Refresher Notes Chapters 1-7

PE Civil Transportation Depth
CODE: Fall 2020 MATERIAL: Refresher Notes Chapters 1-7

This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
Adriano Guedes (aguedes@mtabt.org)
Transportation Refresher Notes
Table of Contents
1. Surveying ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Bearings and Azimuths ...................................................................................... 1
1.2 Latitude and Departures ..................................................................................... 2
1.3 Cartesian Coordinate System ............................................................................. 3
1.4 Stationing ............................................................................................................ 4
2. Driver Performance and Behavior ........................................................................... 5
2.1 Information Processing and Perception ............................................................. 5
2.2 Brake-Reaction Time ......................................................................................... 6
2.3 Sight Distance..................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance ............................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Braking or Skidding Distance ...................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Decision Sight Distance ............................................................................. 13
2.3.4 Passing Sight Distance ............................................................................... 14
2.3.5 Intersection Sight Distance ........................................................................ 15
3. Horizontal Curves .................................................................................................. 16
3.1 Circular Curves................................................................................................. 17
3.2 Curves - Inaccessible PI ................................................................................... 23
3.3 Reverse Curve Layout ...................................................................................... 28
3.3.1 Find the radius of a reverse curve with equal radii arcs ............................ 31
3.4 Superelevation .................................................................................................. 32
3.5 Superelevation Transition................................................................................. 34
3.6 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve Section .................................... 38
3.7 Spiral Curves .................................................................................................... 42
3.8 Compound Curves ............................................................................................ 43
3.8.1 Two-Centered Compound Curve ............................................................... 44
3.8.2 Two-centered Compound Curve Formulas................................................ 45
3.8.3 Three-centered Compound Curve .............................................................. 50
3.8.4 Three-centered Compound Curve Formulas.............................................. 51
4. Vertical Curves....................................................................................................... 52
4.1 Vertical Curve – Elevation at Specific Station ................................................ 52
4.2 Vertical Curve Design ...................................................................................... 57
4.3 Fixed Point on a Vertical Curve ....................................................................... 65
4.4 Fixed Point at Turning Point on a Vertical Curve............................................ 67
5. Design Standard Overview: AASHTO Green Book ............................................. 68
5.1 List of Chapters: ............................................................................................... 68
5.2 Typical Questions: ............................................................................................ 68
6. Intersection Design................................................................................................. 69
i
6.1 Width of Turning Roadway at Intersection ...................................................... 69

6.2 Intersection Sight Distance............................................................................... 71
6.3 Modern Roundabouts ....................................................................................... 78
6.3.1 Characteristics ............................................................................................ 79
6.3.2 Sizes ........................................................................................................... 79
6.3.3 Conflict Points............................................................................................ 79
7. Interchange Design................................................................................................. 80
7.1 Minimum Length Between Ramp Termini ...................................................... 80
7.2 Minimum Acceleration Length for Entrance Terminal ................................... 82
ii
1. Surveying
NOTE: This topic is reviewed in the Geometrics section of the regular classes and is
repeated here to provide a quick overview before going into depth problems in the
later sections.
1.1 Bearings and Azimuths
PROBLEM 1
Convert the following bearings to azimuths from due north:
(a) S 520 31’ 18” W
(b) N 680 22’ 54” W
SOLUTION 1
(a) 1800 00’ 00”

+ 520 31’ 18”
2320 31’ 18”
(b) 3590 59’ 60”

- 680 22’ 54”
2910 37’ 06”
1
1.2 Latitude and Departures
 Latitude of a line is the distance that the line extends in a north or south
direction. A line that runs towards north has a positive latitude; a line that runs
towards south has a negative latitude.
 Departure of a line is the distance that the line extends in an east or west
direction. A line that runs towards east has a positive departure; a line that runs
towards west has a negative departure.
2
PROBLEM 2
A line has length 940.79 ft and bearing of S 230 W. Determine:
i) The latitude of the line ii) The departure of the line

A) – 367.60 A) – 367.60
B) +367.60 B) +367.60
C) – 866.00 C) – 866.00
D) +866.00 D) +866.00
SOLUTION 2
i) – 940.79 * Cos 230 = – 866.00 Answer C
ii) – 940.79 * Sin 230 = – 367.60 Answer A
1.3 Cartesian Coordinate System
It is based on Northing (N) and Easting (E)
PROBLEM 3
Determine the coordinates of point B at the end of line AB, given the following:
Length of AB = 300’
Bearing of line AB = N 700 00’ W
Coordinates of point A = N 100,000.00, E 600,000.00
3
SOLUTION 3
Latitude of line AB = + 300’ Cos 700 = +102.61’

Departure of line AB = – 300’ Sin 700 = – 281.91’
Northing (N) of point B = 100,000 +102.61’= N 100,102.61’
Easting (E) of point B = 600,000 – 281.91’= E 599,718.09
1.4 Stationing
 Stationing is used on horizontal alignments to locating features.

 1 station = 100 feet
 How do you present stationing?
o Specific location is presented as Sta 10+00.
o Distance is presented as 10.00 sta.
4
PROBLEM 4
Assume the direction of increasing stationing is heading from point A to point B.

What is the station at point B?
SOLUTION 4
Station at point A = Sta 22+45
Station at point B = Sta 22+45

+ 10 28’
32 73’ = Sta 32+73
2. Driver Performance and Behavior
NOTE: Some portions of this section are reviewed under Geometrics section of the
regular classes also. Necessary fundamental topics are repeated here to have a quick
overview before going into depth problems.
2.1 Information Processing and Perception
The time required to respond successfully to any driving situation, such as an

emergency, involves four stages:
 Perception (detection and identification)

 Decision
 Reaction
 Response of the vehicle
5
2.2 Brake-Reaction Time
A significant variable in the successful processing and use of information is the speed
with which this is done. Brake-Reaction Time (BRT), can also be known as
Perception-Reaction Time (PRT), is a human factor often cited by traffic engineers
concerned with safety. BRT is “the interval between the appearance of some object or
condition in the driver’s field of view and the initiation of a response” such as braking
or changing course. Note that BRT involves the initiation of a response (e.g. pressing
the brake), not the completion of the vehicle maneuver (stopping).
BRT depends on the situation. Response time is generally quickest when there is one
specific response to be made to a single stimulus (brake lights of vehicle ahead). In the
case of “choice reaction time,” in which there is more than one stimulus and/or more
than one possible response (e.g. toll plaza), reaction time increases as a function of the
number of possibilities. A driver may, for example, have to decide whether to steer or
brake, or both, to avoid a pedestrian.
The BRT used for design by AASHTO includes 1.5 sec for perception and decision,
1.0 sec for making a response, for a total of 2.5 sec, which is generally considered
adequate for all but the most complex driving situations.
See the AASHTO Green Book (GB), Section 3.2.2. Stopping Sight Distance.
2.3 Sight Distance
See Chapter 3 of the 2018 “A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets”,
which is widely known as the “AASHTO Green Book”.
Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. It relates to
stopping, steering, and overtaking. There are four types of sight distance:
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

 Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
 Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)
6
2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance is the sum of two distances:
(1) Brake Reaction Distance (BRD): the distance traversed by the vehicle from the
instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes
are applied
(2) Braking Distance (BD): The distance needed to stop the vehicle from the
instant the brake application begins.
The AASHTO GB provides the following equation for calculating the Stopping Sight
Distance (SSD). This equation is on page 3-4 of the AASHTO GB.
The SSD equation includes terms for Brake Reaction Distance (BRD) and Braking
Distance (BD).
where:
SSD Stopping Sight Distance, ft;
V design speed, mph;
t brake reaction time, 2.5 sec
a deceleration rate, 11.2 ft/sec
G percent of grade divided by 100
NOTE: If the friction factor, f, is known,

can be replaced with .
32.2
7
The first part of the equation represents the brake reaction distance and the second
part represents the braking distance.
The computed Stopping Sight Distances at the assumed BRT of 2.5 sec, a
deceleration rate of 11.2 ft/sec2, and on various grades (-3%, -6%, -9%, +3%, +6%,
+9%), are shown in AASHTO Green Book Table 3-2.
If a vehicle is traveling on a level roadway (G = 0), then SSD can be determined using
the following simplified equation:
2
Vmph
SSD = 1.47Vmph t + 1.075
a
The computed Stopping Sight Distances for various speeds at the assumed conditions
(BRT of 2.5 sec, a deceleration rate of 11.2 ft/sec2 on level grade) are shown in
AASHTO Green Book Table 3-1 and were developed using the above equation:
2.3.2 Braking or Skidding Distance
If the vehicle does not come to a full stop, then the following equation can be used to
calculate braking or skidding distance:
-
D
30
32.2
Where V Initial Speed mph V Final Speed mph
Note: If the friction factor, f , is known, it can be substituted for as shown below.
.
-
D
30
8
PROBLEM 5
A motorist is traveling on a level grade at 50 mph. A tree has fallen across the road
and forces the motorist to stop. Assuming a 2.5 sec brake reaction time and 11.2
ft/sec2 deceleration rate, determine the brake reaction distance and braking distance in
feet.
A) 147’ and 154’

