FEEDER PROTECTION USING NUMERICAL

BSEE

RELAY
FEEDER PROTECTION USING NUMERICAL RELAY

by

Muhammad Umer Ghouri

BEE173036

Muhammad Hamza Aamer

BEE173037
2021

A Project Report submitted to the

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
BACHELORS OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & TechnologyIslamabad
February 2021
FEEDER PROTECTION USING NUMERICAL
RELAY

by

Muhammad Umer Ghouri

BEE173036

Muhammad Hamza Aamer

BEE173037

A Project Report submitted to the

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
BACHELORS OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology
Islamabad
February 2021
 Copyright  2021 by CUST Student

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form requires the prior
written permission of Muhammad Umer Ghouri and Muhammad Hamza Aamer or
designated representative.

ii
 DECLARATION
It is declared that this is an original piece of our own work, except where otherwise
acknowledged in text and references. This work has not been submitted in any form
for another degree or diploma at any university or other institution for tertiary
education and shall not be submitted by us in future for obtaining any degree from
this or any other University or Institution.

Muhammad Umer Ghouri

BEE173036

Muhammad Hamza Aamer

BEE173037

February 2021

iii
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

It is certified that the project titled “Feeder Protection Using Numerical Relay” carried
out by Muhammad Umer Ghouri and Muhammad Hamza Aamer Reg. No.
BEE173036 and BEE173037, under the supervision of Dr. Umer Amir Khan, Capital
University of Science & Technology, Islamabad, is fully adequate, in scope and in
quality, as a final year project for the degree of BS Electrical Engineering.

Supervisor: --------------------------------------
Dr. Umer Amir Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad

