John Baker (john.baker@eng.ua.

edu)
UA/AEM

AEM 360 ASTRONAUTICS

Space Environment: Earth and Its Atmosphere

All recorded lectures and presentations are for viewing by members of this class section only and may not be posted in any public forum or shared
with anyone not enrolled in this class. Any student violating these rules may be referred to the Office of Student Conduct for disciplinary action.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

In This Module
• Salient characteristics of the Earth
• Earth’s atmosphere
• Modeling Earth’s atmosphere
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What are the salient characteristics of the Earth?

Earth’s Geometry

• Average Radius:
𝑅!,#$% ≅ 6,371 𝑘𝑚
• The Earth is an oblate spheroid:
𝑅!,&'(#)*+ ≅ 6,378 𝑘𝑚 and 𝑅!,,*-&. ≅ 6,356 𝑘𝑚

• Average Distance from the Sun*:

𝑅/!,#$% ≅ 149,597,870 𝑘𝑚 (93M miles)
• The average distance from the Earth to the Sun defines one
astronomical unit (AU)
• The orbit of the Earth around the Sun is elliptic (not circular, but
almost). The point closes to the sun is called the perihelion and
the point farthest is called the aphelion. The eccentricity of the
orbit (how elliptic the orbit is) varies over a 40,000 year cycle.

Oblateness – The term oblateness refers to a spheroid shape generated by rotating an

ellipse about is minor axis, i.e. a spheroid planet with an equatorial diameter that is
greater than the distance between the poles. source: NASA (https://web.archive.org/web/20160112123725/http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/GPN-2000-
001138.html)
* From the center of the Sun to the center of the Earth
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What are the salient characteristics of the Earth?

When is the Vernal Equinox?
The Vernal (or March) Equinox is the
time during the spring when Earth’s
equatorial plane passes through the
Sun’s disk ; length of the day and
night are approximately equal across
the globe.

• The plane formed by the Earth’s

rotation around the Sun is known as
the ecliptic plane.

• The 23.5° mean tilt of the Earth’s axis

of rotation with respect to the ecliptic
plane is known as the obliquity of the
ecliptic. This tilt varies with time and
produces the seasonal variations in
weather.

image source: National Weather Service

(https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/global_
intro)
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What are the salient characteristics of the Earth?

Earth’s Magnetic Field
Van Allen Radiation Belts
• Caused by the so-called “Dynamo Effect” Inner Belt
caused by electric fields that arise due to the 1,000 to 12,000 km AGL
Outer Belt
flow of liquid iron in Earth’s outer core, i.e.
13,000 to 60,000 km AGL
the geodynamo

• Varies in magnitude – strongest at the poles, source: Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt#/media/File:Van_Allen_radiation_belt.svg)

constantly changing

• Deflects solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from

the Sun, that would otherwise strip the Earth of the Ozone layer,
which protect the Earth from UV radiation.

• The Van Allen Radiation Belts are regions of highly energetic

particles (mostly from the Sun) that have been trapped in the
Earth’s magnetic field. Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis form
due to interaction between these charged particles and the upper
atmosphere – particles ionize

source: NASA (https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/images/517890main_Earth-Magnetosphere.jpg)

ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What are the salient characteristics of the Earth?

Where is the North Pole? • True North (geodetic north)
– geographic North Pole
• Magnetic North
– magnetic north pole
• Declination – angle between
magnetic north and true
north, depends on where
you are located

Source: http://gisgeography.com/magnetic-north-vs-geographic-true-pole/

Tuscaloosa, AL

source: World Data Center for Geomagnetism/Kyoto University (https://news.yahoo.com/scientists-urgently-

update-maps-magnetic-north-pole-moving-quickly-091057969.html)

https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/calculators/magcalc.shtml#declination
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What are the salient characteristics of the Earth?

Earth has only one natural satellite, the
Moon

The Moon
• Average Radius: 𝑅0,#$% ≅ 1,737.1 𝑘𝑚
• Distance to Earth: 𝑅!0 ≅ 384,400 𝑘𝑚
• Elliptical Orbit
• Perilune (closest approach to Earth):
363,300 km
• Apolune (farthest distance from Earth):
405,500 km
• The moon is in a phase-locked orbit (we always
see the same side of the moon).
• Responsible for the tides and for causing a slight
lengthening of the day.
• Moves approximately 3.8 cm away from the
Earth each year.
• There is water on the surface of the Moon
• Lunar cycle is 29.5 days.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What is the structure of the Earth’s atmosphere?

• Air temperature, pressure, density and other properties all vary with
altitude.

• Aerodynamics forces (such as lift, drag & thrust) depend on atmospheric

properties.

• Near the Earth’s surface, the composition of the air (by volume) is
approximately 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen

• The atmosphere extends to well over 600 km above the surface of the
Earth.

