Chapter

PREMIXED FLAME
One has to pursue
questions earnestly,
Like a faithful shadow meticulousl
One should bear questions in mind,
Like a small innocent child.
inquisitive
-Author

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In previous chapters, we have discussed

about the fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics,
chemical kinetics, transport processes involving mass, momentum, species and heat which are
very essential to understand inherent processes involved in the combustion. We know that rapid
exothermic chemical reactions occur in a particular zone accompanied by visible light (not always
true) which is known as flame zone or flame front. Most combustion processes except
smouldering combustion (e.g., burning of incense sticks) are accompanied by the formation of
flame, As the flame can be considered as genesis of combustion, it is important to study flame in
detail. Generally, this self-sustainable combustion zone moves at certain velocity into untreated
fuel-air mixture, and is also known as combustion wave. Hence, flame can be defined as a spatial
domain in which rapid exothermic chemical reactions take place often emitting light. It can be
noted that the flame occupies certain small portion of spatial domain in which rapid exothemic
chemical reactions take place. This is in contrast to the various homogeneous reactors in which
reactions occur uniformly throughout the reaction vessel. Besides this, there will be a very drastic
change in properties like temperature, mass fraction of participating species in chemical
Teactions. Generally, the flame can be broadly classified as: (i) diffusion flame and (ii) premixed
flame. Diffusion flames are more common in nature like the forest fire. It is believed that men had
discovered forest fire while living in jungle during the primitive era. Candle and wick tlames are
common examples of diffusion flame. Some of the examples of diffusion flame-based combustion
industrial furnaces, solid and
ysLems are wood stoves, coal burners, gas turbine combustors,
1quid propellant rocket engines, etc. In case of diffusion flame, fuel and oxidizer are unmixed
burnt instantaneously at
cven upto flame surface. In other words, fuel and oxidizer are mixed and
e Tiame surface itself. In contrast, fuel and oxidizer are mixed well at the molecular level before
in
takes in of premixed flame. Examples of premixed flames are the flames
stion place case

sen burner, afterburner in jet engine, LPG domestic burner, spark ignition engine, etc. In
It is
be propagated with a particular speed known as burning velocity.
Case,the flame can
which premixed flame
CSTing to note that burning velocity is one of the unique properties by
the premixed flame
characterized. Depending on the velocity of combustion wave,
Co y C broadly divided into two categories, namely, (i) detonation and (ii) detlagrati0n . -
107
108 Fundamentals of Combustion

When the combustion wave is travelled at supersonic speed, it is known as detonation.

contrast, if the combustion wave is propagated at subsonic speed, it is called deflagration.
In this chapter, we shall briefly discuss the characteristics of combustion wave and derive the
Rankine-Hugoniot Equation to relate properties across a combustion wave. Then we will cary
arry
out a simplified analysis of one-dimensional steady laminar premixed flame and derive an
expression for burning velocity and flame thickness. Some of the experimental data available in
literature will be presented to explain how the flame structure is affectedby various parameters
such as. equivalence ratio, initial pressure, initial temperature and type of fuel. Besides this,
phenomena of ignition, flame quenching and flammability limits are also discussed briefv
Turbulent premixed flame is introduced in a subsequent section. The chapter concludes with
various models of turbulent premixed flame encountered in practical systems. In the following
will in detail about the one-dimensional steady combustion wave.
section, we study

5.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMBUSTION WAVE

Let us consider a long tube, which contains combustible gaseous fuel-oxidizer mixture. If
is
ignition energy at one end, a combustion wave will propagate downstream of the tube
supplied
towards unburnt mixture. When the tube is open at both ends, combustion waves move at a speed

in the range of 20-340 cm/s depending on the type of fuel-air mixture and equivalence ratio
of combustion wave is much less than
prevailing in the tube. It must be appreciated that velocity
simultaneous conduction of heat
the speed of sound. In this case, transport processes involving
and diffusion of radicals govern the speed of combustion wave. Recall that the
combustion wave
this is termed as
is generally known as flame and if the velocity of flame is subsonic,
deflagration (Figure 5.1a).
mixture is closed at both ends and is ignited, the
Now, if the tube containing fuel-air
kind ot
combustion wave undergoes a transition from subsonic to supersonic speed. Such a

of detonation is controlled by heat

combustion wave is known as detonation. Speed not
conduction and radical diffusion like deflagration,. Rather, the shock wave causes the temperatur
and pressure to increase to such a great extent that it can lead to explosion and large amounts or
energy is released during this process. Both subsonic and supersonic waves can be obta
under similar condition. Let us learn more about it by considering this interesting phenomen
one
without considering chemical reactions. For this analysis, we can consider a steady ou
thata
dimensional flow with external heat transfer as shown in Figure 5.1. Let us then presume
(1) a*
with normal shock undergoes () to
chemical reactioncoupled
shown in Figure 5.1 (b).
a a transition from state

Reactant (1) Products (I1) Reactant (1) Products (11)

M< (1) (2) M<I M (1) 2) M,<1

Deflagration Detonation
(a)
(6)
Figure 5.1 Steady one-dimensional combustion wave fixed in the laboratory "
 Premixed Flame 109

can
can
consider
consider tthat the propagating combustion wave is opposed by the unburned gases
We
at aa velocity, exactly equal
to its propagation
Laving
owing velocity, exe
velocity. We can analyze this as a steady 1D
mbustion wave by considering the following integrated conservation equations
inviscid comb
and (2) as shown in Figure 5.1b.
betwe en stations (1)
Continuity: pVi = P2V2 = m = constant (5.1)
Momentum: Pi +
plVf =P2+ P2V (5.2)

Energy: Cp,Ti+g C,Ta (5.3)

