Fluctuating Stresses:

In many applications, the components are subjected to forces, which are not static, but vary in magnitude
with respect to time. The stresses induced due to such forces are called fluctuating stresses. It is observed
that about 80% of failures of mechanical components are due to ‘fatigue failure’ resulting from
fluctuating stresses.

There are three types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses—fluctuating or alternating stresses,
repeated stresses and reversed stresses.

The fluctuating or alternating stress varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time. It has some
mean value as well as amplitude value. It fluctuates between two limits—maximum and minimum stress.
The stress can be tensile or compressive or partly tensile and partly compressive.

The repeated stress varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time, but the variation is from zero to
some maximum value. The minimum stress is zero in this case and therefore, amplitude stress and mean
stress are equal.

The reversed stress varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time, but it has zero mean stress. In this
case, half portion of the cycle consists of tensile stress and the remaining half of compressive stress.
There is a complete reversal from tension to compression between these two halves and therefore, the
mean stress is zero.

are the mean and amplitude of the stresses

Fatigue Failure:

“Fatigue failure is defined as time delayed fracture under cyclic loading”

The phenomenon of decreased resistance of the materials to fluctuating stresses is the main characteristic
of fatigue failure.

Let us understand this phenomenon by a simple experiment.

 Suppose, there is a wire of 2 to 3 mm diameter and we want to cut it into two pieces without any
device like a hacksaw.
 One method is to shear the wire by applying equal and opposite forces P1 and P2 by left and right
hands as illustrated in Fig(a). It is difficult to cut the wire by this method.
 The second method consists of alternatively bending and unbending the wire for few cycles. Let
us consider two diametrically opposite points A and B on the surface of the wire. As shown in
Fig(b)
 When the wire is bent, A is subjected to tensile stress while B to compressive stress. When the
wire is unbent, there is compressive stress at A and tensile stress at B, as shown in Fig(c).
 Therefore, there is complete reversal of stress from tensile stress to compressive stress at the point
A due to alternate bending and unbending. Similarly, the point B is subjected to reversal of stress
from compressive stress to tensile stress during the same cycle. \
 We can experience that the wire can be cut very easily in few cycles of bending and unbending.
This is a fatigue failure and the magnitude of stress required to fracture is very low. In other
words, there is decreased resistance of material to cyclic stresses.

Examples of parts in which fatigue failures are common are transmission shafts, connecting rods, gears,
vehicle suspension springs and ball bearings.
Endurance Limit:

“The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue
failure”.

Since the fatigue test cannot be conducted for unlimited or infinite number of cycles, 106 cycles is
considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.

Fatigue Life:

“The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete during
the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack”.

The dimensions of the standard test specimen (in mm) are shown in fig. The specimen is carefully
machined and polished. The final polishing is done in axial direction in order to avoid circumferential
scratches.

In the laboratory, the endurance limit is determined by means of a rotating beam machine developed by R
R Moore where the specimen is subjected to completely reversed stresses.

A schematic diagram of a rotating beam fatigue testing machine is shown in Fig. The specimen acts as a
‘rotating beam’ subjected to a bending moment. Therefore, it is subjected to a completely reversed stress
cycle. Changing the bending moment by addition or deletion of weights can vary the stress amplitude.
The specimen is rotated by an electric motor.

The number of revolutions before the appearance of the first fatigue crack is recorded on a revolution
counter. In each test, two readings are taken, viz., stress amplitude (Sf) and number of stress cycles (N).
These readings are used as two coordinates for plotting a point on the S–N diagram. This point is called
failure point. To determine the endurance limit of a material, a number of tests are to be carried out.

The results of these tests are plotted by means of an S–N curve.

―The S–N curve is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (Sf ) versus the number of stress cycles
(N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper”.

For ferrous materials like steels, the S–N curve becomes asymptotic at 106 cycles, which indicates the
stress amplitude corresponding to infinite number of stress cycles. The magnitude of this stress amplitude
at 106 cycles represents the endurance limit of the material.