HoD: --------------------------------------
Dr. Noor Mohammad Khan
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to thank our supervisor, Dr. Umer Amir Khan who helped us
throughout the semester in the completion of the project.
 ABSTRACT
This report is about the designing, development and testing of Multifunctional
programmable numeric relays for the protection of feeders, numeric relays
overwhelmed other old relays in number of ways like multi functionality, higher
accuracy, less maintenance cost moreover the lack of availability of locally
manufactured relays makes it a very attractive product for electrical protection
authorities, the literature review of Indian made relays for example (REU615 Under
voltage) expresses about their non-user friendly interface plus they use
microcontrollers which makes their product expensive, a unique main menu was
designed which can be used to switch from one mode to other making this product a
multi features product moreover calculation and computations  are performed through
Arduino Uno board having atmega328p which makes this product less costly
furthermore the usage of EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable) to store the
predetermined value and to read the last used mode makes this product unique from
old electromagnetic relays, through simulation results and testing on 220 v ac it is
accounted that Arduino Uno can be utilized for the manufacturing of numeric relays
and has the ability to meet market standards however in future this product can also
be improved by controlling through remote control or by adding more features for
better protection.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION.................................................................................iii
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL........................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.......................................................................v
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES..............................................................................x
LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................xi
LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS.....................................xii
Chapter 1...............................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................1
1.1 Overview......................................................................................................1
1.2 Project Idea...................................................................................................1
1.3 Purpose of the Project..................................................................................2
1.4 Project Specifications...................................................................................2
1.5 Applications of the Project...........................................................................3
1.5.1 Protection of Power System..........................................................3
1.5.2 Motor Protection...........................................................................3
1.5.3 Feeder Protection..........................................................................3
1.5.4 Backup Protection.........................................................................4
1.6 Project Plan..................................................................................................4
1.6.1 Project Milestones.........................................................................4
1.6.2 Project Timeline............................................................................5
1.7 Report Organization.....................................................................................6
Chapter 2...............................................................................................7
LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................7
2.1 Overview of Relays......................................................................................7
2.2.1 Types of Features..........................................................................8
2.2 Related Technologies...................................................................................9
2.2.1 Directional Over-Current Relay....................................................9
2.2.2 Motor Protection Relays...............................................................9
2.3 Related Projects..........................................................................................10
2.3.1 Mechanical Relay........................................................................10
2.3.2 Static Relays................................................................................11
2.4 Limitations of the Existing Work...............................................................12
2.4.1 Bulky size....................................................................................12
2.4.2 Rigidity in functions....................................................................12
2.5 Problem Statement.....................................................................................12
2.6 Summary....................................................................................................13
Chapter 3.............................................................................................14
PROJECT DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION..............................14
3.1 Proposed Design Methodology..................................................................14
3.1.1 Input Unit....................................................................................15
3.1.2 Numerical Relay..........................................................................15
3.1.3 Testing of Numerical Relay........................................................16
3.2 Analysis Procedure.....................................................................................17
3.2.1 Technique Comparison:..............................................................17
3.2.2 Algorithm Comparison:..............................................................18
3.2.3 Hardware Comparison.................................................................18
3.3 Design of the Project Hardware.................................................................19
3.4 Design of the Project Software/Algorithm.................................................19
3.4.1 Types of Fault.............................................................................19
3.4.2 Algorithm of Software Design....................................................20
3.5 Implementation Procedure.........................................................................21
3.5.1 Initialization................................................................................21
3.5.2 Memory.......................................................................................22
3.5.3 Modes..........................................................................................22
3.5.4 Computation of fault...................................................................22
3.5.5 Tripping time...............................................................................22
3.5.6 Threshold Values........................................................................22
3.6 Mathematical Modeling.............................................................................22
3.7 Details of Final Working Prototype...........................................................23
3.7.1 Main Menu..................................................................................23
3.7.2 I-thld (Current threshold value setting).......................................24
3.7.3 Display Parameter for Voltage Features.....................................24
 3.7.4 Display Parameter for Current Features......................................24
3.7.5 Display Parameter for Current Features......................................25
3.7.6 LED (light emitted diode)...........................................................26
3.7.7 Keypad Function.........................................................................27
3.7.8 Simulation...................................................................................28
3.8 Summary....................................................................................................28
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES............................................................29
4.1 Hardware Tools..........................................................................................29
4.1.1 Transformer.................................................................................29
4.1.2 ACS712 30A Current Sensor......................................................29
4.1.3 Arduino UNO..............................................................................31
4.1.4 Keypad........................................................................................32
4.1.5 LCD.............................................................................................32
4.2 Softwares and Simulation Tools................................................................33
4.2.1 Arduino IDE:...............................................................................33
4.2.2 Proteus.........................................................................................33
4.3 Summary....................................................................................................34
Chapter 5.............................................................................................35
PROJECT RESULTS AND EVALUATION.....................................35
5.1 Presentation of the findings........................................................................35
5.1.1 Hardware Results........................................................................35
5.1.2 Software Results..........................................................................35
5.2 Discussion on the Findings........................................................................38
5.2.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent...........................................................38
5.2.2 Definite Time Overcurrent..........................................................39
5.2.3 Inverse Time Overcurrent...........................................................40
5.2.4 Under Voltage.............................................................................40
5.3 Reasoning for Short Comings....................................................................41
5.4 Limitations of the Working Prototype.......................................................41
5.5 Summary....................................................................................................41
Chapter 6.............................................................................................42
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK...........................................42
REFERENCES....................................................................................43
.................................................................................................................
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Power system showiing time graded protection of the Feeder from faults
[5]..................................................................................................................................3
Figure 1.2 Part-1 Project Timeline...............................................................................5
Figure 1.3 Part-2 Project Timeline...............................................................................5
Figure 2.1 Numeric Relay 1986.....................................................................................9
Figure 2.2 Motor Protection Relay..............................................................................10
Figure 2.3 Mechanical Relay.......................................................................................10
Figure 2.4 Working of Mechanical Relay....................................................................11
Figure 2.5 Static Relay................................................................................................12
Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of the Project....................................................................14
Figure 3.2 Input Unit...................................................................................................15
Figure 3.3 Numerical Relay Block..............................................................................16
Figure 3.4 Over Current Test Bed...............................................................................17
Figure 3.5 Under Voltage Test Bed.............................................................................17
Figure 3.6 Block Diagram of Software Algorithm......................................................20
Figure 3.7 LCD display of main menu........................................................................23
Figure 3.8 Current Threshold Setting..........................................................................24
Figure 3.9 Normal operation of undervoltage relay...................................................24
Figure 3.10 Normal operation of Instantaneous Overcurrent relay...........................25
Figure 3.11 Definite time overcurrent display on LCD in the event of fault...............25
Figure 3.12 Green LED function in simulation...........................................................26
Figure 3.13 Red LED function in simulation...............................................................26
Figure 3.14 Keypad from simulation...........................................................................27
Figure 3.15 Proteus Simulation...................................................................................28
Figure 4.1 Transformer...............................................................................................29
Figure 4.2 ACS712 Current Sensor [10].....................................................................30
Figure 4.3 Graph showing relation between output voltage and sensed current........31
Figure 4.4 Arduino UNO.............................................................................................31
Figure 4.5 4x4 Keypad.................................................................................................32
Figure 4.6 20x4 LCD Module......................................................................................32
Figure 4.7 Arduino IDE layout....................................................................................33
Figure 4.8 Proteus Layout...........................................................................................33
Figure 5.1 The LCD in simulation showing the normal opeartion of Instantaneous
Over Current Relay......................................................................................................38
Figure 5.2 The LCD in simulation showing the fault condition of Instantaneous Over
Current Relay...............................................................................................................38
Figure 5.3 Graph showing behaviour of Instantaneous Over Current Relay.............39
Figure 5.4 Graph showing behaviour of Definite Time Over Current Relay..............39
Figure 5.5 Graph showing behaviour of Inverse Time Over Current Relay...............40
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Project Specifications...................................................................................2
Table 1.2: Part -1 Project Milestones...........................................................................4
Table 1.3: Part-2 Project Milestones............................................................................5
Table 3.1 Main Menu Abrreviations............................................................................23
Table 3.2 Funtionalities of keys on keypad..................................................................26
Table 4.1 The output voltage corresponding to the sensed current..............................30
Table 5.1 Instantaneous Over Current relay behavior during different conditions....35
Table 5.2 Definite Time Over Current relay behavior during different conditions....36
Table 5.3 Inverse Time Over Current relay behavior during different conditions......37
Table 5.4 Under Voltage relay behavior during different conditions..........................37
 LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS

PSU Power Supply Unit

CU Control Unit

HMI Human-Machine Interface

CT Current Transformer

PT Potential Transformer

LCD Liquid Crystal Display

ADC Analog to Digital Convertor

EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory

IOC Instantaneous Over Current

DTOC Definite Time Over Current

ITOC Inverse Time Over Current

U-V Under Voltage

USB Universal Serial Bus

I/O Input/ Output

IDE Integrated Development Environment

IEC International Electro technical Commission

CB Circuit Breaker
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview
With the increase in population, the demand of energy is increasing day by day So
there is a need to increase the generation capacity and to utilize or manufacture
transmission substations in order to meet the energy demands. With this the protection
of the Power System plays the vital role in order for the system to operate and relay is
the fundamental component used for the Power System Protection as it is designed to
give a trip signal to circuit breaker when it detects the fault. Different types of relays
are used in the Power System such as electromechanical relays, static relays but in
this project numerical relay is used for the protection of feeder because of its
reliability, flexibility and multifunctional capability in detecting faults in the power
system. So, the relay used in this project also has multifunctional capability having
the functionalities of overcurrent relay, definite time overcurrent relay, inverse time
overcurrent relay and under voltage relay.

1.2 Project Idea

The main idea of this project is to design and test the numerical relay for the
protection of feeder. The designing phase of the project consists of three main
components Power Supply Unit, Control Unit and Human Machine Interface module.
In the PSU, single phase AC supply of 220V will be converted to 12V AC which will
be used to power the control unit. The CU consists of Arduino UNO, microcontroller
board. The input of the controller will be the analog outputs of the Current
Transformer and Potential Transformer. Then the analog inputs from CT and PT will
be converted to digital with the help of Analog to digital convertor. After that a fault
detection mechanism will be performed which will detect the faults occurred due to
overcurrent and under voltage. The Liquid Crystal Display module is used to display
the working of the relay. In the HMI module, keypad module is interfaced with the
Arduino UNO to set predetermined values of current and voltage. For testing of the
numerical relay, separate test beds will be built to detect the working of overcurrent
and under voltage relay.

1.3 Purpose of the Project

The purpose of this project is to design and manufacture the industrial grade
numerical relay that can be used in the power system. Especially in Pakistan, most of
the relays used in the power system are electromechanical relay which are large in
size and have mechanical parts that could wear and tear, and there is very much less
quantity of numerical relays used in the power system also these numerical relays are
imported from foreign countries so the goal is to make Pakistan economically strong
by manufacturing the numerical relays locally due to this more numerical relay will
be used in the power system which will increase the power system reliability.

1.4 Project Specifications

The specifications of the project shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Project Specifications

Sr No Component Specification

1 Single Phase Transformer 220V/ 5V

220V/ 3V

2 DC Power Supply 5V

7V – 12V for Arduino

3 ACS172 Current Sensor Module 5A

20A

30A

4 Microprocessor Atmega 328p

PIC
 6 LCD Module 20 x 4

7 Keypad Module 4x4

3x3

1.5 Applications of the Project

Numerical relay is used in the power system for protection purposes. Following are its
applications.

1.5.1 Protection of Power System

The numerical relays are mainly used for the protection of the power system on the
occurring of faults. It is widely used in the power system protection for is reliability
and versatility. At a time, a numerical relay can monitor multiple parameters such as
voltage, current and is also used to detect various types of overcurrent faults [1].

1.5.2 Motor Protection

When motor is overloaded, it draws excessive amount of current. Due to this the
temperature of the motor increases and causes the insulation to fail which leads to the
failure of the motor itself. The numerical relay is installed with the motor to detect the
overcurrent. When the current exceeds form the rated limit, the relay detects the
overcurrent and trips the supply to prevent motor from failure [2].

1.5.3 Feeder Protection

Feeder protection is the most part in the distribution system as it is used as a
transmission line to deliver power from substation end to the load end. So, it is
necessary to protect feeder from faults. When the short circuit fault occurs on the
feeder, the numerical relay is used to give tripping signal to the CB through time
graded protection technique. The CB near the fault when less operating time will
operate first to isolate the faulty section from healthy section. If that CB is faulty and
do not operate the next CB with the less operating time among other CBs will operate
and so on. [5]
 Figure 1.1 Power system showing time graded protection of the Feeder from faults [5]

In the above system, the relay OC1 will operate first on the occurrence of the fault. If
OC1 fails to operate, OC4 will operate and so on.

1.5.4 Backup Protection

When the primary protection system is not working during the fault, the numerical
relay can act as the backup protection of the power system to isolate the faulty area to
safe the power system from major faults in order to full fill this requirement of
protection scheme definite time delay is given to the numeric relay thus the relays
connected in series will operate one by one according to the time given to it, this
delay of time is set according to the system for this numeric relays are programmed.