State: P= PiRT1 (54)
State: P2 P2RT2 (5.5)
1 are the density, velocity, pressure and temperature, respectively, q is the heat
where p, P,P,
is the heat
equal to2,yAhYis the mass fraction ofit species and Ah
releaseperunit mass
and (2) as
of f" species. For simplicity, we have assumed perfect gas at stations (1)
of formation this is related to
in Eqgs. (5.4-5.3). Note that Eq. (5.5) is not an independent equation as
evident In the chosen
variables, such as unburned gas pressure, temperature and density.
unknown is the veloc.ty
Vi is the velocity of fuel-oxidizer mixture fed into the wave, V2
coordinate system, which is
However, in the laboratory coordinate system, the velocity V
away from the wave.
with respect to
to zero. Thus, (V1 V2)
-

is the speed of the burned gases

ahead of wave, equal
is
four
unknowns such as V1, V2, P2, T2 and P2, using only
the tube. We need to evaluate five
We now wish to convert these four independent equations
independent equations (Eqs. 5.1-5.4). and p2. Combining continuity equation (Eq.
5.1)
to a single equation with two unknowns, i.e., Pz
we can have
and momentum equation (Eq. 5.2),

Pa-P =p?-pV?- LP PP = 1 (5.6)

PP2
m (5.7)

P Pa
relation. This can be expressed in terms of Mach
Equation (5.7) is known as Rayleigh the
becomes
VyRT|). Then, Eq. (5.7)
V,/c], (C1 speed of sound Vr(RIP)
=
=

umber M =
=

V=(-R)

Then, pIP PP-

M RIP71-ple)
(5.8)

and
have an expression for downstream velocity, V, by using Eqs. (5.1)
Similarly, we can

($.2) as given below

(5.9)
v
(P P2
 I10 Fundamentals of
Combustion
*aDOve equation can also be expressed in terms of Mach number as given below

-M--PB (5.10)
yPIP2
Let us express q in the energy equation (Eq. 5.3) in terms of P, p, V considering the gas to
behave as a perfect
gas. But we know that for a perfect gas

- C r - y-1P (5.11)
Using these relations in the energy equation (Eq. 5.3), we can get

(5.12)
Combining Eqs. (5.12), (5.8) and (5.9), we can get a relation between the downstream
density and pressure which is given below

-,-P (5.13)
Equation (5.13) is known as the Rankine-Hugoniot relation.
This Rankine-Hugoniot relation is one of the most important relations for both deflagration
and detonation waves and can be used for both flame and explosion phenomena. When there
would not be any heat release (q = 0) due to chemical reactions, this relation can describe the

normal shock wave. The variation of P2 is plotted against 1/p2 for a fixed value heat release per
unit mass q, inlet pressure P1 and inlet density 1/p1, which is known as Hugoniot curve as shown
in Figure 5.2.

I (Strong detonation)

U
(Upper II (Weak detonation)
P2 C-
Point)
IlI (Physically impossible region)

IV (Weak deflagration)
--. Y VStrong detlagration)
(OP,p)
L (Lower C-J point)

Hugoniot curve with various regimes.

Figure 5.2
 Premixed Flame
The point
iat
(P.,1/p) in this plot is usually known
(P
by thesymbol,
symbol, 0 . t can be noted as the
d e s i g n a t e d .

that two origin of the Hugoniot curve

desTeooniot
the Hugoniot
curve represents a family of
curve:
solutions.
tangents passing through the
origin'O
ofvalue
of the ofg. For no energy release (q= 0), this We can get a different curve
curve for each
each
curve passes
solution rsimple
for simple ;normal
shock wave through the origin '0' representing
the sohserved
the (OX and OY) which is
referred
ed as shock
be observed in Figure >.2 that horizontal and vertical lines Hugoniot.
Hugoniot.
t can
It
0', ca enresent the conditions of constant
to represent
are drawn through the origin
pressure and constant specific volume, 1/p
ively. These lines divide the Hugoniot curve
respectively.
into three regions. Regions X and Y are
redivided
further divided iinto two subregions by two
tangent
five regions (, I1, III, IV, V) as shown points
(U and L). Thus, the Hugoniot curve
urd divided into in Figure 5.2. The
s
n U and
gion and the lower region L are called upper tangent point in the upper
C J point, respectively. It must be kept in mind Chapman-Jouguet point (C-J point) and
that although the curve represents all the
ssible
possible
solutions ot the Hugoniot equation, all of them are not valid for physical reasons to be
discussed below.
Let us examine Eq. (5.8), which can reveal the characteristics of M, for regions X, Yand Z.
It can be noticed in Figure S.2 thatP2 is much greater than Pi in region I and (1/pa) is little less
than (1/p). Hence, the numerator of Eq. (5.8) is much larger than unity and denominator is much
lessthan unity. As a result, the right-hand side of Eq. 6.8) is positive (Mf> 1). Hence, the
supersonic flow prevails in region X, and it is known as detonation region. Thus, we can define
a detonation wave as a supersonic wave sustained by combustion. We can analyze the region Y
in a similar manner. In this region P2 is a little less than P1, the numerator of Eq. (5.8) is a smal
negative fraction. It must be noted that (1/p,) is much greater than (1/p), so that denominator of
Eq. (5.8) becomes a negative number. Hence, Mach number is less than unity (M< 1). This

region is known as deflagration wave (subsonic) sustained by combustion. In region 2, the

pressure, P2 is greater than Pi and (1/p;) is greater than (1/pi), consequently numerator of Eq.
(5.8) is positive and denominator is negative. Hence, M1 in the region Z is imaginary. Such region
is considered as a physically impossible region.
In the region I, the pressure of the burned gas is greater than that of the C-J detonation
wave

to occur. The gas velocity relative to the wave

2Pyin which strong detonation wave is likely the pressure and
ront is slowed down substantially from supersonic speed to subsonic, while
as P
increases significantly. Notice from Eq. (5.8) that M, becomes intinity ()
aensity is physically unattainable and is rarely observed
lence, the strong detonation wave with P2
0o

experimental set-up is required for generating overdrive shock waves

n practice because special
in confinement.
of the burnedgas is smaller than that of the C-J
iowever, in the region II, the pressure
detonation wave is likely to occur. The gas velocity
uCtonation wave P, < Pu in which weak than the speed
to the front is slowed down. But the burned gas velocity is higher
Cative wave
that the weak detonation attains
infinite wave
from Eq. (5.8)
Sund. It can be appreciated which is physically unattainable. Consequently,
a
l/p),
t y at isochoric condition (1/p2 to occur in practice, as it demands gas mixture with
=