B) 165’ and 194’
C) 184’ and 290’
D) 184’ and 240’
SOLUTION 5
Brake reaction distance 1.47Vt 1.47 50 2.5 184'
50
Braking distance 1.075 1.075 240'
11.2
Answer D
Compare the Brake Reaction Distance and Braking Distance computed above to those
shown in AASHTO Green Book Table 3-1. Note that under standard conditions
(level terrain, 2.5 sec brake reaction time, and 11.2 ft/sec2 deceleration rate), the
correct values of Brake Reaction Distance and Braking Distance are shown in
AASHTO Green Book Table 3-1.
9
PROBLEM 6
A motorist is traveling down a 6% grade at 65 mph and needs to stop because of a

crash scene. Assuming a 2.0 sec BRT and 12.0 ft/sec2 deceleration rate, the total SSD
(in feet) is most nearly which of the following?
A) 191
B) 300
C) 422.5
D) 640
SOLUTION 6
SSD 1.47Vt
30
32.2
65
1.47 65 2
12
30 0.06
32.2

4225
191.1
9.380
641.52'
Answer D
Note that this problem does not involve standard conditions (2.5 sec brake reaction
time, and 11.2 ft/sec2 deceleration rate), therefore the SSD is not shown in AASHTO
Green Book Table 3-1 or Table 3-2, and must be calculated using the above equation.
10
PROBLEM 7
The approximate minimum Stopping Sight Distance (in feet) required on a bicycle
path, given the following data, is most nearly?
Design Speed, V = 25 mph

Coefficient of friction, f = 0.25
Grade, G = + 6%
A) 10
B) 78
C) 88
D) 160
SOLUTION 7
1.47
30
Where:
= Stopping Sight Distance (ft).
= Design speed (mph) = 25 mph
= Grade (ft/ft) (rise/run) = + 6%
= Coefficient of friction = 0.25
t = Perception Reaction Time (sec) = 2.5
Apply the above equation
25
1.47 25 2.5 158.95
30 0.25 0.06
Answer D
11
PROBLEM 8
An unexpected obstacle occurred on a freeway with 65 mph speed limit. All drivers
traveling on the freeway must stop. An alert driver who requires a brake reaction time
of 2.5 seconds is traveling at the posted speed limit. An impaired driver who requires
a brake reaction time of 3.5 seconds is traveling at 70 mph speed. How much further
will the impaired driver travel than the alert driver before the impaired driver applies
the brakes?
A. 121 ft
B. 320 ft.
C. 600 ft.
D. 715 ft.
SOLUTION 8
Brake Reaction Distance in feet = 1.47V ℎ
Brake Reaction Distance traveled by the alert driver = 1.47 * 65 * 2.5 = 239 ft
Brake Reaction Distance traveled by the impaired driver = 1.47 * 70 * 3.5 = 360 ft
Additional distance traveled by the impaired driver = 360 – 239 = 121 ft
Answer A
12
2.3.3 Decision Sight Distance
Decision Sight Distance (DSD) is the distance ahead a driver needs to detect an
unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or condition in a
roadway environment that may be visually cluttered, recognize the condition, or its
potential threat, select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete the
avoidance maneuver safely and efficiently. DSD’s increase with design speed and the
complexity of the situation encountered. DSD’s are tabulated in AASHTO GB Table
3-3 for avoidance maneuvers A, B, C, D, and E:
From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2, by the American

Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used
with permission.
13
PROBLEM 9
Determine the required decision sight distance (in feet) in the following situation:
You are driving along a winding rural road at 40 mph when you come upon and
approach a one lane bridge.
A) 330 B) 690 C) 600 D) 715
SOLUTION 9
A one-lane bridge is similar to a four-way stop controlled intersection. It is a “first–

come–first–served” situation. When approaching a one-lane bridge, a driver should be
able to assess whether the bridge is already occupied or about to be occupied by another
vehicle heading toward them. In that case, the approaching driver should pull over and
stop to allow the other vehicle to continue across the bridge and pass.
However, if no other vehicle heading toward them is on or about to be on the bridge,

the approaching driver need not stop before proceeding onto the bridge. Therefore, this
situation requires Avoidance Maneuver C, which involves a possible
speed/path/direction change and DSD = 600 ft.
Answer C
2.3.4 Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance (PSD) applies to two-lane highways only.
Key assumptions:
 The overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed.
 The passing vehicle has reduced its speed and trails the overtaken vehicle as it
enters a passing section.
 The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver and its average speed is 12
mph greater than the overtaken vehicle but does not exceed the design speed.
 When the passing vehicle returns to its lane, there is suitable clearance between
it an opposing vehicle.
14
From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used
with permission.
PROBLEM 10
Two cars are traveling south on a two-lane highway with a design speed of 60 mph.
The lead car is traveling at 48 mph. The following car is traveling at 60 mph and the
driver intends to overtake and pass the lead car. The estimated passing sight distance
(in feet) required in this situation is most nearly?
A) 700 B) 800 C) 900 D) 1000
SOLUTION 10
1000 ft., as indicated in the 2018 GB, Table 3-4, page 3-11. Answer D
2.3.5 Intersection Sight Distance

Detailed discussion on this topic is presented in Chapter 6, Intersection Design.
15
3. Horizontal Curves
NOTE:
Some portions of this section are reviewed under Geometrics and Traffic Topics
course. Necessary fundamental topics are repeated here for a quick review before
going into more difficult problems.
16
3.1 Circular Curves

 A horizontal circular curve is an arc that typically connects two straight lines
which are known as tangents.
 The following equations are used to calculate the elements of a circular curve.
 The stationing on a horizontal circular curve is determined using the following

equations:
o PC Sta PI Sta T
o .
o PI Sta T PT Sta.
PROBLEM 11
Degree of curvature, D, is the central angle subtended by a 100-ft arc length of known
radius, R. On a circular curve having radius R, what is the corresponding D?
SOLUTION 11
Radius = 500.00 ft
5729.578
11.45916° 11° 27′ 33"
500
17
PROBLEM 12
Compute the D, T, L, E, M, and stations of the PC and PT of a circular curve with:

R = 850.000 ft, I = 200 30’, and PI Sta 700+50.00
SOLUTION 12
5729.578′
6° 44′ 26"
850
20° 30′ /60′ 20. 5°
20. 5°
850 153.705
2 2
20. 5°
2 2 850 304.124
360° 360°
20. 5° 20. 5°
850
2 4 2 4
850 0.1808 0.0897 13.785
20. 5°
1 850 1 850 0.01596 13.565
2 2
. . 70050.00 153.705 698 96.295
. . 69896.295 304.124 702 00.419
18
PROBLEM 13
Given the horizontal curve shown, determine the coordinates of Point E.
SOLUTION 13
Strategy:
Step 1. Establish Chord A-E.
Step 2. Find Bearing and Length of Chord A-E.
Step 3. Use Latitudes and Departures to Determine Coordinates of Point E.
. .

Find Radius.
5729.578 5729.578
R 1200.00
4.775
Find Arc Length A-E

Sta 46 50 Sta 30 00 1,650 ft

Find Angle .
Use Angle to find Angle .
19
Note that is . Use Angle to find the bearing of chord A-E.

2
.

Notice that Triangle A-O-E has two sides of length R separated by angle

1,650' 825'
Angle × 360 × 360 78.782
2πR 1,200'
Angle β 78.782
Angle 39.391
2 2
Bearing of Chord AE
A-E Back Tangent Bearing Angle

N 73 E 39.391 N 112.391 E 67.609
180.000 - 112.391 67.609
β
Length of Chord A-E 2×1,200 sin 2 1,200 sin 39.392 1523.06′
2
20
.
.