1.6 Project Plan

1.6.1 Project Milestones
The milestones consist of tasks, their duration and the resource person. It is shown in
the Table 1.2 and Table 1.3.

Table 1.2: Part -1 Project Milestones

S# Tasks Duration Resource Person
1 Literature Review 04 Weeks Muhammad Umer
Ghouri, Muhammad
Hamza Aamer
2 Input Module Designing 02 Weeks Muhammad Umer
Ghouri
3 CT/ PT Interfacing 02 Weeks Muhammad Hamza
Aamer
4 Programming of Controller 04 Weeks Both Group Members

5 Instantaneous Over Current function 01 Week Muhammad Hamza

Aamer
6 Definite Time Over Current function 01 Week Both Group Members

7 Inverse Time Over Current function 01 Week Both Group Members

8 Under Voltage Function 01 Week Muhammad Umer
Ghouri
7 Simulation 07 Weeks Muhammad Umer
Ghouri, Muhammad
Hamza Aamer
6 Report Witing 05 Weeks Muhammad Umer
Ghouri, Muhammad
Hamza Aamer

Table 1.3: Part-2 Project Milestones

S# Tasks Duration Resource Person
1 Hardware Implementation of Relay 04 Weeks
2 Hardware Implementation of Test 02 Weeks
Bed
3 Testing of Relay 04 Weeks
4 Report Writing 04 Weeks

1.6.2 Project Timeline

The project timeline for Part 1 and Part 2 are shown in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Part-1 Project Timeline

 Figure 1.3 Part-2 Project Timeline

1.7 Report Organization

The report is organized in such a way that in the first chapter the introduction is
discussed which covers purpose, specifications, applications and plan of the project.
Next in the literature review, background theory, related technologies and projects
were covered. Afterwards, project design and implementation were discussed which
covers the software used in the project. Then the tools used in the project are
discussed. At last results and conclusions were discussed in the last two chapters.
Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Numerical relays are used for switching purpose but the thing which makes it unique
from other ordinary switches is the use of microprocessor. The first numerical relays
were released in 1985.
A big difference between conventional electromechanical and static relays is how the
relays operate. In Electromechanical and static relay, the setting is manual however,
on the other hand, numerical relays have a microcontroller which makes it a
programmable relay where the characteristics and behavior can be programmed. Most
numerical relays are also multifunctional.

2.1 Overview of Relays

One of the most important elements in the world of electrical system is it protection
because it is not possible to achieve reliability without sufficient protection, Relays
were first developed back in the 1800s [6]. Advancement and new technology provide
more accuracy, so in 1980, with the development of static relays the norm of using
electromagnetic relays gradually decreases and static relays became the talk of the
town in the world of electric protection.

1985 was the year of the development of the first numerical based relay. It was widely
accepted by users and electrical protection companies that soon after, the second-
generation numerical relay was implemented in 1990.

The first generated numeric relays were designed in such a way to meet the
characteristics of static relays but with every passing day numeric relays became more
matures and soon after the development of first-generation numerical relay with
microprocessor became the most used relays in the world, since they use
microprocessors that use numeric systems for all the calculations, which helps to gain
more accuracy. Microprocessors gives the comfort to perform all the calculations with
more precision thus it not only makes the device more accurate but also
multifunctional.
2.2 Types of Relay

These are the types of relays manufactured by international companies, the below
section describes their working principle.

2.2.1 Mechanical Relay

Mechanical relays are devices that can turn on or turn off the power supplied to
another device, like a switch. However, instead of having a person flip the switch,
mechanical relays switch when provided with a small amount of power. This allows
high-power circuits to be controlled by low-power devices.

Figure 2.1 Mechanical Relay

2.2.1.1 Working of mechanical relays

Mechanical relays are very similar to ordinary house switches however it uses an
electromagnetic coil to open or close the circuit. It contains two main part one is
stationary and the other is movable, the function starts when current flows from the
coil which is also the stationary part the coil produced electromagnetic waves as
stated by the faraday laws, this magnetic field either pulls the arm of the switch away
from the other contact of the switch, or in other case pushes it down to close the
switch depending upon its manufacturing. One of the unique parts of this relay is that
it provides electrical insulation between the input and output part of the relays. Thus,
electromagnetic relays also act as an isolator. This allows protecting the device from
power surges in your application.
 Figure 2.2 Working of Mechanical Relay

2.2.2 Static Relays

In electrical systems, a static relay is a type of relay, an electrically operated switch

that has no moving parts. Static relays are contrasted with electromechanical relays,
which use moving parts to create a switching action. Both types of relay control
electrical circuits through a switch that is open or closed depending upon an electrical
input.

Static relays have been designed to perform similar functions with the use of
electronic circuit control as an electromechanical relay performs with the use of
moving parts or elements. For example, in an induction type electromechanical relay,
the time delay for the switching action can be adjusted by adjusting the distance
traveled by the disc, whereas in a static relay the delay can be set by adjusting the
value of the resistance in an R-C time delay circuit.