ak detonation wave is less likely detonation wave is likely to occur

at Chapman-
dntaneous chemical reaction. Hence,
controlled experimental conditions. Note that the
uet point only under most stringentlyminimum value, as a straight line through the origin,
attains a of its slope is less
velocity at this C-J point (U) if the magnitude
OP, 1/pi) intersect the detonation branch
anywhere below C- point in
ththar t P) will not as shown in Figure
5.2. Besides this, the deflagration
oftangent line
 I2 Fundamentals of Combustion
region III is unattainable in practice. Hence, the Hugoniot curve in these two regions is shown
as dashed line.
It
must be noted that in Figure 5.2, lower C-J point occurs in region IV, which corresponds
to the maximum wave velocity among all deflagration, because a straight line through the
origin.
O will notintersect the deflagration branch if its slope is higher than that of the tangent line. The
deflagration curve is likely to intersect the deflagration branch at two points such as in regions
IV if is
and V its slope less than that of the tangent line. Region IV is called weak
region in which gas velocity relative to the wave front is accelerated from lower subsonic
deflagration
velocity to higher subsonic velocity. In this region, Pa lies between Pi and Pt. while speciñe
volume (1/p;) is less than the specific volume at lower C-J point (1/pz). It must be appreciated
from Eq. (5.8) that zero propagation velocity is attained for a week isobaric deflagration,
(P2-P). Such a phenomenon is more likely to occur as under most experimental conditions,
pressure in the burned gas is slightly lower than that of unburned gas. This fact will be exploited
while analyzing a premixed flame in subsequent section. However, in region V, the gas velocity
relative to wave front must be accelerated substantially from subsonic to supersonic. Hence, this
region is labelled as strong deflagration region. It must be kept in mind that strong deflagration
is never observed in practice.

EXAMPLE 5.1 Determine the detonation pressure for a gaseous mixture of H2 and O
assuming the product to be only H,O when this mixture at initial pressure of 0.2 MPa and 300K
increases its density by three times due to formation of detonation wave.
Solution: Given: Stoichiometric H-0, mixture, P = 0.2 MPa, T1 = 300 K, P2= 3p1

To find: Detonation pressure P2

The hydrogen is reacted with oxygen to produce water molecules as per the following
reaction:

2H2 +O2 +2H20

have
From JANNAF tables given in appendix, we can

ah,= Ah,o,-0, Ah,H0-13.273 kJ/g

and products be estimated
fraction and mole fraction of reactants
can as
The mass
4
4x1
YH2
= 0.11
4x1+2x16 XH 4+6 - 0.6666

Xo =l -An, 0.3334
Yo2 =1- Ya =0.89
AH20=I
YH201
combustion can be expressed as follows:
rate during
The heat release
Yao X Ah,H,0
=
13.273 kl/o
Yo, Ah,o,
-

X
q H,estimate
Yu, Ah an
X +

neea to estimate
density. For this, we need estimate molecular weight
For this, we
m.

we can
estimate density.
ideal gas law,
By using
of mixture as
= 0.666 x 2 + 0.3334 x 32 12.0
=1:

MWH2 t do
X MWo2
MWmix= Xu,
X

PMWmi/R,T1 =0.96
kg/m
P-
 Premixed Flame 3

Then, P22.88 kg/m

ming y= 1.4, we can cstimate detonation pressure as given below
assuming y=
By

(13.273x 10°) -(0.2 x 10 0.694 3.64)

Then.
P 24.6 MPa
(1.21-0.694)
detonation pressure P2 is equal to 26.6 MPa.
The

5.3 LAMINAR PREMIXED FLAME

Recently, premixed flames are being employed in many residential, commercial and industrial
devices to meet demands made by stringent environmental regulation. Recall that a premixed
fame is basically a combustion wave in which fuel and oxidizer are well-mixed
beforehand at
molecular level. Some of the examples of premixed flames that we come across in our day-to-day
life are the flames in the laboratory Bunsen burner, domestic gas burner, heating appliances. jet
flame burner was
engine afterburner, etc. It is interesting to note that the first laboratory premixed
invented by Robert Bunsen way back in 1855.
in Figure 5.3 that
Let us look at the schematic diagram of a typical Bunsen burner as shown
you must have used previously
in the laboratory. In this burner, fuel enters into the burner at its
entrains air into the tube trom its
base and is ejected as a jet through a fuel orifice. This fuel jet
The fuel and air get mixed thoroughly
surrounding through a number of holes in the burner tube.
mixture by the time they get burnt
while flowing up through the tube and become homogeneous

Luminous zone

Dark zone

Mixing tube

Control ring - Primary air port

Fuel orifice
-::::-Fuel

Bunsen burner (premixed burner).

Figure 5.3 Schematic diagram of a typical
 Fundamentals of Combustion

at the exit of tube. If the flow velocity is considered to be laminar, a parabolic velocity profile can
De atainedat the exit of the burmer provided that suflicient tube length is available. At the tube
mouth, the flame is anchored anda conical flame is established as shown in Figure 5.3. The flame
shape is govermed by the combined effect of velocity profile and heat loss to the burner rim. For
the flame remain
to stationary and steady in a quiescent atmosphere, fuel flow rate must remain
constant.
A photograph of a premixed LPG-air flame is shown in Figure 5.4, which corresponds to the
uminous zone of the flame. More specifically, the luminous zone is that
portion of the flame zone
in which
temperature is high and has several radicals to emit radiation. The flame emits radiation
Over a wide
range of band from 3300 to 4400 Å. Generally, the chemical reaction and its heat
release occur below the luminous conical
region. Luminous zone is very thin (of the order of a
few um). Below this
zone, there is a dark zone within which unburned gases are heated to the
critical temperature at which chemical
reactions are initiated. Above the luminous zone, the
burned gases are diluted and cooled
by the surrounding air. The luminous zone is one of the
important regions the flame in which much of the chemical reactions take place
in
release. As a result, highest
leading to heat
temperature the flame prevails in this zone. The colour of luminous
in
zone depends on the fuel-air ratio
in the mixture [2]. For a
combustion of fuel creates enough energy to excite and ionize
hydrocarbon-air lean flame, complete
gas molecules in the flame,
leading
to ablue appearance. As the air mass fraction is
decreased beyond stoichiometric ratio, the cone
surface of flame zone appears green due to radiation from
excited C2 molecules. With further
decrease in oxygen concentration, the colour of cone surface
becomes deep violet due to the
presence of large concentrations of excited CH radicals in the
and HO at high temperature zone cause a reddish
high temperature zone. The CO
glow radiation. If the fuel-air mixture is made
still richer, an intense yellow flame can be seen which is
continuous and is caused due to the
presence of solid carbon particles, known as soot. Keep in mind that
non-carbon containing fuels
such as hydrogen when burnt with air produce nearly invisible
flame, as it radiates in the invisible
range of electromagnetic spectrum.