For nonferrous metals like aluminium alloys, the S–N curve slopes gradually even after 106 cycles. These
materials do not exhibit a distinct value of the endurance limit in a true sense. For these materials,
endurance limit stress is sometimes expressed as a function of the number of stress cycles.
Notch Sensitivity:

It is observed that the actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress concentration is
less than the amount indicated by the theoretical stress concentration factor Kt. Therefore, two separate
notations, Kt and Kf, are used for stress concentration factors. Kt is the theoretical stress concentration
factor which is applicable to ideal materials that are homogeneous, isotropic and elastic. Kf is the fatigue
stress concentration factor.

“Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging effects of
stress raising notches in fatigue loading”. The notch sensitivity factor q is defined as

Let
σo = Nominal stress
Kt. σo = Theoretical stress
Kf. σo = Actual stress
Increase of actual stress over nominal stress = (Kf. σo ) – σo
Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress = (Kt. σo ) - σo
Therefore

Kf = 1 + q (Kt - 1)

(i) When the material has no sensitivity to notches,

q = 0 and Kf = 1

(ii) When the material is fully sensitive to notches,

q = 1 and Kf = Kt
Endurance limit (Approximate Estimation):

The laboratory method for determining the endurance limit of materials, although more precise, is
laborious and time consuming. A number of tests are required to prepare one S–N curve and each test
takes considerable time. It is, therefore, not possible to get the experimental data of each and every
material. When the laboratory data regarding the endurance limit of the materials is not available, the
procedure discussed in this article should be adopted.

Two separate notations are used for endurance limit Se’ and Se

Se’ = Endurance limit stress of a standard specimen sub.to reverse bending

Se = Endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component sub.to reverse bending

Relations between endurance limit and ultimate tensile strength of a material:

Endurance limit stress of a component differs from the endurance limit stress of a standard
specimen because of the different specifications and different operating conditions.

To account for this difference, modifying factors are used which are called “Derating Factors”.

By using these factors the relation between Se’ and Se can be written as:
1. Surface Finish Factor(Ka):

Also an exponential equation can be used to find the value of Ka.

2. Size Factor(Kb):
 3. Reliability Factor(Kc):

4. Modifying Factor to account for stress concentration:

Kd =

Correction factors of endurance limit for various types of loads:

For Axial Loading (Se)a = 0.85 Se

For Bending (Se)b = 1.00 Se
For Torsion (Se)T = 0.59 Se
REVERSED STRESSES—DESIGN FOR FINITE AND INFINITE LIFE

Case I:

When the component is to be designed for infinite life, the endurance limit becomes criterion of failure.
The amplitude stress induced in such components should be lower than the endurance limit in order to
withstand the infinite number of cycles. Such components are designed with the help of the following
equations:

Where,

(σa) and (τa) are stress amplitudes in the component and Se and Sse are corrected endurance limits in
reversed bending and torsion respectively.

Case II:

When the component is to be designed for finite life, the S–N curve as shown in Fig. can be used. The
curve is valid for steels. It consists of a straight line AB drawn from (0.9 Sut) at 103 cycles to (Se) at 106
cycles on a log-log paper. The design procedure for such problems is as follows:

(i) Locate the point A with coordinates [3, log 10(0.9Sut)] since log 10(103) = 3
(ii) Locate the point B with coordinates [6, log 10(Se)] since log 10(106) = 6
(iii) Join AB, which is used as a criterion of failure for finite-life problems
(iv) Depending upon the life N of the component, draw a vertical line passing through log 10(N) on
the abscissa. This line intersects AB at point F.
(v) Draw a line FE parallel to the abscissa. The ordinate at the point E, i.e. log 10(Sf), gives the
fatigue strength corresponding to N cycles.
The value of the fatigue strength (Sf) obtained by the above procedure is used for the design calculations.