Figure 2.3 Static Relay

2.2.3 Numeric Relay

Numerical relay is a microprocessor-based relay that has a ability to provide
multifunctional protection.

Figure 2.4 Numerical Relay

2.3 Types of Features of Numerical Relay

The numerical relay has four main features which are:

2.3.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

In this feature when the measured current from the relay becomes greater than the pre-
set value of the current the relay instantaneously given the tripping signal and trips the
circuit.

2.3.2 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay:

In the definite time overcurrent relay when the measured current becomes greater than
the pre-set value of the current, the relay does not instantaneously trip the circuit but
trips after the set time. This type of relay is used in the feeder protection using a time
graded technique. When the fault occurs the relay near to fault with less operating
time will operate first to isolate the faulty section. If that relay fails to operate, the
relay with the less operating time respective to the other relays will operate and so on
[5].

2.3.3 Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:

In Inverse time overcurrent the main task is to calculate the tripping time this time
depends on the amount of current as the names says current is inversely proportional
to the amount of current, for higher current the tripping time will be lesser this will
enhance the protection as it will take less time to disconnect the circuit when higher
intensity of current is measured.
The formula given by IEC standards is given in Chapter 3, section 3.6.
[10]

2.3.4 Under Voltage Relay:

Electrical power system consists of transformers and different kinds of load during
mishaps if transformer winding become short or suddenly large amount of load is
disconnected this will create a huge voltage dip known as under-voltage condition.
This voltage dip can cause a huge amount of current to flow from the system so in-
order to protect the system we use this mode of numerical relay. The predetermined
values are set accordance to the system requirement whenever the voltage drops from
the presets value the microcontroller will send a tripping signal to cutoff the circuit.

2.4 Related Technologies

2.4.1 Directional Over-Current Relay

Directional over-current relays main purpose is to act in response to faulty current

flow in a particular direction in the power system. Directional Over-current relay
characteristically consists of two key elements. One of which is directional element,
which compares the reference of voltage with the direction of current flow. Secondly
the directional over current relay continues to check the direction of current with
predetermined direction of current the moment the current flow matches the
predetermined flow of current it sends a signal to the circuit breaker and cut off the
circuit, as these relays are intended to work on fault currents, the directional unit is
made in such a way that it only operates on a extreme lagging current, as mostly
faulty currents are lagging in power systems. Most of the time Directional over-
current relays are used on circuit breakers which have at least two or more sources. In
versatile distribution networks, these relays may be used to improve coordination of
the system.
2.4.2 Motor Protection Relays
The size of the motor and its operating voltage decide the parameters of the
protection. Different protection measurement are taken in order to keep the function
of Motor under safe limits, most of the protection provided to motor is done through
motor protection relays, these protections differ from the over current relays in terms
of protections they offer.

Figure 2.5 Motor Protection Relay

2.5 Related Projects

This section describes the related projects of numeric relays, these related projects
include protection scheme that involves the usage of relays.

2.5.1 Fault Detection in Underground Using Electromagnetic Relay

During the fault the arcing can occur in order to prevent this from happening different
protection schemes are used that involve different types of relays the detection of fault
is the main part then this signal is send to the output circuitry using microcontroller
this output signal is then fed to the electromagnetic relays, the coil of electromagnetic
relay is set according to the requirement of the protection system, whenever the fault
signal is sent to electromagnetic relay the coil of relays generates enough magnetic
flux which can latch and de-latch the system Detection of arcing faults may be
difficult using standard overcurrent protections because some arcing faults generate
relatively low currents. To study the feasibility of detecting arcing faults in
underground networks, Consolidated Edison's personnel conducted an experiment in
one secondary network by staging arcing faults and collecting data at the fault
location and several nearby vaults after this appropriate signal is sent to the output
relays which is electromagnetic relays in this case, the main aim of relay is to
disconnects the circuit during fault condition otherwise the high current may burn the
wires.

2.5.2 Fault Detection in Transmission Line Using Switching Relays

The main idea of the project is to get rid from detection of fault, type of the fault and
distance of fault. This system is basically designed for underground transmission
cables. When the fault occurs in transmission lines it tells us the distance and type of
fault and then displays it on control room of Grid Station. This make easy to get
information about the fault through a simple device.

Figure 2.6 Block Diagram of Project 2

After calculating, detecting the fault the main aim of this project is to sent the output
signal to the electromagnetic relay to provide the protection to the system, during fault
the over current can exceed to the 200 time the nominal value this can melt the wires
and can cause disaster so switching relay has to play its relay in order to save the
system from disaster.

2.6 Limitations of the Existing Work

The limitations of the existing work are:

2.6.1 Bulky size

Electromagnetic relays and relays other than numeric require huge size as they use
flag system to indicate the position of the switch however, the numeric relay displays
all information on small LCD which makes it size more compact.

2.6.2 Rigidity in functions

Electromagnetic relays can perform only one type of task, in order to use it for some
different task it requires setting of different mechanical components which is very
tedious task, however in numeric relays various tasks can be perform by doing
suitable changes in the program.