Flame
surface

stoichiometric LPG-air premixed bunsen flame.

Fiqure 54 Photograph of
 PremixedFlame 15
Leen
We must keep in mind that the
laminar flames need not
er A flame propagate freely when it is initiatedto inbe stationary as is the case with
3 u n s e nb u r n
can
n bue a tube
this, a flame may not containing
Figur 5.5.
shown in Figure
ixture as shown combustible
s u e l - a i rm i x
el-air ominar flames are
Besides
attain planar/flat front.
Rather,most non-planar in shape as shown in Figure 5.5. If the
gher one, will have to fix the coordinate
we wil
one, we
flame front is
gating system to the
propagating flame front such
opagars stationary. Under this situation an observer
t h a ti ta p p e a r s

riding with the flame would

at 1thumed mixture is approaching at him with the
unburned nix; experience
ss1 burning velocity S,. Hence, the laminar
locity is defined as the velocity of flame front
burning veloc
in the
direction normal to itself with
burm
respect
mburnt
to unbur mixture. This is
equivalent one-dimensional (1D) steady flame, which can
to
Rablished in the la
establish
laboratory on a flat flame burner. We will discuss more about this in
e
subsequent sections.

Burned gases Glass tube

Fuel +air

Igniter Propagating flame

Figure 5.5 Flame propagation in a tube containing flammable fuel-air mixture.

The flame structure can be characterized by temperature, heat release and species profiles,
as

be divided
shown in Figure 5.6 for a typical hydrocarbon-air premixed flame. The flame can
reaction zone, and
conveniently into three zones, namely: ) preheat zone, (i)
in which heat release is negligibly small.
(i) recombination zone. The preheat zone is the one
the fuel-air mixture to be
However, certain chemical reactions can take place, which prepare

-Visible
region

Reactants

Heat release
rate

Temperature
Reaction
intermediate

Reaction Recombination
Preheat zone
zone zone

premixed flame.
of one-dimensional laminar
Figure 5.6 The structure
 T16 Fundamentals of Combustion

burned in the subsequent reaction zone. But the reaction zone is one where most of the chemical
released. In this zone, decomposition of hydrocarbon fuel
energy in the form of heat is being
intermediates like H2, CHO, H, OH, CO, etc.
involving several chemical reactions take place and
consumed. Keep in mind that little or no decomposition/cracking of fuel can occur within the
flame for a simple hydrocarbon, like methane. But for higher hydrocarbon fuels, the
decomposition reactions are predominant leading to the formation of lower hydrocarbons like,
zone is very thin as compared to the
CH4, olefins and several intermediate species. This reaction
preheat zone. Since, major portion ofheat is being released in this zone, the temperature gradient
and concentration gradient of species are very large as shown in Figure 5.6. These gradients
cause the diffusion of heat and radicals species from reaction zone to the preheat zone and make
the flame to be self-sustaining. The recombination zone is one in which recombination reactions
involving radicals occur leading to formation of CO% and HO. Note that almost no heat is
released in this zone.

5.3.1 Laminar Flame Theory

In the last section, we have learnt about the complex physical and chemical processes involved
is not so
in the premixed flame. It
must be appreciated thatthe modelling of the flame
However, several attempts have been made in the past by assuming simplified processes in the
easy
flame. We shall now proceed to discuss a very simplified laminar flame theory for fuel-air
mixture invoking the basic governing equations such as continuity, species and energy equations.
The main objective of this analysis is to derive a simple analytical expression for the laminar
burning velocity.
In the present case, we will consider one-dimensional laminar premixed flame analysis with
assumptions listed below.

Assumptions
(1) One-dimensional steady inviscid flow.
(2) The flame is quite thin. As a result, high temperature reaction zone is restricted to the
burnt region of the flame. Hence, major portion of heat release occurs in this zone. The
heat release rate is balanced by heat conduction energy equation in this zone.
(3) The ignition temperature, Tig is very close to the flame temperature, T2.
(4) No heat loss including radiation (adiabatic flame).
(5) The pressure difference across the flame is assumed to be negligibly small. Hence, no
need to consider the momentum equation.
(6) Binary diffusion is assumed.
(7) Fourier and Fick's law are valid.

(8) Unity Lewis number Le 1 D|. This simplities the energy equation.

(9) Constant transport properties such as ke, Cp, u, D, etc.

(10) Global reaction mechanism.
Before getting into the analysis of one-dimensional flame, let us consider the structure of
steady inviscid one-dimensional premixed flame as depicted in Figure S.7 tor obtaining better
 Premixed Flame 117
nta the structureof the flame. It can be
observed
that the reaction zone is
insgto burntthe
confined to the region of the flame. The very thin and
reaction rate starts increasing at
coture
mperature 7Ti which is assumed to be close to the flame
temperature
ignition
e
e
in.moSt hydrocarbon-air mixture is strongly dependent temperature
most hydrocarbor because, reaction
the
on
rniss Law. The goverming equations for simulating one-dimensional as governed the
by
inuity, Species and energy conservation. Note that there is no need topremixed
continu
flame are of
consider momentum
ion. as pressure is assumed to be constant
across the
flame. Let us explore it further, why
feit so? We also know that the gaseous fuel-air mixture gets heated up and
expands while passing
hrough the flame due to heat release. As a result, the burnt mixture
moves faster as compared to
he fresh mixture. Let us now determine the pressure difference across the flame front
tnuoking the one-dimensional momentum equation used in Hugonoit equation (Eq. 5.6) as by

P-Pp va P Pu
(5.14)

YF
TF

Negligible
reaction

Preheat zone Reaction

Zone

Figure 5.7 The structure of one-dimensional steady premixed for a simplified model.

