 Increase in speed along the major road traffic.
 increase traffic handling capacity of the intersection
 provide for nearly continuous movement of traffic
at desired speed along a given route by co-
ordination
Disadvantages
 The rear and end collisions at dilemma zones may
increase.
 Improper design and location of signals may lead to
violations the control systems.
 Failure of the signal due to electrical power failure
or any other defects may cause confusion to the
road users.
 at off-peak periods signal controllers with fixed
time & plan cause unnecessary delay and increase
drivers irritation - in consequence promote
disrespect of the signal indication
Types of traffic Signals
i) Fixed time signals
ii) Manually operated signals
relation to each other according to the
distance between intersections and the
desired road speed. This system is
suitable for streets where distances
between intersections are almost equal.
Signals-Standard Green Signal In The All Signals In The  Vehicle-actuated Demand Responsive Controllers
Form Of An Arrow Form Of Arrows
Arrangement (Online/ real time system)
 With this the green times are related to the
traffic demands and provision is there to omit a
particular phase if there is no traffic.
 Need to install detectors on all approaches
 Delay is minimized globally
 Used as isolated and as well as coordinated
system
` Supplementary Rail Crossing Pedestrian
Green Arrow Signals Signals
 Modem Computer based area coordinated
controllers
Signal Installation Considerations
 Area Traffic Control (ATC) System - With this
 Signal should only be used where they are
system green time calculation is made instantly
warranted and where they will be respected - traffic
based on prefixed delay minimizing algorithm
signal that cannot be enforced and is routinely
 Adaptive/Self Optimizing Traffic Control System
disobeyed will weaken the overall level of respect
- With this system green time calculation is
for traffic signals
made beforehand using smart prediction model.
 Traffic signals should be kept functioning with
It uses artificial intelligence (Al) to acquire
quick repair times so that drivers continue to rely
knowledge and to refine existing prediction
on traffic signals.
model.
Type of Signal Controller
Isolated Traffic Signal Design
 Fixed-time Controllers (off-line system)
Terminology
 With fixed-time signals the green periods, and
 Signal sequence - Green -> Amber -> Red ->
hence the cycle times, are predetermined and of
Red/Amber
fixed duration.
 Phase - That part of a cycle allocated to a stream or
 The controllers are simple and relatively cheaper
combination of two or more streams having the right
but they are necessarily inflexible and require
of way simultaneously.
careful setting.
 Filter signals - it is mounted alongside the main
 The controllers can accommodate more than one
signals to permit movement of vehicles in the
signal plan to make it more demand responsive.
direction shown by the green arrow even though the
 Can be used as:
main signal is showing red.
 Isolated control system - for a single
 Amber period/Clearance time (a) - to allow vehicles
intersection
to clear the junction. Usually 3 secs; u high speeds
 Linked/coordinated control system - for
junction 3-6 secs.
closely spaced junctions in a corridor
 Inter-green period (I) - the time from the end of the
 Simultaneous - All the signals along the
green period to the phase losing right-of-way to the
controlled section display the same
beginning of the green period of the phase gaining
aspect of signal to the same traffic steam
right-of-way.
at the same time. This type of system
 Optimum cycle length (Co) - the cycle time which
encourages speeding as some drivers try
gives the least average delay to all vehicles using the
to pass as many intersections as possible
intersection
before the signals change.
 Lost time (I) - the time which is effectively lost to
 Progressive - The cycle time for each
traffic movement in a phase because of starting
intersection in the system is common
but the green periods are staggered in
delays and the falling-off discharge rate during the  Signal light size (lens dia.) and lumination is
amber period. inadequate.
 Effective green time (g) - the time during the cycle  Cycle times and phasing are judgment based; amber
when traffic flows freely discharge through the clearance phases are short and inadequate for safe
green aspect at the maximum rate; it is the sum of rickshaw clearance and above all a single timing
the green period and the amber period less the lost plan is maintained throughout the day.
time for the particular phase  Traditionally, drivers watch the policeman rather
 All-red period - a red period between the amber and than the signals.
red/amber shown to all approaches in order to allow  Un-enforced signals discourages drivers compliance
vehicles to clear the junction safely before starting of in general and thereby weakening the overall level of
the next phase: it is usually needed: respect for traffic signals.
 when junction is large
 when there are slow moving vehicles in the
traffic stream
 when there are right turning vehicles left over
at the end of the phase
 when pedestrian movements are high in all
directions and demand "pedestrian only"
phase
 Saturation flow (S) - the maximum rate of
discharge for a particular approach
Important Relationships
 Cycle time, ∫( )
 Figure: Placement of signals proposed by BRTA