2.7 Problem Statement

The project is focused on design and development of numeric relay using Arduino
(microcontroller board based on Atmega 328p) the main aim is to make multifunction
which provides four different features. (under Voltage, inverse time over-current,
definite time over-current and instantaneous over-current) at the end proper test bed
has to be Development to verify the result of numeric relay.

2.8 Summary
The chapter includes details of all the related technologies of project like different
protection technologies. Next it discusses all the related technologies and projects
which were carried in the past and researches and related study to this project. The
limitations of the existing work are also discussed at the end.
Chapter 3

PROJECT DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

The project design starts with the interfacing of CT and PT with the microcontroller.
The keypad and LCD module are used to set the predetermined values and to view the
results and working of the relay. Separate overcurrent and under voltage test beds are
built to carry out the working. The details about designing and the implementation
procedure is explained in this chapter.

3.1 Proposed Design Methodology

The project design methodology consists of a block diagram that consists of main
blocks required to design and implement the project. The block diagram of the project
is divided into three portions.

Figure 3. 1 (a) Input Unit (b) Numerical Relay

(c) Testing of Numerical Relay
3.1.1 Input Unit

The input unit of the design consist of a 220 V single phase supply. As the numerical
relay gets its operating signals form the CT and PT. So, in the input unit, CT and PT
are interfaced with the microcontroller, Arduino UNO. To interface CT, an ACS712
30A current sensor is used in place of the CT. The ACS712 gets its input current input
from the overcurrent test bed. When the sensor senses the current, it consists of a Hall
effect sensor which generates voltage when current is passed through the sensor. The
generated voltage is fed into the analog input of the microcontroller. To interface PT,
the 220 V is step down to 5V using a step-down transformer and that analog voltage
signal is fed into the analog input of the Arduino UNO.

Figure 3.2 Input Unit

3.1.2 Numerical Relay

The numerical relay consists of two blocks, the Control Unit and HMI unit. The detail
about numerical relay block is explained below.

3.1.2.1 Control Unit

The Control Unit consists of the microcontroller, Arduino UNO. The power is
supplied to it through a separate 9V main dc power supply. The backup power supply
is used to supply power to the relay when the main supply turns off. The Arduino gets
its analog input from the analog voltage signals of the ACS712 current sensor and PT.
The Arduino converts these signals into digital signal. After that the fault detection
mechanism is performed which detects the faults due to overcurrent and under voltage
and displays the result onto the LCD.
EEPROM is the non-volatile, internal memory of Arduino UNO. It has a storage
capacity of 1024 bytes. It retains the stored data even when the microcontroller is
turned OFF [3]. In this project this internal EEPROM is used to read and write the
threshold values of voltage and current according to which all the relay functions
(IOC, DTOC, ITOC, U-V) will perform operations. Also, it retains the information of
the last performed operation of the relay when the relay is turned ON.

3.1.2.2 HMI Unit

The HMI Unit consists of a keypad. The keypad is used to switch between the modes
of Overcurrent relay, definite time overcurrent, Instantaneous time overcurrent and
the inverse time overcurrent relay. Also, it is used for setting threshold values of
voltage and current.

Figure 3.3 Numerical Relay Block

3.1.3 Testing of Numerical Relay

The testing of this numerical relay is done by using two test beds, to detect and verify
the working of the relay. These are:

3.1.3.1 Over Current Test Bed

The test bed consists of loads connected in parallel with a switch. The switch is used
to add the circuit to create the fault. This test bed is used to detect the working of
instantaneous overcurrent relay, definite time overcurrent relay and inverse time
overcurrent relay, the ohm law is used to set the values of current test bed, each time
the value of resistor is changed according to the desired current, bulbs are connected
in parallel in order to increase the fault current the switch is turned on one by one.
 Figure 3.4 Over Current Test Bed

3.1.3.2 Under voltage Test Bed:

The test bed consists of a step-down transformer that will convert the 220V to 3V. For
the testing the analog input of microcontroller is connected with the secondary of this
transformer due to which the numerical relay will detect the fault as under voltage
fault.

Figure 3.5 Under Voltage Test Bed

3.2 Analysis Procedure

3.2.1 Technique Comparison:

3.2.1.1 Microprocessor based

There were other microcontroller options available for doing this project such as PIC
microcontroller and stm32 microcontroller but in this project, Arduino UNO is used.
Following were the reasons for selecting Arduino UNO as the microcontroller for the
project:
 It can be connected with the computer via a USB for loading programs to it
without the need of extra hardware programmer
 It is cost effective than other microcontroller options mentioned above.
 It has many built-in functions that makes the project easy to implement.

3.2.1.2 Voltage Stepdown:

In this project a step-down transformer is used to convert the 220V AC to 5V AC.
This thing can also be achieved by using the voltage divider. But implementing this
with the voltage divider is not a good option because the resistance used in the voltage
divider circuit will also create a room for some power to loss which will affect the
overall results of the system.