Chord AE has a SE bearing.
Therefore the Latitude must be negative and the Departure must be positive.

Latitude is change in north-south direction:
= Length × cos Bearing Angle = 1523.06' × cos 67.61 = 580.147'

Departure is change in east-west direction:
= Length × sin Bearing Angle = 1523.06' × sin 67.61 = +1408.240'
Coordinates of Point E

Northing of Point A + Latitude: 600.000 580.147' = 19.853
Easting of Point A + Departure: 500.000 + 1408.240' = 1908.240
21
PROBLEM 14
The centerline of an existing road is located near a high quality wetland full of
threatened and endangered species plants and animals. The PT of the curve is too
close to the wetland for the proposed roadway widening. The existing curve has a PI
located at Sta. 900+00, a deflection angle of 65.00 and a radius of 2500’. The roadway
centerline will be shifted 380 ft along the back tangent to avoid the wetland. The
existing PC and deflection must remain the same. The radius (ft) of the new curve is
most nearly:
A) 1,212.68’
B) 1,592.68’
C) 1,903.53’
D) 2,003.45’
22
SOLUTION 14
Determine the tangent length of the existing curve.
Texist = Rexist tan I/2 = 2,500 tan (65.0/2) = 1,592.676’
Note that the tangent length of the new curve is 380’ shorter than Texist.
Tnew = Texist - 380’ = 1,592.676’- 380’ = 1,212.68’
Solve for the radius of the new curve using Tnew.
Tnew = 1,212.68’ = Rnew tan (I/2); 1,212.68’ = Rnew tan (65.0/2)
Therefore Rnew = 1,212.68’ / [tan (65.0/2)] = 1,903.53’
Answer C
3.2 Horizontal Curve - Inaccessible PI
Under certain conditions the PI of a horizontal curve may be at a location that is

impossible or impractical for a surveyor to occupy. For example, the PI could be
located offshore, in a pond, at the bottom of a cliff, or behind a high wall. In such
cases, the surveyor must locate the curve elements using the following steps:
(1) Establish a straight-line AB that intersects the Back Tangent at Point A and the
Forward Tangent at Point B. Note that there must be a clear line of sight
between Points A and B so that line AB (a random line connecting the tangents)
will clear the obstruction.
(2) Measure angles alpha and beta by setting up at both Points A and B.
(3) Measure the distance AB.
(4) Note that Point V is the inaccessible PI.
(5) Use the Law of Sines to compute distances AV and BV.
23
PROBLEM 15
Shore Line Road approaches the ocean and makes a sweeping curve to the right as
shown in the figure. The PI is located offshore in shark-infested, deep water and
considered inaccessible.
Given that: PT Sta 35 + 00.00, Length AB = 1176.87’, alpha = 45.580, beta = 49.450,
and R = 1500.00’
Find the following:
(1) Length AV
A) 323.25’ B) 641.88’ C) 843.80’ D) 897.69’
24
(2) Length BV
A) 323.25’ B) 641.88’ C) 843.80’ D) 897.63’
(3) PC Sta.
A. 10 + 12.12 B) 10 + 11.22 C) 11 + 22.10 D) 24 + 87.88
(4) PI Sta.
A) 10 + 11.22 B) 11 + 22.10 C) 24 + 87.88 D) 26 + 49.99
(5) Station at Point A.
A) 17 + 52.30 B) 11 + 22.10 C) 24 + 87.88 D) 26 + 49.99
25
SOLUTION 15
45.58° 49.45° 95.03°
180 180 95.03° 84.97°
(1) Length AV
Sin 1176.870' Sin 49.45°

897.689′
Sin Sin 84.97°
Answer D
(2) Length BV
Sin 1176.870 Sin 45.58°

843.804′
Sin Sin 84.97°
Answer C
95.03° 1500
2487.8796′
180° 180°
26
SOLUTION 15 CONTINUED
(3) PC Sta. = . – 3500.00 – 2487.8796′ PC Sta. 10 + 12.12
Answer A
(4)
95.03°
1500 1637.823′
2 2
PI Sta. = .
. 10 12.12 1637.823’ PI Sta. 26 + 49.99
Answer D
(5) Sta. at Point A =
. ℎ . 26 49.99 897.689′ Sta. 17 + 52.30
Answer A
27
3.3 Reverse Curve Layout
The above figure shows a reverse curve connecting two parallel tangents.
The PC and PT are located as follows:
1. Measure p, the perpendicular distance between tangents.
2. Locate the PRC and measure m1 and m2. (If conditions permit, the PRC can be
at the midpoint between the two tangents. This will reduce computation, since
both arcs will be identical.)
3. Determine R1.
4. Compute I1
5. Compute L1 from
Determine R2, I2, and L2 using the same procedure. If the PRC is to be the
midpoint, the values for arc 2 will be the same as for arc 1.
6. Layout each of the arcs the same as a simple curve.
28
Example.
1. Layout a reverse curve consisting of two equal arcs of D = 50 (arc definition).

Assume PC Sta 10 + 00.00 and the distance “p” is 225.00 ft.
2. Therefore:
225'
112.5'.
2 2
3. Because the two arcs have the same Degree of Curvature, D,
and L ; L ; and I
4. Given the Degree of Curvature, D, determine R1 and R2.
180 100
5729.578
1145.916′
5
5. Given R1 and R2, determine I1 and I2.
1145.92′ - 112.5′
cos cos cos 0.902 25.601
1145.92′
6. Given I1 and I2, determine L1 and L2. Note that these are straight line distances
that are parallel to the back and ahead tangents. They are not measured along
the curves.
1145.92 2 5.601 495.15′
29
7. Determine the arc lengths and .
25.601
2 2 1145.92 512.02
360 360
8. Given the PC station, determine the PRC and PT stations using and
PC Sta. 10 00.00
L 512.02′ PRC Sta 15 12.02
L 512.02 PT Sta 20 24.04
30
3.3.1 Find the radius of a reverse curve with equal radii arcs
Find the radius (R) of a reverse curve having two equal radii arcs, given the
perpendicular distance between the tangents, P = 12’, and the parallel distance between
PC and PRC is L1 = 40’, and the parallel distance between PRC and PT, L2 = 40’. Use
the Pythagorean Theorem as shown in the figure below.
2 2 2
Where:
12
6 40
2 2
Solving for R:
4 4 4 6 4 40 6544
136.33′
8 8 6 48
31
3.4 Superelevation
 Used on horizontal curves to resist centrifugal forces.
A vehicle traveling in a circular path experiences an apparent centrifugal force, which

is resisted by a combination of surface (i.e. roadway) banking (superelevation rate) and
sideways friction. Think of superelevation, e, and friction, f, as working together to
resist the tendency to drift to the outside of the curve. A vehicle with bald tires traveling
on icy pavement has little friction and depends almost entirely on superelevation to
resist centrifugal force.
PROBLEM 16
What is the minimum radius, Rmin, that can be used on a horizontal curve with a
design speed of 75 mph, a maximum superelevation, emax = 8.0%, and a side friction
factor, f = 0.09?
SOLUTION 16
emax = 8%; V = 75 mph; fmax = 0.09

Vmph 2
R min =
15(emax + fmax )
75
R 2205.88 ft
15 0.08 0.09
See AASHTO Green Book (2018) Table 3-7 for emax = 8%, page 3-34.
32
PROBLEM 17
A proposed bicycle racetrack will have several horizontal curves, each with a
design speed of 30 mph. The track will be superelevated at 2% through the
curves, and will have a paved surface with a coefficient of friction that varies
from 0.31 at 12 mph to 0.21 at 30 mph. What is the minimum curve radius
appropriate for this racetrack?
A) 156 ft B) 225 ft C) 260 D) 294 ft
SOLUTION 17
Use AASHTO Equation 3-8.
emax = 8.0%; V = 75 mph; fmax = 0.09
min =
15 max + max
NOTE: AASHTO GB Eqn 3-8 requires that emax be added to fmax. Therefore if emax is
given in percent, it must be multiplied by 0.01 (or divided by 100 ) before it is entered
in Eqn 3-8.
75
R min 2,205.88 say 2,210 ft
15 0.08 0.09
See AASHTO Green Book (2018) Table 3-7, page 3-34 for the Rmin that corresponds
to emax = 8%, f = 0.09 and V = 75 mph.
Answer C
33
3.5 Superelevation Transition