For a typical hydrocarbon fuel-air mixture, V, = S = planar laminarburning velocity

04 m/s, p =1.12 kg/m', p/p, = T/T, = 2200/300= 7.3, then Pu-P%= 1.53 Pa, which is quite
Small in comparison to the inlet pressure (10° Pa). Hence, there is no need to consider the

momentum equation for one-dimensional steady inviscid flame propagation analysis. For
governing
analysis of the one-dimensional steady premixed flame, theconsidered
conservation equations as
ueveloped in Chapter 3 and simplified for 1D flame
now
are

Mass conservation: dp) - o (5.15)

dx
m= pV, = constant (5.16)
 18 Fundamentals of Combustion
Species conservation:
Fuel:
pr,-pD +m (5.17)
Oxidizer: p pD +m
dx d2
(5.18)
Product: pV, dx -pD +m"
dx (5.19)
Energy conservation:
5.20)
Note that a global reaction is used for the present analysis as given below,
F+ vOx
(v+ 1)P>
The above chemical reactions (R5.1)
states that 1 kg of fuel reacts with
(V+ 1) kg of product. Hence, we can vkg of oxidizer to produce
relate the fuel consumption, oxygen
product formation as given below consumption and

n=m =-m (5.21)

It can be noted that this is a
is used to
simplified single step forward chemical reaction model, which
represent the combustion processes in the flame. In actual
proceed in very complicated ways involving several species and reactionssituation, the reactions
reverse steps. In order to make the
with both forward and
problem
chosen for the present case. Besides this,
tractable, this global chemical reaction model is
Lewis number is assumed to be unity. As a
binary diffusion governed by Fick's Law is used and
result, there is no need to solve the
Rather, the species equation will be utilized for species equation.
simplifying
Eq. (5.22), we can expand the heat release term due to chemical reaction
the energy equation. Using
in the energy
(Eq. 5.20) as given below equation
=

[hfr m" vhjox m" -(v+ 1)Ap n"]= mf AHe

+
(5.22)
where, AMC heat of combustion (h,r + Vhfor
=
-

(v+ 1Dhp) (5.23)

Then, the energy equation becomes

m" dT
CPC dx k "AHe (5.24)
Using the following boundary condition, we can solve the energy equation
x=-oo T=Tui =0 (5.25)
dx

x=too T Te; 4=0 (5.26)

Note that Eq. (5.24) is a second order non-linear ordinary differential equation. order to
simplify this analysis, we can consider a simple linear temperature profile as shown in Figure 5.8.
 Prembxed Fame 19
he reaction rate is function of spatial distance,
t h e reaction rate is Contined to a narrow as shown
Futher

r
in
in Figure
Figure 5.7.
5.7. ItIt can
can also
also be
i s negligibly small as the temperature is region. In contrast, the reaction rate thebe in

c a n be negiected. Then, the quite low. Hence, the reaction rate in the
energy equation can be recasted for
prebeat zone a

(5.27)
hove equation ndicates that heat transfer
due to conduction in the
Comvective heat transfer. We can use preheat zone is
halanced
following boundary conditions,
x = -
T T dx
(5.28)
T=Tig (5.29)
eging E. (527), *e can obtain the temperature gradient at ignition point as given below

(5.30)

Noe that in the reaction zone, convection can be neglected as Ti is almost equal to T
Hece, the energy equation (5.24) for reaction zone can be simplified ass

(5.31)
dx
Renriting the above equation, we can have

(532)
dx

Inegrating the above equation from 1ig to 1F, We can have

V2

-2.M a (5.33)

For the temperature profile to be continuous,

these two slopes given in Eqs. (5.32) and (5.35)
must be same, which results in
2

C T-T) T
mp" dT (5.34)
flame front
defined as the relative velocity, normal to the
is
Kecall that the burning velocityinto this flame front (combustion wave) and gets consumed.
which the unburnt gas
moves which can be
determine the laminar burning velocity, S
that our main objective is
to
below
ained by using continuity equation as given (5.35)
m"= Pu S
 120 Fundamentals of Combustion

is assumed approximately equal to 0.75

NOW, it the temperature difference (7i- T,)
F-T,). Then, the expression for burning velocity S, becomes

PCp3(T; -T,2 n
4
S (5.36)
The mean fuel-burming rate per unit volume can be represented as

(5.37)
But the mean reaction rate of the fuel m" can be evaluated by the following rate equation

m MWE A CP C'8, eER,T (5.38)

Then, the expression for burning velocity Sz becomes
1/2
SL 32(+1n¥\
9P
(5.39)
where a k/p C, = thermal diffusivity and AÄ= (V+ 1)C, ( T - T). It can be observed that

laminar burming velocity Sz depends on the air/fuel ratio, v, initial temperature, T,. pressure, P,
thermodynamic properties and type of fuel/oxidizer. The effects of all these variables will be
discussed extensively using the experimental data on burning velocity available in the open
literature in latter sections of this chapter. It must be noted that this simplified analysis predicts
the experimental data qualitatively. However, more sophisticated numerical models are being
devised and used currently for prediction ofburning velocity and structure of ID premixed tlame
[11]. However, this is beyond the scope of this textbook.

5.3.2 Flame Thickness

Let define the flame thickness, 8, by considering the temperature profile of lD premixed
us now
laminar flame, as shown in Figure 5.8. It can be noted that the temperature increases from
unburnt gas and changes its slope at an inflexion point to
finally attain maximum (flame
temperature). Hence, the flame thickness can be defined as the ratio of maximum temperatrure
difference (Tp Tu
-

to the temperature gradient at intlexion point as given by

(5.40)
(dTldx)ig
We can find out an expression for flame thickness d using Eq. (5.40) considering that
ignition temperature is approximated as T = 0.75 Ts + 0.25 7,. Note that the reaction zone of the
flame is approximately confined to be occurring in 1/4 of tlame thickness, 8z.
Hence, the Eq.
(5.30) becomes

dx (5.41)
Using Eq. (5.41) in Eq. (5.40), an expression for flame thickness o is obtained:
as

(5.42)
 Tad

T
Figure
Figure 5.8 The temperature profile in 1D
premixed flame to define flame thickness, o.
Using Eq. (5.35), the expression for flame thickness
burning velocity S; as
6, can be recasted in terms of laminar

3S (5.43)
where a kgpCp= thermal diffusivity. Note that all these
thermodynamic properties are with
Tespect to unburnt mixture condition. We can observe from the above
Eqs. (5.39) and (5.43)
that the laminar burning velocity and in turn flame thickness
depend on the fuel-air mixture,
initial temperature and pressure. We shall discuss about these two important features of
premixed
flame in latter sections of this chapter when the available experimental work related to these will
be discussed in detail.