3.2.2 Algorithm Comparison:

3.2.2.1 Programming technique
The programming of this project is done by using simple built-in and user defined
functions followed by loops and other C language statements. This project can also be
programmed using data type struct and switch statements in C language.

3.2.2.2 Internal vs. External EEPROM

There are two types of EEPROM that can be used with Arduino UNO. These are:
i. Internal EEPROM
ii. External EEPROM
In this project the internal EEPROM of Arduino UNO is used to read and write data.
Although the external EEPROM (AT24LC256) has more storage capacity and data
can be written to it a greater number of times but the internal EEPROM has sufficient
storage capacity for this project.

3.2.3 Hardware Comparison

3.2.3.1 Keypad
The Keypad used in this project is the 4x4 Keypad Module. Other keypad options
were also available such as 3x4, 4x5 keypad module however for this project 4x4
keypad is used as it provides sufficient button to move and switch between each
modes furthermore to press appropriate button for the selection of current and voltage
threshold.

3.2.3.2 LCD
There were other LCD options available such as 16x2 LCD module but in this project
20x4 module is used because it provides the user with more rows and columns to
display more data on to the LCD.
3.3 Design of the Project Hardware

3.4 Design of the Project Software/Algorithm

Project’s software part includes the following things
The main menu will allow the user to move from one mode to other, every time the
relay starts it will gather all the stored information from the memory this will allow it
to restore the last task. Arduino Uno board with Atmega 328p is used to perform all
the computation related to calculation of fault, result display on LCD and sending
output tripping signal.

3.4.1 Types of Fault

In the mentioned project, types of fault being focused in order to determine the output
tripping time.
3.4.1.1 Under Voltage
This fault demand instantaneous tripping, whenever the voltage drops from the
predetermined value of voltage an output tripping signal is transmitted telling the
circuit breaker to turn off the circuit
3.4.1.2 Over Current
The name is self-explanatory, wires in a circuit demands safe limit of current through
them without much fluctuation, if somehow this current exceed from the safe limit it
may melt the wire which can destroy the whole electric system in order to prevent this
from happening microcontroller send a tripping signal to the circuit breaker but the
timing of the tripping is determined from the intensity and characteristic of the fault.

3.4.2 Algorithm of Software Design

The flow chart of algorithm of software design of the project explains about the steps
of and sequence of software program.
 Figure 3.6 Block Diagram of Software Algorithm

Above flow chart gives the idea of sequence in which the algorithm was implemented.
Main idea is to make a user-friendly main menu which can be used to switch from one
mode to other.
Arduino is used to take the sensor input at its analog pin (A4), this signal is then used
to evaluate either tripping is requiring or not. One of the most important part of this
algorithm is access to memory using EEPROM, the save data is used to access the last
operated mode and last set threshold value. Users have the comfort of changing both
these data whenever needed.
3.5 Implementation Procedure
As this project is on Arduino, so Arduino IDE is being used to do coding in C level
language.
On starting the program all the global variable is initialized along with LCD and
Keypad this is necessary otherwise LCD will not be lit up and user will not be able to
know either the relay has been turned on or not.
The program is designed in such that on startup it will check the memory in order to
gather all the stored value not only this memory portion will also help the relay to
decide the mode of protection based on previously stored value.
Arduino two analogue pins are utilized for the purpose of converting analogue data to
digital using the command (Analog Read(A4)), then this data is used to find the
maximum value this maximum value is then compared with the already store values
knows as threshold values, on comparing if the condition become true then a tripping
signal is sent to circuit breaker telling it to cut the circuit off.
The relay can switch between four different types of protection modes these modes
can be selected from the main menu window along with four different modes there are
two separate options for the setting of threshold values, these threshold values are
very crucial as they decide the point of tripping.

3.5.1 Initialization
The algorithm starts from the initialization of LCD and keypad along with other
variables this will allows the hardware part to connect with the software part of the
product.
3.5.2 Memory
Memory is most crucial part of this algorithm it allows the microprocessor to gather
all the information and predetermined values of current and voltage which can be later
used for fault calculations and computation.
The algorithm allows the user to read and write from the memory.]
3.5.3 Modes
Memory portion guide the algorithm to move in the right direction by declaring
previous used mode number this way algorithm will always restore its previous values
and will directly enter into one of the modes without any human help.

3.5.4 Computation of fault

Analog inputs from the voltage transformer and current sensor are taken from analog
pins these values are then used to compare with predetermined values for the
computation of fault.

3.5.5 Tripping time

Inverse time over-current fault trips the outgoing circuit accordance with the
calculated time, this time is inversely proportional to the fault current.

3.5.6 Threshold Values

The algorithm is designed in such a that it allows the user to change the
predetermined values whenever needed, for this firstly user has to interrupt the
ongoing calculation by switching into the main menu thought this can read and write
the threshold values.
Every time the new threshold value is set it is automatically saved in the memory.