- Design procedure using 2018 AASHTO GB Design Superelevation Tables
On the approach to a horizontal curve the roadway pavement must be gradually

transitioned from normal crown to full super to provide a smooth and safe riding
surface. See cross sections A thru D.
Terminology:
• Tangent Runout, Lt, length needed to change the highway cross slope from a
normal crown section to a section with the adverse cross slope removed (distance
between Points A and B on Superelevation Transition Diagram).
• Superelevation runoff, Lr, length of roadway needed to change cross slope from
adverse cross slope removed to fully superelevated (distance between Points B
and D on Superelevation Transition Diagram).
• Adverse Crown Removed, position represented by Point B (on Superelevation
Transition Diagram) where one half of the pavement width has rotated upward
and is level, the other half of the cross section remains sloped downward at the
normal cross slope rate. On curves to the right, the level section is on the left
side. On curves to the left, the level section is on the right side.
34
• Design Superelevation rate, ed, is the amount of rise or fall of the cross slope
per unit amount of horizontal width; is typically expressed in feet per foot or
percent. In plan view, on a horizontal curve, ed is the cross slope to be provided
between points D and D. (Full Superelevation)
• Normal cross slope rate, eNC, cross slope to be provided on tangents
approaching the curve. Normal crown ends at Point A as vehicle heads toward
the curve.
Procedure:
1. Determine emax: 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, or 12%. (Typically set by local design
policy.)
2. Determine proposed design speed, Vd
3. Determine the proposed radius, R, of curve under consideration
4. Determine required full superelevation rate, e (aka “full super”) using the 2018
AASHTO GB Table 3-8 (for emax = 4%) page 3-42, Table 3-9 (for emax = 6%)
page 3-43, Table 3-10 (for emax = 8%) page 3-45, Table 3-11 (for emax = 10%)
page 3-47, and Table 3-12 (for emax = 12%) page 3-49.
5. Determine number of lanes in both directions (2, 4, 6, etc. or other)
6. Determine required superelevation runoff, Lr (See AASHTO GB Table 3-16a,
page 3-66), adjusting for the number of lanes rotated using AASHTO GB Table
3-15, page 3-64 and Equation 3-23, page 3-63.
7. Calculate required tangent runout, Lt (Use AASHTO GB Equation 3-24, page
3-70)
8. Determine the PC and PT Stations of the curve under consideration
9. Determine stations where Lt and Lr begin and end.
10. Enter the above data into Superelevation Transition Diagram (use blank
diagram provided)
PROBLEM 18
A proposed two-lane highway is to have a design speed of Vd = 25 mph, and a 200 ft

radius horizontal curve. Policy dictates that emax= 6%. Determine the following:
a. Required rate of superelevation, ed

b. Length of Superelevation runoff, Lr
c. Length of Tangent Runout, Lt
Note: All references to the AASHTO Green Book are to the 2018 edition.
35
SOLUTION 18
Part a.
From AASHTO GB Table 3-9 page 3-43 (U.S. Customary) which is for emax = 6%
From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Used with
permission.
For R =200 ft, use the next smaller radius, R = 186 ft  Find e = 5.8%
d
Note that the required rate of superelevation, ed is based on R = 186’, not R = 212’.
AASHTO recommends NOT Interpolating but using the ed for the next smaller radius.
36
Part b.
To find the Length of
Superelevation runoff, Lr, go to
AASHTO GB Table 3-16a, page
3-66 (U.S. Customary).
Knowing that ed is 5.8% and the
number of lanes rotated (on a
two-lane roadway) is one lane,
we find the superelevation
runoff, Lr, is 99 ft.
From A Policy on Geometric

Design of Highways and Streets,
2018. Used with permission.
.
Part c. ; 99 34.138 ∼ 34
.
Calculate the required tangent runout, Lt. Use AASHTO GB Equation 3-24.
Note that the normal crown cross slope eNC is typically 2.0%.
37
3.6 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve Section

Obstructions along the inside of curves can limit the available (chord) sight distance.
A curve must be designed that will simultaneously provide the required stopping sight
distance while maintaining a clearance from a roadside obstruction.
PROBLEM 19
A 4-lane divided highway has a design speed of 50 mph and the following typical
section:
Grassed median: 30 ft wide

Median shoulders: 10 ft wide
Lanes: 12 ft wide, 2 lanes directional
Rightside shoulders: 10 ft. wide
Centerline Degree of Curvature, D is 5o 45’
If a retaining wall is to be built along the highway without encroaching on the

required horizontal sight distance, how far (at minimum) from the roadway centerline
should the face of the wall be located?
38
SOLUTION 19
From AASHTO Table 3-1, (p. 3-4) for V = 50 mph, SSD = 425 ft.
.
For D = 5o 45’= 5.75o ……. R= °
= 996.45 ft.
.
 The centerline of the curve’s inside lane is offset 43 ft. = (15 + 10 + 12 +

(12/2)) from the roadway centerline.
 Radius of centerline of the curve’s inside lane 996.45 ft – 43ft = 953.45 ft
 Using AASHTO Equation 3-37, page 3-115,
28.65 28.65 425

1 953.45 1
953.45
23.59
Required offset from centerline: 66.59 ft = (15 + 10 + 12 + 6 + 23.59)
39
PROBLEM 20
Determine the maximum safe design speed on a bicycle track with an 80-foot radius
horizontal curve and 10-foot high walls located on both sides, 8 feet to the left and
right of centerline. The track is on a level grade with coefficient of friction 0.25.
A) 13 mph
B) 15 mph
C) 17 mph
D) 19 mph
40
SOLUTION 20
Use the following equation to solve for the available Stopping Sight Distance, S.
28.65
Where:
= Radius of centerline of lane (ft).
= Distance from centerline of lane to obstruction (ft).
= Stopping Sight Distance (ft)
Using the above equation:
80 80 8
72
28.65 80
Knowing that S = 72 ft, use the following equation to solve for V.
1.47 ; 72 1.47 ∗ 2.5

30 30 0.25 0
3.67 72 0; 27.52 540 0

7.5
At this point solve for the exact V using the quadratic equation,
√ 4
2
27.52 27.52 4 1 540 27.52 54.01

2 1 2
13.26; 40.76 V = 13.3 mph

Answer A
41
3.7 Spiral Curves
A spiral is a curve of continuously changing radius. It varies from 0 degree of

curvature (infinite radius) at its TS (Tangent to Spiral) to the specific degree of
curvature, DC, of the curve it connects to at the SC (Spiral to Curve). For more about
spiral curves see the figure below
Length of spiral curve (Ls) can be found using the following equation:
3.15 mph
L
ft ft/sec

Where: v = design speed in mph
R = radius of circular curve in ft
C = rate of increase of lateral acceleration in ft/sec3 (1 to 3 ft/sec3)
Rate of change of curvature of the spiral curve =
Where Dc = Degree of curvature of the circular curve
42
3.8 Compound Curves
See the AASHTO Green Book, 2018 edition, page 3-90.
 Compound curves are advantageous in effecting desirable shapes of turning

roadways for at-grade intersections and for interchange ramps
 On compound curves for open highways, it is generally accepted that the ratio
of the flatter radius to the sharper radius should not exceed 1.5:1
 For compound curves at intersections where drivers accept more rapid changes
in direction and speed, the radius of the flatter arc can be as much as 100
percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc, a ratio of 2:1
PROBLEM 21
The horizontal alignment of an interchange exit ramp consists of a series of three

consecutive and progressively sharper circular curves that form a single compound
circular curve. Proceeding in the direction of traffic, if the first curve has a radius of
2,000 ft, what is the minimum radius of the third curve?
43
SOLUTION 21
Radius of first curve is given: 2,000 ft
Minimum radius of the second curve (sharper than the first curve) = Half of the radius
of the first curve: 1,000 ft
Minimum radius of the third curve (sharper than the second curve) = Half of the
radius of the second curve: 500 ft
3.8.1 Two-Centered Compound Curve

Components of a two-centered compound curve are shown below.
Definitions:
PI = Point of Intersection of back tangent and forward tangent.
PC = Point of Curvature — point of change from back tangent to circular curve.
PT = Point of Tangency — point of change from circular curve to forward tangent.
PCC = Point of Compound Curvature.
TL = Long Tangent of the compound curve.
TS = Short Tangent of the compound curve.
I = Total intersection angle of the compound curve.
X = Distance from PC to PT in the direction of the backward tangent.
Y = Perpendicular distance from the backward tangent to the PT.
I1 = Intersection angle of the flatter curve (decimal degrees).
44
I2 = Intersection angle of the sharper curve (decimal degrees).