 ∑ ∑

 ∑
∑ ∑( ) ∑( )

 Maximum/dominant ratio of flow (q) to saturation
flow (s) for a given phase of critical lane, y = q/s

( )
( )
 For optimum conditions,

( )
Local Problems
 No. standard for signal setting & design;
 Set at far away from the intersections and encourage
drivers to stop beyond the signal mast.
 Signals are installed even where they are not
warranted.
Modem Trend
 For greater brightness use of LED/Fiber optic cluster
instead of single incandescent based lighting system
 Display of digital clock signal along with signal
(Count Down)
 Increasing use of adaptive/ self-optimizing signal
controller
Problem 1: Design a two-phase signal of an isolated

cross-junction for the following data:
Amber (a) in sec 3
Red-Amber in sec 2
N-S E-W
Intergreen, (I) in sec 6 7
Lost Time, (L) in sec 3 2
North South East West
Arrival Flow (PCU/hr) 400 450 560 458
Saturation Flow 1800 1780 1850 1780
(PCU/hr)
Solution:
North South East West
0.22 0.25 0.30 0.26
0.25 0.30
0.56
∑ ∑
∑( ) ∑( ) Saturation Flow 2200 2300 2800 3000
(PCU/hr)
( ) ( ) Solution:
( ) North South East West
( ) 0.25 0.28 0.32 0.27
0.28 0.32
0.60
∑ ∑
∑( ) ∑( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
= 19 sec
Inter-green, NS = 6 sec
= 22 sec
Inter-green, EW = 7 sec
Cycle time, 54 sec
= 24 sec
Inter-green, NS = 9 sec
= 27 sec
Inter-green, EW = 6 sec
Cycle time, 66 sec
Problem 2: Design a two-phase signal of an isolated

cross-junction for the following data:
Amber (a) in sec 3
Red-Amber in sec 2 Road Markings
N-S E-W Introduction
Intergreen, (I) in sec 9 6 These are the lines, patterns, words of other devices for
Lost Time, (L) in sec 3 2 can regulate, warn and inform, and some help
North South East West clarify or emphasise the message given by other
Arrival Flow (PCU/hr) 550 650 900 800 signs.
 Road marking are used as a means of controlling Object markings:
and guiding traffic  Physical obstruction on or near the roadway are
 They promote road safety and bring about smooth hazardous and hence should be properly marked.
flow of traffic  Typical obstructions are signs and signals, traffic
 Markings consist of paint on the pavement and islands, narrow bridges, culvert.
curb to convey traffic regulations and warnings to
drivers
 Markings may be used alone or in combination
with traffic signs or signals
Compared to traffic signs, road markings:
 provides a continuous message to the driver
 convey message to the driver without distracting
his attention from the carriageway
 reduces environmental impact (signs can be ugly)
 very expensive
 weather susceptible - ineffective in heavy rain or
snow
 less durable - continually wearing away
 less effective at congested traffic condition
Reflector markings:
Types of Road Markings
 These are used as hazard markers and guide markers
i) Pavement markings
for safe driving during night.
ii) Kerb markings
 These markers should be visible from a long
iii) Object markings
distance of about 150 m.
iv) Reflector markings
Used in the forms of
 Lines
 Stripes
 Words
 Symbols
 Raised Markers
Pavement markings:
 These are generally be of white paint.
 Yellow colour marking are used to indicate parking
restrictions.
Markings Materials
 Paint - thermoplastic cement paint (non-
reflective/reflective)
 Self-adhesive plastic/aluminum sheet
 Studs (raised marking)
 Glass beads are used to produce retro-
reflective/cats-eyes effects of the markings - to aid
Kerb markings: night driving especially in rural open areas.
 Marking on the kerb indicate certain regulations like Color Convention (UK)
parking regulations.  White for normal carriageway markings
 Marking on the kerb and edges of islands with  Yellow for restrictive markings viz.
alternative black and white line increase the waiting/parking restrictions, keep clear markings
visibility from a long distance. at bus stop, box junction, near school etc.
 Back & white for pedestrian crossings
Pattern Convention (UK)
 Broken lines are permissive in character
 Solid lines are restrictive in character
 Double lines indicated maximum restrictions
New Trend
Conventional road markings are effective only at dry
weather not during rainy condition as rain water cover
the markings and hinder reflection. New type of highly
durable plastic retro-reflective material is being used in
4mm thick layer to give lane markings which is visible
even during wet (usually 2mm rain water film) condition
- it is less expensive than that of cats-eye stud type
markings.
Bangladesh
 use of normal domestic paints for pavement
markings
 no uniformity/consistency of road markings
 absence of required markings at potentially
hazardous locations
 most of the road users are not aware of the meaning
of road markings
Stop Lane At Stop Sign Give Way Line Pedestrian Crossing