• The altitude of the so-called edge of space is defined as:

o 130 km (81 mi) Sellers (altitude for orbit)

o 100 km (62 mi) International (Karman line)
o 80 km (50 mi) US (Astronaut Wings)
Karman line – the altitude above which
• About 99% of the atmospheric mass is below 40 km (25 miles) aerodynamic flight is no longer possible.
above the surface of the Earth.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What is the structure of the Earth’s atmosphere?

• The atmosphere provides a shield against ultraviolet radiation, cosmic
rays, small meteors, and extreme temperature fluctuations.

• Most of the Sun’s energy passes through the atmosphere heating the
Earth. Thermal radiation from the Earth’s heats the atmosphere (global
warming).

• Periodic heating by the Sun (daily because of Earth’s spin and seasonal
because of its axis tilt) causes natural convection.

• Global atmospheric circulation is affected by the sun, oceans, terrain,

atmospheric content and Earth’s rotation.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What is the structure of the Earth’s atmosphere?

Knudsen Number
Molecular Mean Free Path1
𝜆 Average distance traveled by an
𝐾𝑛 =
𝐿1 atoms/molecule between “collisions”

𝜆 molecular mean free path (m) Under the “hard sphere” assumption
𝐿1 characteristics length (m)
𝑅( 𝑇
λ=
2𝜋𝑑 2𝑁3 𝑝
𝐾𝑛 < 0.01 continuum regime
0.01 < 𝐾𝑛 < 0.1 slip flow regime
𝑅( universal gas constant
0.1 < 𝐾𝑛 < 10 transition regime Martin Hans Christian Knudsen 𝑅( = 8.314 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 ] 𝐾
𝐾𝑛 > 10 free-molecular regime 1871 – 1949 𝑇 temperature
𝑑 molecular diameter
𝑁3 Avogadro's Number
Important Concept: 𝑁3 = 6.0221367×1042𝑚𝑜𝑙56
THE CONTINUUM APPROXIMATION 𝑝 pressure
The Continuum Approximation assumes a fluid may be treated as a continuous 1. Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-
distribution of matter and is infinitely divisible without changing its physical astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Kinetic/menfre.html
nature (properties defined at a point). Macroscopic behavior can be modeled
without detailed consideration of molecular behavior.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

Given the pressure and temperature below, what is the Knudsen number at an
altitude of 15 km, if the reference length is 1 m? Is the continuum assumption still
valid? For the Knudsen number calculation, assume the molecules are hard spheres
and that the diameter of the air molecules is approximately 0.4 nanometers.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What is the structure of the Earth’s atmosphere?

Troposphere (0 km – 11 km)
Lowest region of the atmosphere. This is where weather occurs.
Approximately 3 times thicker at the equator (18 km) than at poles
(6 km).

Tropopause
Region separating the troposphere and the stratosphere. The jet
stream is located in this region. The troposphere and tropopause
make up the lower atmosphere.

Stratosphere (11 km – 51 km)

Increase in temperature due to the absorption of ultraviolet
radiation in the ozone layer. 99% of the atmosphere is contained in
the troposphere and stratosphere.

Mesosphere (51 km – 85.85 km )

Meteors burn up in the mesosphere. The stratosphere and
mesosphere make up the middle atmosphere.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What is the structure of the Earth’s atmosphere?

Thermosphere (84.85 km – 600 km)
Very thin air heated by the sun. This is where the space shuttle
orbits and where auroras occur. Significant chemical reactions
occur in this region. The thermosphere is known as the upper
atmosphere.

Exosphere (600+ km)

Where the atmosphere merges with space. It is the upper most
layer of the atmosphere and is comprised mainly of hydrogen and
helium.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

How can we model Earth’s atmosphere? 84.85 km

Weather conditions around the globe vary from place to place 80
186.95 K
and day to day. Taking all these variations into account in a 71 km
design process is impractical.

Geopotential Altitude, km
60 214.65 K

A Standard Atmosphere serves as a common reference (mean 51 km

47 km
values of temperature, pressure, density of motionless 228.65 K
40
atmosphere) for aircraft design, wind tunnel tests and flight 270.65 K
tests. 216.65 K
32 km

20 20 km
With international cooperation in the scientific community,
several “standard atmospheres” have been developed over the 11 km 288.15 K
years. The 1976 standard atmosphere assumes the relative
0
humidity is zero throughout the atmosphere. 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Temperature, K
STEP 1: The key to creating a standard atmosphere is defining SEA LEVEL
a standard temperature distribution as a function of altitude. CONDITIONS
This is the first step to creating a standard atmospheric model. LAPSE RATE (𝜆8 )
(ℎ = 0 𝑘𝑚)
The lapse rate is the slope of the
𝑇 = 𝑇7 + 𝜆 8 ℎ − ℎ7
𝑇𝑜 = 288.15 𝐾 temperature in a given zone.
𝑝𝑜 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜌* = 1.2250 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

How can we model Earth’s atmosphere?