R1 = Radius of the flatter curve.
R2 = Radius of the sharper curve
3.8.2 Two-centered Compound Curve Formulas
45
PROBLEM 22
River Road curves sharply to the right on a two-centered compound curve as shown in
the figure. The only available geometric data about the compound curve is as follows:
 PC Station: 924 + 00
 Stationing is in clockwise
direction.
 Coordinates
PCC N6707.11 E5707.11

Ctr 1 N6000.00 E5000.00
Back Tangent Bearing: N 450 E

Ahead Tangent Bearing: S 00 E
Total Length of Compound Curve:
3,926.99 ft.
Determine the following:
(1) PI(1) Sta.
A) 924 + 00.00 B) 934 + 00.00 C) 939 + 70.80 D) 963 + 26.99
(2) PCC Sta.
A) 924 + 00.00 B) 934 + 00.00 C) 939 + 70.80 D) 963 + 26.99
(3) Overall PI Sta.
A) 924 + 00.00 B) 934 + 00.00 C) 956 + 42.64 D) 963 + 26.99
(4) PI(2) Sta.
A) 924 + 00.00 B) 939 + 70.80 C) 952 + 13.44 D) 963 + 26.99
(5) PT Sta.
A) 924 + 00.00 B) 939 + 70.80 C) 962 + 13.44 D) 963 + 26.99
46
SOLUTION 22
Using the geometric data provided, draw a sketch of the centerline of River Road.
Using the coordinates of Points A and PCC, determine the Latitude and Departure of
Line A-PCC as shown in the figure.
Latitude of Line 6707.11 6000.00 707.11

Departure of Line 5707.11 5000.00 707.11′
Use the Latitude and Departure to determine the Length of Line A-PCC, which is the
radius of Curve 1.
Length of Line R 707.11 707.11 1,000′
Use the Latitude and Departure to determine the bearing of Line A-PCC.
707.11
Angle = tan = tan tan 45
707.11
Bearing: N45 E
Notice that the bearing of Line A-PCC exactly matches the back-tangent bearing:
N 450 E. Therefore, I1 must equal 900.
47
“Zoom out” to see the entire compound curve, including the overall PI, PI1 and PI2, the
Center of Curve 2, the PT of the curve, and the Forward Tangent.
Determine the PI(1) Sta.
1000 1000 4 5 1000′

PI(1) Sta.= PC Sta. + T = 924 + 00 + 1000’ = 934 + 00
Answer B
(1) Determine the PCC Sta.
90
. . 924 00 1000′
180
924 00 1570.796′ 939 70.80
Answer C
(2) Determine the Station of the Overall PI.
The station of the overall PI is equal to the

PC Sta. + T(1) + Line PI(1)-PI
Notice Triangle PI(1) – PI – PI(2)

has two sides of equal length.
Length PI(1) - PI = Length PI(1)-PI(2)
Find Length PI(1)-PI(2).

Find the arc length of the second curve, L(2).
L(2) = Total
Curve Length – L(1) = 3,926.99 – 1570.796
= 2356.194 ft.
Use L(2) and I(2) to find R(2).
48
I(2) is the forward tangent bearing (Curve2) minus the back tangent bearing (Curve 2)
I(2) = S 00 E - S 450 E = Az 1800 – Az 1350 = 450
45 2356.194′ 4
2 2356.194 ; 3000.00′
180 180
Use R(2) to find Tangent Length, T(2).
2 45
2 3000′ 0.4142 1242.64′
2 2
Therefore, L=length PI(1) – PI(2) = T(1) + T(2) = 1000’ + 1242.64’ = 2242.64’
Therefore, the overall PI station = 934+00 + 2242.64’ = 956+42.64
Answer C
(3) Determine PI(2) Sta.
PI(2) Sta. = PCC Sta. + T(2) = 939 + 70.80 + 1242.64’ = 952+13.44
Answer C
(5) Determine the PT Sta.
PT Sta. = PC Sta. + Total Length of curve
= 924+00 + 3,926.99
= PT Sta. 963+26.99.
Answer D
49
3.8.3 Three-centered Compound Curve

Components of a three-centered compound curve are shown in the following figure:
Definitions:
PI = Point of Intersection of back tangent and forward tangent.
PC = Point of Curvature — point of change from back tangent to circular curve.
PT = Point of Tangency — point of change from circular curve to forward tangent.
PCC = Point of Compound Curvature.
TL = Long Tangent of the compound curve.
TS = Short Tangent of the compound curve.
I = Total intersection angle of the compound curve.
X = Distance from PC to PT in the direction of the backward tangent.
Y = Perpendicular distance from the backward tangent to the PT.
I1 = Intersection angle of the flatter curve (decimal degrees).
I2 = Intersection angle of the middle curve (decimal degrees).
I3 = Intersection angle of the sharper curve (decimal degrees).
R1 = Radius of the flatter curve.
R2 = Radius of the middle curve
R3 = Radius of the sharper curve
50
3.8.4 Three-centered Compound Curve Formulas
cos
PROBLEM 23
Given the following curve data for a three-centered compound curve:
R1 = 500 ft;
R2 = 350 ft;
R3 = 200 ft;
I1 = 300;
I2 = 350; and
I3 = 400
Find the following:

a) Total intersection angle
b) Distance (in the X-direction) from PC to PT
c) Perpendicular distance from the backward tangent to the point of tangency
d) Long tangent
e) Short tangent
SOLUTION 23
a) I = 1050
b) X = 479.13 ft
c) Y = 358.47 ft
d) TL = 500.18 ft
e) TS = 371.11 ft
51
4. Vertical Curves
NOTE: Some portions of this section are reviewed under the Geometrics and traffic
topics. Fundamental topics are repeated here to have a quick overview before going
into depth problems.
 Vertical curves are used to change the grade of a highway.

 Most vertical curves take the shape of an equal-tangent parabola. Such curves
are symmetrical about the vertex.
 Two types of vertical curves – Crest and Sag
4.1 Vertical Curve – Elevation at Specific Station
PROBLEM 24
A +3.25% grade intersects a -2.00% grade at Sta. 45 + 25 and elevation 695.42 ft.
A 1000 ft vertical curve connects the two grades. Determine:
a) The station of the turning point

b) The elevation of the turning point
SOLUTION 24
52
SOLUTION 24
Station of the Turning Point:
Sta. = PVC Sta. + x
= 4025 ft + 619.05 ft
= 4644.05 ft
= Sta 46 + 44.05
b) Using, Elev. = (R/2)x2+G1(x)+PVC Elev.
Elevation at PVC = 695.42 – 5(3.25) = 679.17 ft
Elev. = (R/2)x2 + G1(x) + PVC Elev. = 689.23 ft
x = 6.1905
R = -0.525
G1=3.25
PVC Elev = 679.17
53
PROBLEM 25
State Route (S.R.) 1004 crosses over S.R. 222 as shown in the figure. The overpass
structure depth is 5.25’ and the vertical alignment of each street is provided in the
table. Determine the vertical clearance between the S.R. 222 profile grade and the
bottom of structure at the intersection point.
A) 14.5
B) 15.5
C) 16.0
D) 16.5
S.R. 1004 S.R. 222

PVI Station 647 + 50 199 + 00
PVI Elev 1200.00 1172.50
L= 1000 ft 600 ft
G1 = +3.0 % -3.0%
G2 = -1.0 % +1.5%
54
SOLUTION 25
(a) Draw a rough sketch of the S.R. 1004 profile.
(b) Find the profile grade elevation at Sta. 650 + 00 on S.R. 1004.
1 3 4
0.4
10 10
1200.00 5 3 1185.00
1000
64750 64250 642 50;
2
65000 64250 750′ 7.5
. 650 00:
0.4
7.5 3.0 7.5 1185.00
2 2
11.25 22.50 1185 1196.25
55
(c) Draw a rough sketch of the S.R. 222 profile.
(d) Find the profile grade elevation at Sta. 200 + 00 on S.R. 222.
1.5 3 4.5
0.75
6 6