Or Traffic Signals
Signal Controlled Barrier Line

Pedestrian Crossing Lane Line
Warning Line Traffic Island Edge Of Crriageway
Extended Transverse Line No Parking

(Extended across side road junction)
Traffic Lane Arrows Diverge Arrow
Give Way Marking Chevron Marking Yellow Box
Road Hump Lane For (cycles and

rickshaws) Only
Special Speed Limit Zig-Zag Lane

Highway by Saydul

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Highway by Saydul

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur

traffic) or long-term (estimating the impacts of proposed

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

1.5.5 Transportation Planning period:

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

Figure 2.3: Cross-Section of road in 3D view 500mm 1m 500mm

Figure 2.4: Carriageway of road

The widths of carriageway for various classes of roads

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

c) To prevent slipping of vehicles running at

Figure 2.10: Kerb

Figure 2.11: Types of Kerbs

Figure 2.14: Drive Way

vii. Width of Formation or Roadway: Width of

Figure 2.15: Width of Formation or Roadway

Figure 2.16: A typical right of way

2.4 Sight distance consideration

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

Reaction time For a sloping surface

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

Dhaka University of Engineering & Techno

Stopping Distances for both buses (SD) = 𝑡 so, d2 = √

2.5 Horizontal Alignment Where,

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

Centrifugal ratio =P/W= tanө+f /(1-f tanө)

√ 𝑕 Figure 2.26: Rotation about center line

i) Small length of road –cross slope less than camber.

Level of Figure 2.27: Rotation about the Inner edge

b. Psychological widening (Wps):

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

Figure 2.33: Transition Curve

2.5.6 Set Back Distance:

For wider Road: 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

Figure 2.34: Set back distance

Analysis of Set back distance:

Case I: When Lc>S:

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑒𝑒 2.6 Vertical Alignment:

Figure 2.36: Set back distance for a narrow road ( L<S)

CD1 = m2, D1D2 = m2, m = m1 + m2, AʹBʹ = L,

Figure 2.37: Vertical alignment in real image

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

Type of terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional 2.6.2 What is a vertical curve?

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

 Design base on passing sigh distance

Page 275 of AASHTO‟s A Policy on Geometric Design

Figure 2.40: Sag vertical curve

Page 113 of AASHTO‟s A Policy on Geometric Design

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

c) Design of summit curve as a square parabola because

Derivation of Equation of summit curve:

In exhibit 3-75, K values are calculated by equation

curve. Four different conditions for formation summit = aL2 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

Location of the highest point:

Figure 2.41: Summit Vertical Curve

b) For Sight distance > Length of curve (S>L)

S = Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) –( )

Here, As this SSD<L<500m it is safe.

Stop sight distance, SSD = 𝑡 Assume

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

Md. Saydul Islam, (ID-161015) CE-32nd Batch, DUET

v) Feeder/Collector road vi) Slip/Access road 4.4.1 At Grade intersection:

Figure 4.3: Square junction