EXAMPLE 5.2 Determine the laminar burning velocity S of stoichiometric CH4-air mixture
considering the single step global kinetics scheme for which the average reaction rate expression
is given below

N (kmol/cm) = -kG CH, Co

For single step global reaction, rate constantkgis equal to 1.44 x 10" exp(-15000/T). Take
Tp 2200 K and T= 298 K.
Solution: Given: Stoichiometric CH4-air mixture at 0.1 MPa and 298 K
kg 1.44 x10 exp(-15000/T)
To find: Laminar
burning velocity S
Analysis:
we Will have to evaluate laminar burning velocity Sz using Eq. (5.39)
1/2
320 (y +1) in
tne above expression, we
S9P
will have to evaluate basically average
mass burning rate of fuel
thickness
m""F assumed to occur in the second half of flame
and a. As the reaction is
 122 Fundamentals of Combustion

(see Figure 5.7), we will evaluate the average mass burning rate of fuel, at mean temperature, TT
by
T 1/2 [1/2 (Ta + T,) + Tadl- 1724,.5 K
In order to estimate average mass burning rate of CH4, balanced equation for combustion of
methane with air is given by

CH+ 2(0, +3.76 N2) » CO2 + 2H,0+ 7.52 N2

For this reaction, the mass fraction of CH and oxygen are given by

CH4 16 = 0.055
16+2(32 +3.76 x 28)
2x 32
Yo 16+2(32 +3.76 x 28)
= 0.22

We can assume the reaction to be completed in the reaction zone. As a

result, the
concentration of both CH4 or 02 will be zero. Hence, average mass fractions of CH and
O, can
be used for evaluating mass burning rate of fuel m" which can be estimated as

FCH,= (0+0.055)
2 0,0275
=

Fo, (0+0.22)
2
- 0.11
The mass burning rate of fuel inp" is given by
m"=-MWCH4 kg CcH G
-0.3
-MWCHA X3 x 1014exp500022YH,
1724.5Pavg
MWCH
(To
,
MWo
Using ideal gas law, the average density of mixture can be estimated at T =1724.5 K as
P 101325 = 0.174 kg/m'
Pavg (8314/24.7)1724.5
(R/MW)T
Substituting the values in the expression of mass burning rate of fuel, m, we can have

(-15000(0.174)2:2(0,0275 0.11)25
m-16 1,44 x10 exp 1724.5
x
16 32 -38.38 kg/m'.s

For evaluating, laminar burning velocity St, we need to evaluate density of air p, at 298 K
conductivity kg and specific heat Cp at 1724.5 K as given below
nd thermal
114.7x 103
,T) =
7.64x
7.64 X m?s
10 m/s
1.18x1271.5
Pu,298K Cp(T)
 Premixed Flame 123
that the
that the above thermopnysical properties
.

Note
NOnerature.
e m p e r a t u r e . .Now we can estimate the
corresponding to flue gas are obtained at
eraget
laminar burning velocity S, as
verag given below
S - 32y+1)n¥
9 32 x 7.64x10 -(17.16+1-38.38) /2 = 0.4 m/s= 40 cm/s
S 9P 9x1.18
an be noted that the burming velocity for stoichiometric CH4-air mixture predicted by this
t can
roximate theory seems to be quite closer to experimental data.

5.4 BURNING VELOCITY MEASUREMENT METHODS

The premixed flame is well-characterized by the burning velocity, S as it is considered to be a
physiochemical property of the specific combustible fuel-air mixture. We know that the burning
velocity is definedasthe relative velocity, nomal to the flame front with which the unburnt gas
moves into this flame front (combustion wave) and gets consumed. In other words, burning
velocity can be obtained experimentally from the rate of propagation of combustion wave while
passing through the quiescent gas. Several measurement methods have been developed for
measuring burning velocity over the years. Experimental methods for the determination of
burning velocity can be broadly divided into two categories, namely: (i) propagation method
and (i) stationary method. In stationary method, the flame front remains stationary in space
(Bunsen burner) whereas in propagation method, it moves with respect to some fixed coordinate
system in space. In other words, in stationary method, the flame front is fixed to the laboratory
coordinates, while in propagation method the flame coordinate moves with respect to laboratory
coordinate. Although the flame geometries differ significantly between two methods but the
microstructure of the flame remains almost identical.

5.4.1 Propagation Methods

In this method, the burning velocity can be obtained directly by measuring precisely the time
required for the flame front to travel a certain known diameter. That means, we ned to track the
flame front when it moves at certain velocity. Then the next question arises, how to identify the
flame front? Generally, three methods are being used widely to visualize the flame front, as given
below:
(a) Luminous photography
(b) Shadowgraph photography
(c) Schlieren photography
The schematic diagram of luminous, schlieren and shadowgraph zones of a typical

nydrocarbonflame is shown in Figure 5.9. lt can be noted that in luminous photography, the
luminous part of the flame is observed which occurs more towards burnt side (recombination
zone) of the flame. Hence, this method may not provide accurate burning velocity data as the
fundamental burning velocity is defined as the speed of the flame front with respect to unburned
gas. But shadowgraph and schlieren are two special flame photographic methods which use basic
physical phenomena. Recall that a flame front causes non-uniform density fields due to
temperature and composition gradient which are used to identify the flame front. In
shadowgraph, flame is located corresponding to the second derivative of the density which
 124 Fundamentals of Combustion

attains a highest value closer to the inflexion point of temperature profile. Therefore, the
shadowgraph measures the variation of flame front but does not specify a surface precisely.
Interestingly, this point corresponds more closely to the ignition temperature for most
hydrocarbon-air flames. In summary, shadowgraph and direct photograph methods produce
larger and erroneous flame surface but they have the advantage of simpler optical set-up.
However, in schlieren nmethod the flame surface corresponds to the maximum gradient of density,
which is closest to the unburnt mixture. That is the reason why most investigators prefer schlieren
method for locating the flame surface.