1172.50 3 3 1181.50

600
19900 19600 196 00;
2
20000 19600 400′ 4.0

. 200 00
0.75
4.0 3.0 4.0 1181.50
2 2
6.00 12.00 1181.50 1175.50 ft
(e) The vertical clearance is the difference in profile grade elevations minus the
structure depth.
1196.25 1175.50 5.25′ 15.50 . Answer B
56
4.2 Vertical Curve Design
 Using AASHTO Guidelines

 Minimum vertical curve length is computed based on sight distance criteria
 if h1 and h2 are different from 3.5 ft and 2.0 respectively for Crest Curves
 If the length of vertical curve should be based on K-value method, use the
following equation:
L = KA
Where:
K = Rate of vertical curvature = L/A (stations/percent)
L = Length of vertical curve
A = |G2-G1|
K Factors can be found using the following references based on the type of the curve
Units Stopping Sight Passing Sight Headlight/Stopping

Distance Distance Sight Distance
(Crest Curves) (Crest Curves) (Sag Curves)
U.S. Customary Figure 3-36, AASHTO Figure 3-37,
page 3-169 Table 3-36, page page 3-174
3-172
General Equations for Crest Vertical Curve Length based on Stopping Sight Distance
L= AS² [ S < L] AASHTO GB Eq. 3-42, page 3-166
100 (√2h1 + √2h2)2
L =2S - 200 (√h1 + √h2) ² [S > L] AASHTO GB Eq. 3-43, page 3-166
57
Please see Table 3-36 on page 3-172. From A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, 2018, by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used with permission.
PROBLEM 26
Given a two-lane roadway with G1 = +2.0%, G2 = -2.5%, and a design speed of 60

mph, determine:
1. The minimum length of vertical curve for stopping sight distance using K-value?
2. The minimum length of vertical curve for passing sight distance using K-value?
58
SOLUTION 26
Part 1-
 Determine the algebraic difference in grades, A.
| | | | | 2.5 2| | 4.5| 4.5
 To find the Lmin for stopping sight distance on a crest vertical curve proceed to
AASHTO Figure 3-43 (below). Determine the appropriate K factor based on
the design speed. ∗| | ∗ . .
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves – Open Road Conditions
Part 2 -
 Passing sight distance applies to crest vertical curves on two-lane roadways
only. Since this is a two-lane roadway, proceed to AASHTO Table 3-36 (on the
page 3-172) to determine the appropriate K factor based on the design speed.
 Using AASHTO Table 3-36, read across the row marked, 60 mph to find K =
357, and calculate Lmin:
∗| | ∗ . .
59
PROBLEM 27
Given a two-lane highway with a 1,400 ft vertical curve with G1= + 0.50%;
G2 = -0.25%; PVI 85 + 00; PVI elevation = 457.59 feet; and Design Speed of 65 mph.
Determine the actual Passing Sight Distance provided on the curve.
SOLUTION 27
Assume S < L;
L
Therefore S = = 2286.19
.
Since S = 2286.19 feet > L = 1400 feet, the initial assumption, (S < L), is No Good.
Therefore, assume the opposite case is true: S > L
2800 1 2800
L 2S – → S L
2
Solving for S

1 2800 1
S 1400 5133.33 2566.67
2 0.75 2
S = 2566.67 feet > 1400 feet.
This is consistent with the opposite assumption: S > L.
Therefore Sactual = 2566.67 feet
60
PROBLEM 28
Determine the length of a crest vertical curve based on Stopping Sight Distance
criteria given the following:
 G1 = +2.0%
 G2 = -2.5%,
 Design speed = 60 mph
 h1 (Driver’s eye height) = 3.2 ft
 h2 (Height of the object sighted) = 2.1 ft
SOLUTION 28
Since h1 and h2 are different from the standard

values of 3.5 ft and 2.0 ft, respectively, we need to
use the general equations presented in the
AASHTO Green Book on page 3-166. For S < L
use Equation 3-42. For S > L, use Equation 3-43.
Assume S L
Therefore L
200 ℎ ℎ
| | | 2.5 2| | 4.5| 4.5
For design speed 60 mph, S = 570 ft from
4.5 570
L 697
200 √3.2 √2.1
Check the assumption: S < L. Since 570 ft < 697 ft, our assumption is correct and
there is no need to solve the alternate equation.
61
PROBLEM 29
A +4.0% grade intersects a -3.0% percent grade at PVI Sta. 222 + 00 and Elev. 300.00
on a two-lane highway with a design speed of 45 mph. What is most nearly the
turning point elevation for the curve that is designed to meet passing sight distance
using the K-value method?
A) 282.25 B) 289.51 C)) 292.54 D) 294.56
SOLUTION 29
STEP 1: Compute the required length of

vertical curve based on Passing Sight
Distance using the K-value for 45 mph
Using AASHTO Table 3-36 (see previous

pages), for V = 45 mph … K = 175
L = K(A) = 175(7) = 1225’ = 12.25 stations
62
STEP 2: Calculate the highpoint elevation
Based on Step 1, L=1225’
PVC Sta.= 22,200 – 1,225’/2 = 215 + 87.50
R = -7%/12.25 stations = -0.571
ElevPVC = 300.00 – 12.25/2(4) = 275.50
xmax = -G1/R = -4/-0.571 = 7.005 sta
ElevHP = (R/2) (x2max) + xmax(G1) + ElevPVC
ElevHP = (-0.571/2)(7.0052) + 7.005(4) + 275.50’
ElevHP = - 14.01’ + 28.02’ + 275.50’ = 289.51
Answer B
63
PROBLEM 30
A two-lane highway crosses under a railroad bridge near a major industrial facility.
Traffic consists of 35 percent tractor-trailer trucks. The length of the vertical curve is
650 feet and the vertical clearance is 14’ 6”. The grades on the vertical curve are:
G1 = -7% and G2 = +6%. What is most nearly the sight distance for a truck driver
approaching this underpass in feet?
A) 171 B) 342 C) 616 D) 1234
SOLUTION 30
See AASHTO Green Book Figure 3-38, page 3-177.

Assume S > L; Check using AASHTO Equation 3-53.
800
2 2 AASHTO GB Equation 3 53
8′ 2′
800 800 14. 5′
2 2
650′
13% 617.31′
2 2
617.31 650′ therefore, the assumption S > L is No Good!
Therefore, assume S < L . Use Equation 3-54.
AS
AASHTO GB Equation 3 54
800
2
Rearrange Equation 3-54 to solve for S.
8 2
800 800 14. 5 650
2 2 616.44′
13%
616.44′ 650’ Therefore S < L is true and the actual S 616’.

Answer C
64
4.3 Fixed Point on a Vertical Curve
Given the elevation of a fixed point located anywhere along a vertical curve, the
length of the curve that passes through that fixed point can be determined using the
following technique.
Procedure:
Step 1. Draw a rough sketch identify points A, B, and C.

