Theory 1

Rev nr Rev date Prepared Accepted Details

00 29-04-2003 WM JV
01 14-03-2003 WM JV
02 27-10-2003 WM JV Page numbering added
Letters black
Theory basic and advanced divided into Theory 1, 2 and 3
Time difference LW/BW function graph added
03 23-11-2003 JV JV Formulae depth calculation simplified;
Grey scale imaging slides upgraded
Formulae made with equation editor in lieu of text
D-scan / B-scan Parallel- / Non Parallel scan updated
04 01-02-2004 JV JV Typography formulae updated
05 06-07-2004 WM JV Phase shift LW BW added,
Offset and linescans added
06 05-09-2006 ES JV Assignments changed

0 Filename: presents\cursus\Cursus_TOFD_Engels\...\03 Theorie1_UKev4.ppt

 Time of Flight
Diffraction
Technique (TOFD)

Theory 1

1
 Theory 1
1 4

5
2

1 = Transmitted pulse 3
2 = Reflected pulse
3 = Through transmitted pulse
4 = Diffraction from top of crack
5 = Diffraction from bottom of crack
2
 Theory 1

Tx Rx
Inspection Surface

Isotropic
W Component

Backwall
Inner Surface

3
 Theory 1
2S (PCS)
Tx Rx
Lateral wave Inspection Surface

ld1 d ld1

ld2 Indication Isotropic

W ?z ld2 lW Component
lW

Backwall
Inner Surface
tW Backwall echo
td2 Lower tip of imperfection
td1 Upper tip of imperfection
tLW Lateral wave
Time

t0 ? td1
? td2

4 ? tW
 Theory 1
Before ultrasound goes into the material
to be inspected it has to go through
• Wedge material (usually perspex)
• Couplant

Therefor the ultrasound is delayed; this

is called: Probe Delay and is usually
indicated for both probes together

5
 Theory 1
Assignment 1:
– Derive a formula for the calculation of the time of
arrival for the lateral wave
– Derive a formula for the calculation of the time of
arrival for the back wall echo
– Derive a formula for depth calculation as a
function of S (=½ PCS) and the time difference ? t
between the lateral wave and the defect echo

6
 Theory 1
Solution Assignment 1:
Formula for arrival time of lateral wave :
2S
t LW = + PD (ProbeDelay)
cL
Formula for arrival time of back wall echo :
S2 + W 2
t = 2⋅ + PD
cL
Formula for depth calculation :
cL ⋅ ∆t 2
d = S ⋅ cL ⋅ ∆t + ( )
7
2
 Theory 1
Derivation depth calculation:
Travel times for lateral
Pythagoras
wave and defect echo
S

d 2S/ cL
?t
l
2 l / cL

∆t
d +S = l
2 2 2
l = cL ⋅ + S
2
? t = time difference between
lateral wave and backwall echo
8
 Theory 1
d 2 + S2 = l 2
d 2 = l 2 − S2
cL
d = (S + ⋅ ∆t )2 − S 2
2

2
cL
d = S + S ⋅ cL ⋅ ∆t + ( ⋅ ∆t )2 − S 2
2 2

2
cL
d = S ⋅ cL ⋅ ∆t + ( ⋅ ∆t )
2 2

2
cL
d = S ⋅ cL ⋅ ∆t + ( ⋅ ∆t )2
2
9
 Theory 1
Assignment 2:
– Given: PCS = 75 mm
– Time difference lateral wave and indication = 0.9 µs
– W = 45 mm
– CL = 5932 m/s
– PD = 6.5 µs

Calculate the time of arrival of the lateral

wave (tLW) and the backwall echo (tW)
Calculate the depth of the indication (d)

10
 Theory 1
Solution Assignment 2:

Arrival time lateral wave: 19.1 µs

Arrival time backwall echo: 26.2 µs
Depth of indication: 14.4 mm

11
 Theory 1

The time difference between Lateral Wave and Backwall

is not linear as function of depth and S :
S 2 + W 2 2S
∆t = tW − t LW = 2⋅ −
cL cL

12
 Theory 1
Time difference LW and BW as function of depth and PCS

35

30

Time difference LW BW [microseconds]

25

20

15

10

0
0
18

98
36

91
54

84
77
72

70
90

63
PC
S [m 56
108

49

m]
126

42

m]
35
144

h [m
28

t
162

21

Dep
14
180

7
0
198

13
 Theory 1
0.6
0.4

0.2
0

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6

2.3 2.35 2.4 2.45 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 2.7 2.75
-5
x 10

0.5

1.5
50 100 150 200 250 300

Grey scale imaging: amplitude values

are transferred into grey scales
14
 Theory 1
Phase shift
• If ultrasound hits a surface, of a material with a
lower acoustic impedance, phase shift will occur
• If the LW starts with a positive phase, the Back
Wall echo will start with a negative phase,
because of the steel-air interface
• If the LW starts with a positive phase, the echo of
the uppertip will start with a negative phase,
because of the steel-air interface
• If the LW starts with a positive phase, the echo of
the bottomtip will start with a positive phase,
because there is no reflection; the ultrasound will
15
go around the defect
 Theory 1

The weld volume is filled with

ultrasonic energy. Defects The probes are moved along the
cause diffraction signals weld length to build up the grey-
scale image (B- or D-scan)

16
 Theory 1
A-Scan
Stacked A-Scans Resulting D-scan
Grey Scale
- 100% +100%
Lateral
Wave

Back wall

Shear
Component

17
 Theory 1

DEFECT

D-SCAN (LONGITUDINAL VIEW) NON PARALLEL SCAN

B-SCAN (TRANSVERSE VIEW) PARALLEL SCAN

18
 Theory 1

DEFECT

NON PARALLEL SCAN OFFSET

PARALLEL SCAN LINE SCAN

19
 Theory 1
view
can
C-S

D-
Sc view
an can
vie -S
w B

20
 Theory 1
Determination set up examination
• Determine ultrasonic probes: frequency and
crystal diameter
• Determine zone of examination, geometric
limitations
• Determine angle of refraction
• Determine Probe Centre Separation
• Determine times of arrival of geometric echo’s
• Set up parameters inspection system

21
 Theory 1
Determination set up examination
• Adjust gain for reference sensitivity
• Set collection gate to cover LW, BW and
MC
• Set filtering to cover bandwidth
• Set averaging to improve signal-noise ratio
• Validate setups on reference block

22