Luminous
2one

Shadowgraph
Schlieren
Zone

Figure 5.9 Schematic diagram of luminous, schlieren and shadowgraph zones

Tube Method
This is one of the simplest and oldest methods, used first by Mallard and Le Chatelier, way back
in 1883. In this method, the combustible mixture is filled in a tubeas shown in Figure 5.10. The
inner diameter of the tube must be greater than critical diameter below which the flame is
quenched. If the mixture is ignited at one end of the tube, by using a spark, a flame is initiated
which propagates through the tube (see Figure 5.10). Note that the tlame will be planar in the
early stage and becomes curved as it moves further downstream towards unburnt mixture due to
buoyancy effect.
It can be readily observed from Figure 5.10 that the Tlame attains a parabolic flame shape,

which results due to the following two factors:

() Natural convection distorts the planar flame tront, due to the ditference in densities of

burned and unburnt mixtures.

Due to friction at tube wal, the flame front travels at a higher velocity along the tube
(i) in shape.
axis, which causes the flame front to be parabolic
A suitable opening must be made at one end of the tube to reduce reflected pressure wa

which in turn would ensure uniform

linear tlame front velocity measurement over a large nortio
in maintaining a constant shape of the flame front. The
of the tube. This also helps
be estimated as
velocity S, can

S-(V-V) AJA (5.44)

 Premixed Flame 1225

,Burmed gases Glass tube

-V A, Fuel +air

Igniter Propagating flame

Figure 5.10 Flame propagation apparatus (tube
method).
here i s the flame front velocity, Vg is the velocity of unburnt gas ahead of the flame, A, is the
cross-sectional area ot the tube and Apis the flame surface area. The magnitude of V, can be
cro

estimated easily from the movement of the soap bubble front at the end of the tube.
It must be noted that this is not very accurate method due to wall effects and distortion of
flame surface as a resilt of buoyancy effect. Of course, The buoyancy effect can be reduced
considerably by using a vertical tube, particularly when the flame is allowed to move from top to
bottom. If the tlame travels from bottom to top vertically, the flame will be accelerated due to gas
expansion and buoyancy effect. Note that flame propagation in a vertical tube used routinely for
determining the flammability limits of fuel-air mixture.

Combustion Bomb Method

In this method, the combustible mixture is ignited at the centre of a constant volume spherical
vessel as shown in Figure 5.11. The flame then propagates towards the wall (unburned gas) ofthe
vessel causing its pressure and temperature to increase due to adiabatic compression. Initially,
when the ratio of flame size to vessel volume is small, the rise in pressure and temperature is
quite small. But, later on, significant temperature rise causes the burning velocity to increase
continuously from centre to the wall of the vessel. If the flame front radius, Rp can be measured
as it propagates, one can easily determine the burning velocity for a particular fuel-air mixture.

Pressure
gauge
Flame front

Igniter

Inlet

Fiqure 5.11 Schematic diagram of combustion bomb apparatus.

 126 Fundamentals of Combustion
For combustion bomb apparatus, the burning velocity can be expressed as [6-7];

S dR
d PPr -v, Pu (5.45)
of gas mixture burned at
where Rr is the instantaneous radius of spherical flame, p, is the density
based on the following assumptions.
state, P, is the density of unburnt mixture. Equation (5.45) is
The effect of flame front thickness and curvature are negligibly small. Hence, the flame
front remains smooth, spherical and centred on the point of ignition.
is uniform throughout the vessel.
(ii) The pressure at any instant
(ii) No heat loss including radiation.
iv) Chemical equilibrium is achieved behind the flame.

Soap Bubble Method

in soap bubble as shown in
method, the homogeneous fuel-oxidizer mixture is confined
a
In this
tlame propagates
Figure 5.12. When thismixture is ignited at the centre by a spark, a spherical
in radial direction through the mixture. Note that the pressure
of the burnt gas remains almost
constant as flame propagates outwardly unlike in
combustion bomb as the gas is enclosed inn a

Soap film, which is flexible in nature.

The flame propagation can be visualized experimentally
method. When the flame front is well-
either by the direct, or shadow, or schlieren photography
volume as compared to
established, the burned gas enclosed by the flame front occupies larger
a

the flame to be spherical and pressure

fresh gas into which flame front propagates. Assuming
the flame results in
remaining constant, a mass flux balance through
S Ap,= VpAps

|- (5.46)

can be obtained by photography, P^ is the density of

where V is the flame front velocity, which
burned state and p, is the density of unburnt mixture.
gas mixture at
Instantaneous soap
bubble surface
Soap bubble
Burnt
gases

Igniter
Spherical
flame front
Unburned gas mixture
time = 0 Time t

Figure 5.12 Schematic diagram of soap bubble method.

 Premixed Flame 127

The density ratio Pb/Pu can be estimated from temperature measurement. But a large
ertainty in measuring the temperature ratio T,/T, is generally incurred and is difficult to avoid
u n c e r t a i n t y

unher. Besides this, one should estimate the initial and final size of the bubble urately. But
altogether. Besid

hefinal size of the soap bubble is difticult to measure as it bursts instantly. Apart from these twe
roblems, the soap bubble method has several disadvantages, viz:

) The method cannot be used for measurement of burning velocity of the dry mixture.
The flame front may not retain its spherical shape during its propagation.
(it) The flame front would not be smooth for fast flames.
Gv) Heat loss to the electrodes and ambient environment incurs error in measurement.

5.4.2 Stationary Flame Method

this method, the propagation of flame front is balanced by an opposing flow. As a
a
In
the basic principle
result, on
fame will remain stationary fixed to the laboratory coordinates. This is
which several burners have been designed and developed for measurement of the burning
But we will discuss only two of the widely used burners, namely: (i) Bunsen burner
velocity.
and (ti) flat flame burner.