Step 2. Calculate the elevations of points A, B, and C.
Step 3. Calculate the constant z, (no physical significance).
ElevA  ElevC
z
ElevA  ElevB
Step 4. Solve the following equation for L.
2w( z  1)
L
z 1
‘w’ is in stations and therefore, ‘L’ will be in stations.
65
PROBLEM 31
Calculate the length of a sag vertical curve that passes through a point located at
elevation 407.925 and Sta. 12 + 00.
Given: G1 = – 4.0%; G2 = + 2.5%; PVISta =10 + 00.00; Elevpvi = 400.00
SOLUTION 31
Step 1. Draw a rough sketch and identify points A, B, and C.
Step 2. Determine the elevations of points A, B, and C.
Elev A, Given: 407.925
Elev B, Point B is located on G2,

400.00 2 2.5 405.00
Elev C; Point C is located on G1,
400.00 2 4.0 400.00 8.0 392.00
Step 3. Calculate the constant z, (no physical significance).
ElevA  ElevC 407.925  392.00 15.925

z    5.4444  2.333
ElevA  ElevB 407.925  405.00 2.925
Step 4. Solve the following equation for L.
2w( z  1) 2(2)(2.333  1)
L   10.00 sta = 1,000 ft
z 1 (2.333  1)
66
4.4 Fixed Point at Turning Point on a Vertical Curve
The following equation can be used to solve for the length of vertical curve that passes
through a fixed point that is the turning point (highpoint or low point) of the curve.
2(G2  G1 )( ElevPVI  ElevTP )

L
G1G2
This equation can also be used to solve for the elevation of a turning point. Simply
enter the known values of L, G1, G2, and Elev PVI into the rearrange the equation
(below) and solve for the unknown Elev TP.
2

⇓

2
⇓
67
5. Design Standard Overview: AASHTO Green Book
Full Name: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6TH Edition,
2018, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO)
5.1 List of Chapters:

1. New Framework for Geometric Design
2. Design Controls and Criteria
3. Elements of Design
4. Cross-section Elements
5. Local Roads and Streets
6. Collector Roads and Streets
7. Arterial Roads and Streets
8. Freeways
9. Intersections
10. Grade Separations and Interchanges
5.2 Typical Questions:

This is an important design standard. You can expect multiple questions from this
manual. Chapter 3 is an important chapter. It covers elements of design, including
stopping sight distance, decision sight distance, passing sight distance, and
horizontal/vertical curves.
1. Design vehicles – types, dimensions, minimum turning radius etc. (Section 2.8)
2. Pedestrian walking speeds (Section 2.6.3)
3. Auxiliary lane widths at intersections and interchanges (Section 4.3)
4. Minimum clearance for the stopped vehicles on the shoulder from the edge of
the traveled way (Section 4.4.2)
5. Roadside ditches and channels – slopes (Section 4.8.3)
6. Minimum spacing between arterial and frontage roads (Section 4.12)
7. Highways through tunnels – cross section and widths (Section 4.16.1)
8. Sidewalk widths and maximum cross-slopes (Section 4.17.1)
9. Curb ramp widths, maximum ramp slopes, detectable warning strip dimensions
(Section 4.17.3)
10. Park and Ride facilities – parking space widths, loading zone dimensions
(Section 4.19.3)
68
11. Maximum grades on a rural collector road (Section 6.2.1). These values are
available for other types of roads also in different chapters.
12. Minimum horizontal clear zone width for a rural collector (Section 6.2.4).
These values are available for other types of roads also in different chapters.
13. Minimum vertical clearance to structures passing over freeways (Section 8.2.9)
14. Minimum acceleration length of an interchange entrance ramp given the design
speeds of the highway and the ramp curve. (Table 10-4)
15. Minimum deceleration length of an interchange exit ramp given the design
speeds of the highway and the ramp curve. (Table 10-6)
16. Intersection sight distance required for stopped design vehicle turning left onto
a two-lane highway
17. The minimum area of a curbed corner traffic island in a rural setting (Section
9.6.3.5 Island Size and Designation)
6. Intersection Design
6.1 Width of Turning Roadway at Intersection
PROBLEM 32
A proposed intersection ramp

will carry predominantly P
vehicles, but some consideration
must also be given to occasional
SU trucks. The pavement width
is to be designed for one-lane,
one-way operation with
provisions for passing a stalled
vehicle so traffic flow can be
maintained at reduced speeds.
The minimum radius on the inner
edge of pavement is to be 75 feet
and vertical curb is to be place on
both sides of the pavement.
Based on this information determine the required pavement width.
69
SOLUTION 32
See the AASHTO Green Book (2018), page 3-109 for a discussion of turning road-
ways and operational classifications. This situation includes: Case II operation, Design
Traffic Condition A, and a 75-foot radius on the inner edge of pavement. Enter Table
3-27 with these values. The required basic pavement width is: 19 feet
Next, enter Table 3-28, with vertical curb on two sides and again, Case II operation.
Table 3-28 says add 1 foot to the 19-foot width obtained from Table 3-27.
Therefore, the required total pavement width is 19’ + 1’ = 20’.
70
6.2 Intersection Sight Distance
Reference – AASHTO Green Book (2018) pages 9-36 through 9-39.
71
Recommended dimensions of the sight triangles vary with the type of intersection
traffic control provided. We will do examples involving Case B, Stop-Controlled
intersections which is the most important for the exam.
Following are different types of procedures that are further defined in AASHTO
Green Book (2018):
Case A – Intersections with no control

Case B – Intersections with stop control on the minor road
 Case B1 – Left turn from the minor road
 Case B2 – Right turn from the minor road
 Case B3 – Crossing maneuver from the minor road
Case C – Intersection with yield control on the minor road
 Case C1 – Crossing from the minor road
 Case C2 – Left or right turn from the minor road
Case D – Intersections with traffic signal control
Case E – Intersections with all-way stop control
Case F – Left turns from the major road
PROBLEM 33
For the two-way, stop-controlled intersection shown below, answer the following:
A) What is the available sight distance of the intersection shown below?
B) The driver of the green passenger car is waiting to make a left turn onto the
east-west roadway. Can the driver of the green car safely make a left turn onto
the east-west roadway if traffic is moving at 25 mph?
72
SOLUTION 33
A) Use the dimensions provided and similar triangles to solve for the ISD, ISD = 156’
B) See the following solution:
 Per the AASHTO Green Book (page 9-45) ISD = 1.47 x Vmaj x tg ;
and per Table 9-6, the tg for a Passenger car making a left turn = 7.5 sec.
 Vmaj = ISD / (1.47 tg ) = 156/ (1.47 x 7.5) = 14.15 < 25 mph. Using the
solution to the above problem, (available ISD = 156 ft.), solve for Vmaj
 The answer is No.
73
PROBLEM 34
As shown on the figure below, a design vehicle is stopped at a stop sign on a two-lane,
minor road at an intersection with a major road. The design speed of the major road is
60 mph. The minor road approach grade is +3.4 percent. The lane and median widths
are as shown.
For each of the three maneuvers shown in the figure, determine the design intersection
sight distance assuming the design vehicle is a:
 Passenger car
 Single unit truck
 Combination truck
74
SOLUTION 34
See AASHTO Green Book (2018) Intersection Control, Cases B1, B2, and B3; pages
Reference – AASHTO Green Book (2018) pages 9-39 through 9-58.
For all three maneuvers, use the following basic equation: b = ISD = 1.47Vmajor tg.
With Vmajor = 60 mph, the equation becomes ISD = 88.2tg. Determine tg by adjusting
for additional lanes and steep approach grades per Tables 9-6, 9-8, and 9-10.
NOTE: “The median width should be considered in determining the number of lanes
to be crossed. The median width should be converted to equivalent lanes. For
example, a 24-ft median should be considered as two additional lanes to be crossed in
applying the multilane highway adjustments for time gaps…”
SOLUTION TABLE
Components of time gap, tg Total
Reference
Turn Design Vehicle 1.47Vg Basic tg Adjustment Adjustment ISD (ft)
for additional for approach
lanes crossed grade
Passenger Car 88.2[ 6.5 + 0+ 0.1(3.4)] = 603
Table 9-8
AASHTO
Right
Single Unit Truck 88.2[ 8.5 + 0+ 0.1(3.4)] = 780

1
Combination Truck 88.2[ 10.5 + 0+ 0.1(3.4)] = 956
Passenger Car 88.2[ 7.5 + 0.5(2.5) + 0.2(3.4)] = 832

Table 9-6
AASHTO
Single Unit Truck 88.2[ 9.5 + 0.7(2.5) + 0.2(3.4)] = 1052
Left
2
Combination Truck 88.2[ 11.5 + 0.7(2.5) + 0.2(3.4)] = 1229
Passenger Car 88.2[ 6.5 + 0.5(3.5) + 0.1(3.4)] = 758