The Standard Atmosphere
84.85 km
𝑇 = 𝑇7 + 𝜆 8 ℎ − ℎ7
80
186.95 K
Layer 7: 71 km – 84.85 km 71 km
l7 = -2.0 K/km

Geopotential Altitude, km
Layer 6: 51 km – 71 km
60 214.65 K
l6 = -2.8 K/km
Layer 5: 47 km – 51 km 51 km
l5 = 0 K/km 47 km
Layer 4: 32 km – 47 km
l4 = +2.8 K/km 40 228.65 K
Layer 3: 20 km – 32 km 270.65 K
l3 = +1 K/km 216.65 K
32 km
Layer 2: 11 km – 20 km
l2 = 0 K/km 20 20 km
Layer 1: 0 km – 11 km
l1 = -6.5 K/km 11 km 288.15 K

QUESTION: Once you assume temperature, how do you calculate 0

pressure and density? 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Temperature, K
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

How can we model Earth’s atmosphere?

The Standard Atmosphere
You need two more equations:
𝑅! ℎ"
ℎ=
STEP 2: Hydrostatic Equation 𝑑𝑝/𝑑ℎ% = −𝜌𝑔 𝑅! + ℎ"
Geopotential Altitude, 𝒉
Once solved this gives Measure of specific potential energy at a
!
specified height relative to the Earth’s surface
5 " 959%
isothermal layers 𝑝/𝑝8 = 𝑒 #$% (converted to a height by assuming that the
!
5#&" acceleration due to gravity is constant at the
gradient layers 𝑝/𝑝8 = 𝑇/𝑇8 %
value that exists at the Earth’s surface.

STEP 3: Ideal Gas Law 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅#8+ 𝑇 Geometric Altitude, 𝒉𝑮

Altitude measured relative to sea level.
where 𝑅#8+ = 287 𝑚4/𝑠 4𝐾 = 1716 𝑓𝑡 4/𝑠 4°𝑅
State Postulate
To fully specify the state of a simple
compressible thermodynamic system, one
needs to specify two independent, intensive
properties.
Note: The fact that 𝑔𝑑ℎ! = 𝑔" 𝑑ℎ has been used in the above equations.
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

What is the temperature of the air at an altitude of 19 km above the

surface of the Earth (assume the 1976 US Standard atmosphere)?
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

How can we model Earth’s atmosphere?

Beyond the Standard Atmosphere Model Global Reference Atmospheric
Model (GRAM): Earth
A Simple Earth Upper Atmosphere Model1 • Developed by NASA MSFC
• geographical variability
• surface to orbital altitudes
180 𝑘𝑚 < ℎ < 500 𝑘𝑚
• Seasonal/diurnal variations
𝑇 = 900 + 2.5 𝐹10.7 − 70 + 1.5𝐴, 𝐾
• atmospheric turbulence
𝑚 = 27 − 0.012 ℎ − 200 𝐾/𝑘𝑚 • GRAMs exist for Venus, Mars,
𝐻 = 𝑇/𝑚 𝑘𝑚 Neptune, & Titan (one of Saturn’s
𝜌 = 6×1056>𝑒 5 956?@ /B 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 source: https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/phenomena/f107-cm-radio-emissions moons).

Geomagnetic index, 𝑨𝒑: average level for geomagnetic activity per

day (range: 0 – low geomagnetic to 400 – extreme geomagnetic
storms)
Solar radio flux index, 𝑭𝟏𝟎. 𝟕: solar flux (𝑊/𝑚4𝑠) @ 10.7 cm
wavelength (range: 50 sfu to 300+ sfu – solar flux units)

1. Source: The Australian Space Weather Agency, Satellite Orbital Decay Calculations,
(http://www.sws.bom.gov.au/Category/Educational/Space%20Weather/Space%20Weather%20Effects/
SatelliteOrbitalDecayCalculations.pdf)

source: https://wiki.oulu.fi/display/SpaceWiki/Solar+F10.7+flux
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

Thermosphere Density Model: Example

Consider a spacecraft,
in a circular orbit,
traveling with a speed
What are the units for the
of 7.673 km/s at an
2.5 value?
altitude of 400 km
above the surface of
the Earth. Assume a
geomagnetic index of
5 and a solar radio flux
index of 95 SFU. If the
ram area of the
spacecraft, i.e. the
area in the direction of
the spacecraft's
motion, is equal to
0.18 square meters
Note that the value for T, m,
and the drag and H have no true physical
coefficient is 2.2, what meaning. This is an empirical
model, only the density has a
is the drag force on physical meaning.
the spacecraft?
ASTRONAUTICS: Space Environment: Earth’s Atmosphere

In Summary
• Salient characteristics of the Earth
• Earth’s atmosphere
• Modeling Earth’s atmosphere
 John Baker (john.baker@eng.ua.edu)
UA/AEM

AEM 360 ASTRONAUTICS

Space Environment: Earth and Its Atmosphere

All recorded lectures and presentations are for viewing by members of this class section only and may not be posted in any public forum or shared
with anyone not enrolled in this class. Any student violating these rules may be referred to the Office of Student Conduct for disciplinary action.