Bunsen Burner

successfully established premixed flame for the

This burner was invented by Robert Bunsen who
first time in history. We had initiated a brief discussion about the Bunsen flame in previous
is
section. AS mentioned earlier, the gas burns at the exit of the tube and a conical flame
established For the flame to be stationary, the local burning velocity must be
(see Figure 5.3).
equal to the local flow velocity of the unburned gas. Note that the flame shape is intluenced by

the velocity profile at the exit of the burner tube and heat losses to the tube wall. In order
to

maintain the same velocity profile, higher tube length must be used in the Bunsen burner,
which
is sufficient to ensure fully developed flow at its exit. For the stationary flame, a mass balance
as given below:
across the flame can provide an expression for burning velocity Sz,

S V Ap (5.47)
cross-sectional area and Ap is the
where V, is the average flow velocity in the tube, A, is the tube
Conical surface area of the flame, which can be determined using flame visualization technique.
This method is known as area method. Note that uniform burning velocity and negligible edge
Cects are being assumed for the above expression, which may not be true in practice.

used to establish uniform flow at

Besides this, high contraction contoured nozzles can be
established as shown in Figure 5.13. The angle
XIL. As a result, flame cone with straight edges is
OT the cone slant with respect to the burner axis as shown in Figure 5.13 is determined at the
for determination of burning velocity.
ntral portion of the cone from the flame photograph
CCe, the expression for the burning velocity becomes

S =
V, sin a (5.48)
CTe u is the velocity of the unburnt mixture and a is the flame cone half angle.
 128 Fundamentals of Combustion

Flame
cone A Flame cone

S
A

(b) Nozzle
(a) Tube
vector.
Figure 5.13 Schematic diagram of Bunsen burner flame with velocity

Note that the Bunsen burner is simple and easy to fabricate. Apart
from this, it can be used
for the measurement of flame stability and flammability limits,
etc. by varying fuel-air
easily
ratio, tenmperature and pressure. However, it has several disadvantages,
viz:

a) Heat loss to the wall cannot be avoided completely.

(ii) The burning velocity does not remain constant along its surface.
(i1) The diffusion of secondary atmospheric air alters the mixture ratio, which affects
burning velocity measurement.
(iv) Flame stabilization is difficult for larger diameter due to flash back into bumer.

Flat Flame Burner

In this burner, one-dimensional/flat study - 1-D flame

steady flame can be easily established and is Cooling HIBLI

frequently used in laboratory to measure passage Honeycomb
burning velocity. The schematic diagram of a
typical flat flame burmer is shown in Figure Ngas for
5.14. One-dimensional velocity profile at the purging
mouth of the burner can be obtained by using
either honeycomb (bundle of smaller diameter
tubes as in Figure 5.14) or a metal porous plug
Inert gas is used around the flame to prevent
diffusion of atmospheric oxidizer. Generally,
flame is ignited at high gas flow rate and then, Fuel-air mixture
flow is adjusted to obtain a flat flame. Flgure 5.14 Schematic diagram of a flat flame
Sometimes, a grid is used in the downstream of burner.
the flame to stabilize the flame (not shown in
Figure 5.14). The area of flat flame can be measured by using direct photography. It is interactine
g
to note that flame area obtained by visible or shadow or schlieren photograph is same, Hence
The burning velocity c
uncertainty in obtaining flame area is eliminated in this burner.
obtained by dividing flame area with volumetric flow rate of the unburned gas mixtureT

of the simplest and most accurate methods

that we have discussed till now. If the unhi
gas
into the burner and gets quenched. As the flow e e d
velocity is too low, the flame
moves
 Premixed Flame 29

g a sr
reases, flame attains a conical shape as in Bunsen burner. It must be noted that this
.a t ei n c r e a s e s ,

kindof
burner
uTDer is generally suitable for mixture having low burning velocity, particularly in the
ange o f 15
15 cm/s or less. However, this burner can also be used for higher burning velocity
measurement ploying water-cooled porous plug burner as shown in Figure 5.14.

EXAMPLE
APLE 5.3 n order to detemmine the laminar buring velocity S, of stoichiometric CH
ire a conicalflameof Mame height of 5.I cm is established using a Bunsen burner with
ar dameter of 10 mm. If it consumes 19 LPM of fuel-air mixture, determine its burning
area
method.
velocity by
Given: h tlame hei
flame height = 5.1 cm, d - diameter of tube = 10 mm, Qm = fuel-air
S o l u t i o n :
Gven: hp =

flow rate
=
19 LPM.
mixture

o find: Buming velocity S

Analysis:
e now that an expression for burning velocity S, as given by Eq. (5.47)

S V Af
4.Area of tube
=
t/4 di =
t/4 (1)? =
3.14 cm2
Assuming the flame cone to be right angle circular with the base diameter equal to the burner
nort diameter, the flame surface area Ap can be estimated as

Ap Trr+hh =
8.05 cm?
The burning velocity S can be estimated as

19x1000 =39.33 cm/s

S V=
AF 60 x 8.05

5.5 EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL VARIABLES ON BURNING

VELOCITY
Ihe dependence of burning velocity on various physicochemical variables such as equivalence
are discussed
ratio, fuel type, initial temperature, pressure, inert additives and reactive additives
briefly in the following subsections.

5.5.1 Effect of Equivalence Ratioo

plotted Figure is in 5.15
ne experimental burning velocity data for several fuel-air systems
ganst equivalence ratio (fuel/air mixture ratio). It can be noted that tor typical hydrocarbon-air
ms, the burning velocity varies in the range of 25-50 peak burning velocity occurs cm/s. The
in most hydrocarbon-air flames and
SOIchiometric or slightly fuel rich mixture (¢ =1.05)
both on the lean and rich sides. However,
the maximum burning velocity for
huown 1.8. For rich mixture ratio, some
ogen-air mixture
left over hydrogen
occurs under fuel-rich mixture
around o=
of
to be present in the mixture. Since, weight hydrogen
the molecular
is w androgen likely is
burning velocity is inversely proportional to molecular weight (Sz o« MW"), the