Table 9-10
AASHTO
Single Unit Truck 88.2[ 8.5 + 0.7(3.5) + 0.1(3.4)] = 996

Thru
3
Combination Truck 88.2[ 10.5 + 0.7(3.5) + 0.1(3.4)] = 1172
75
PROBLEM 35
A truck is traveling toward a railroad / highway grade

crossing at 55 mph. There are no train-activated
warning devices. The truck driver sees a train
approaching the grade crossing and notices the train’s
speed and the distance from the front of the train to
the grade crossing.
Based on these observations, the truck driver decides

to either:
(1) drive on, crossing the track before the train arrives at the crossing.
(2) Bring the truck to a stop without crossing the stop

bar so that the front of the truck does not encroach
on the crossing area.
The grade crossing stop bar is located 20 ft from the nearside rail, and the truck driver
is seated 10 feet back from the truck’s front bumper. Assuming standard AASHTO
values for brake-reaction time, determine the required sight triangle distance (ft) along
the highway for the truck to stop at the stop line for an approaching train:
A) 505
B) 515
C) 522
D) 530
76
SOLUTION 35
This is a Case A condition. Using AASHTO GB Equation 9-5, on p. 9-163.
1.075 55
1.47 55 2.5 20 10 522.5
11.2
Answer C
The situation shown above is Case A where a moving vehicle must safely cross or
stop at a railroad crossing. It involved finding the sight distance, dH, along the
highway.
As shown in the figure below, Case B is where a stopped

vehicle departs from the stopped position to cross a single
railroad track before the train arrives, and the departure
sight distance, dT, along the track to the approaching train
is calculated. Case B is discussed in the AASHTO GB on
pages 9-164 through 1-166
77
6.3 Modern Roundabouts
See AASHTO Green Book (2018) Section 9-10.
From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. Used with permission.
78
6.3.1 Characteristics
A. Priority to Circulating Vehicles – circulating vehicles have right-of-way.
B. Yield-at-Entry – Also known as “off-side priority” or “yield-to-left” rule. Yield
signs used as entry control.
C. Direction of Circulation – Vehicles circulate counter-clockwise.
D. Pedestrian Access – allowed only across the legs of the roundabout behind the
yield line
6.3.2 Sizes
 Mini-roundabouts – inscribed circle diameters as small as 50 ft.
 Compact roundabouts – inscribed circle diameters between 98 to 115 ft.
 Large roundabouts – up to 150 m [492 ft] in diameter; often with multilane
circulatory roadways and more than four entries.
6.3.3 Conflict Points

A vehicular conflict point is where two vehicles cross paths in completing a merging
maneuver, diverging maneuver or crossing maneuver.
 A four-leg intersection would have 32 conflict points.

 A four-leg single-lane roundabout reduces the number of vehicular conflict
points to only eight.
 A traditional signalized intersection has potential for four vehicle-pedestrian
conflicts, all originating from different directions.
 Roundabouts require pedestrians to cross one direction of traffic at a time
allowing the pedestrian to concentrate entirely on one direction of traffic with
one conflict point at a time.
79
PROBLEM 36
A typical four-legged modern roundabout has a total of _____ vehicular conflict
points.
A. 4.
B. 8
C. 16
D. 32.
SOLUTION 36
The correct answer is B.
7. Interchange Design
7.1 Minimum Length Between Ramp Termini
PROBLEM 37
(a) What is the recommended minimum length, L, between successive entrance

ramp terminals on an FDR?
(b) What is the recommended minimum length, L, between successive entrance
ramp and exit service to service interchanges on the full freeway?
(c) What is the recommended minimum length, L, between successive entrance
ramp terminals of service interchanges on the turning roadways?
SOLUTION 37
Referring to AASHTO Green Book Figure 10-70 (below):
(a) L = 800 ft
(b) L = 1600 ft
(c) L = 600 ft
80
From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Used with
permission.
81
7.2 Minimum Acceleration Length for Entrance Terminal
PROBLEM 38
A new interchange will be located on an east-west highway with a design speed of 65

mph. The eastbound entrance ramp will have a +1.9% grade and an entrance curve
with a design speed of 50 mph. The westbound entrance ramp will have a -2.00%
grade and an entrance curve with a design speed of 35 mph. Both ramps will be
single-lane, parallel type ramps.
(a) What is the minimum acceleration length, L, on the eastbound entrance ramp?
'
(b) What is the initial running speed, V a , on the eastbound entrance ramp
entrance curve?
(c) What is the minimum acceleration length, L, on the westbound entrance ramp?
'
(d) What is the initial running speed, V a , on the westbound entrance ramp
entrance curve?
82
SOLUTION 38
Referring to AASHTO Green Book, Table 10-4 (below):
(a) L = 370 ft; (c) L = 1000 ft;

' '
(b) V a = 44 mph; (d) V a = 30 mph
The above figure shows a typical entrance ramp acceleration lane and is from A Policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2011. Used with permission.
83
PROBLEM 39
An interchange exit ramp carries one lane of northbound traffic. Both edges of
pavement are lined with vertical curb. The radius on the inner edge of pavement is
300 feet. Traffic consists of a significant percentage of combination trucks and buses.
There are no provisions for passing a stalled vehicle. What is most nearly the
minimum required pavement width in feet?
A. 13
B. 17
C. 20
D. 25
SOLUTION 39
See AASHTO Green Book Tables 3-27 and 3-29, pages 3-109 and -110.
The situation described above is a combination of Case I operation and Design Traffic
Condition C. The nominal pavement width is 15 feet.
From Table 3-28, because of the vertical curb is on both pavement edges, the width
modification for edge condition is +2 feet.
Therefore, the required total width is 15’ + 2’ = 17’.
Answer B
84

Refresher Notes Chapters 1-7

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Refresher Notes Chapters 1-7

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PE Civil Transportation Depth

CODE: Fall 2020 MATERIAL: Refresher Notes Chapters 1-7

6.1 Width of Turning Roadway at Intersection ...................................................... 69

1.1 Bearings and Azimuths

Convert the following bearings to azimuths from due north:

(a) S 520 31’ 18” W

(b) N 680 22’ 54” W

(a) 1800 00’ 00”

(b) 3590 59’ 60”

1.2 Latitude and Departures

A line has length 940.79 ft and bearing of S 230 W. Determine:

i) The latitude of the line ii) The departure of the line

i) – 940.79 * Cos 230 = – 866.00 Answer C

ii) – 940.79 * Sin 230 = – 367.60 Answer A

1.3 Cartesian Coordinate System

It is based on Northing (N) and Easting (E)

Latitude of line AB = + 300’ Cos 700 = +102.61’

 Stationing is used on horizontal alignments to locating features.

Assume the direction of increasing stationing is heading from point A to point B.

Station at point A = Sta 22+45

Station at point B = Sta 22+45

2. Driver Performance and Behavior

2.1 Information Processing and Perception

The time required to respond successfully to any driving situation, such as an

 Perception (detection and identification)

2.2 Brake-Reaction Time

2.3 Sight Distance

 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance is the sum of two distances:

NOTE: If the friction factor, f, is known,

2.3.2 Braking or Skidding Distance

Where V Initial Speed mph V Final Speed mph

A) 147’ and 154’

Brake reaction distance 1.47Vt 1.47 50 2.5 184'

A motorist is traveling down a 6% grade at 65 mph and needs to stop because of a

Design Speed, V = 25 mph

Apply the above equation

Brake Reaction Distance in feet = 1.47V ℎ

Additional distance traveled by the impaired driver = 360 – 239 = 121 ft

2.3.3 Decision Sight Distance

From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2, by the American

A one-lane bridge is similar to a four-way stop controlled intersection. It is a “first–

However, if no other vehicle heading toward them is on or about to be on the bridge,

2.3.4 Passing Sight Distance

2.3.5 Intersection Sight Distance

3.1 Circular Curves

 The stationing on a horizontal circular curve is determined using the following

Compute the D, T, L, E, M, and stations of the PC and PT of a circular curve with:

20° 30′ /60′ 20. 5°

850 0.1808 0.0897 13.785

. . 70050.00 153.705 698 96.295

. . 69896.295 304.124 702 00.419

Given the horizontal curve shown, determine the coordinates of Point E.

Step 2. Find Bearing and Length of Chord A-E.

Step 3. Use Latitudes and Departures to Determine Coordinates of Point E.

Use Angle to find Angle .

Note that is . Use Angle to find the bearing of chord A-E.

A-E Back Tangent Bearing Angle

= Length × cos Bearing Angle = 1523.06' × cos 67.61 = 580.147'

= Length × sin Bearing Angle = 1523.06' × sin 67.61 = +1408.240'

Easting of Point A + Departure: 500.000 + 1408.240' = 1908.240

Determine the tangent length of the existing curve.

Texist = Rexist tan I/2 = 2,500 tan (65.0/2) = 1,592.676’