3.6 Mathematical Modeling

The programming of the inverse time overcurrent relay function is done by using an
expression/ formula to calculate the tripping time of the relay. The expression was
obtained from the research paper.
The expression for calculating the tripping time of inverse time overcurrent relay is
shown below [7]

………………………….. (3.1)

Where,

t= Tripping time of inverse time overcurrent relay

Tp = Setting value of the time multiplier = 0.5
I= Fault Current
Ip= Setting value of pickup current

3.7 Details of Final Working Prototype

3.7.1 Main Menu
1. IOC 2. DTOC
3. ITOC 4. U-V
5. I-thld 6. V-thld

Figure 3.7 LCD display of main menu

Table 3.1 Main Menu Abbreviations

IOC Instantaneous over current

DTOC Definite Time Over Current

ITOC Inver Time Over current

U-V Under Voltage

I-thld Current Threshold Setting

V-thld Voltage Threshold Setting

The Number along with each mode represent the Keypad button, by pressing the
appropriate button the user can enter into the mode.

3.7.2 I-thld (Current threshold value setting)

This allows the user to edit the threshold values accordance to the need of the system.
Current Threshold
Press 1 to edit
Press 2 to read from
memory
 Figure 3.8 Current Threshold Setting
These two options will guide to overwriting the previous value and also allows the
user to check the already set threshold value. The user can enter into this display
screen by pressing the button 5 on keypad from the main menu.

3.7.3 Display Parameter for Voltage Features

*****Under Voltage*******
Voltage=5.00 v
Status=Normal

Figure 3.9 Normal operation of undervoltage relay

The details of text shown in LCD is given below.
1. The top most line indicate the mode of protection
2. Second line indicates the value of voltage in Volts
3. The status indicates either this voltage is in safe limits or exceeding the safe limit.

3.7.4 Display Parameter for Current Features

*****IOC*******
Voltage=5.18 A
Status=Normal
 Figure 3.10 Normal operation of Instantaneous Overcurrent relay

The details of text shown in LCD is given below.

1. The top most line indicates the mode of protection, in this case it is Instantaneous
over current, all the names are mentioned in above section.
2. Second line indicates the value of Current in Amperes
3. The status indicates either this current is in safe limits or exceeding the safe limit.

3.7.5 Display Parameter for Current Features

Figure 3.11 Definite time overcurrent display on LCD in the event of fault.

The details regarding the display of text shown in LCD is given below.
1. The top most line indicates the mode of protection, in this case it is Definite Time
Over Current.
2. Second line indicates the value of Current in Amperes
3. The Third line displays “fault Detected” this means that the fault has detected by
the numeric relay however the output tripping signal has not been sent to the
circuit breaker.
4. The fourth Line displays the remaining time to trip; once the countdown is
finished the relay will send the tripping signal to the circuit breaker.
3.7.6 LED (light emitted diode)
3.7.6.1 Green LED
The green Light indicates the normal condition operation this light will remain turned
on as long as the relay is working in normal condition

Figure 3.12 Green LED function in simulation

3.7.6.2 Red LED

The Red LED indicates the Faulty condition operation, this light will remain turned
on until the fault is removed manually.

Figure 3.13 Red LED function in simulation

3.7.6.3 Blinking Green LED

In definite and inverse over current feature the relay detect the fault the moment it
occurred however it doesn’t send an output tripping signal until the trip countdown
completes, during this time the relay is not working in normal condition nor in faulty
condition so the blinking green led light will indicate this condition.
3.7.7 Keypad Function
The 4x4 keypad has 16 buttons each button is used for different options and
functionalities; the functionalities of these button are explained in the table below.

Figure 3.14 Keypad from simulation

Table 3.2 Functionalities of keys on keypad

Key Functionality

ON/C Move out of the mode

0 Enter into Main menu

= Enter/conform threshold value

9 Remove fault condition

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 In threshold setting these keys are

used to enter new value

1,2,3,4,5,6 The keys 1-6 are also used to switch

between the features of the relay.
÷  No function

 × No function

- No function
3.7.8 Simulation
This picture is the simulation diagram of our project, the simulation is done on the
proteus software.

Figure 3.15 Proteus Simulation

3.8 Summary
In this chapter proposed methodology for the project has been discussed, that firstly
the predetermined values will be setup Afterwards, algorithms will be applied that
will help in detecting the fault. After the detection of the fault the user first should
remove the fault manually then press the appropriate button on relay to reuse the relay
on detection of the fault the relay will send the output signal and will display the
message of fault on the LCD moreover the block diagram explaining the
implementation procedure as well. The software details were also explained
describing the working of the algorithm. In the end working of the final prototype was
explained.
Chapter 4

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

This section describes about the main components and tools used during the
simulation of this project.

4.1 Hardware Tools

Hardware tools contains list of tools used in the project. The discussion and detail
about the used component given in this chapter and are explained below.

4.1.1 Transformer
Transformer is a device that is used to step up or step down the voltage. In this project
a 220V/ 5V step down transformer is used as a PT to provide 5V analog signal to the
microcontroller board, Arduino UNO. A 220V/ 3V step down transformer is also used
to detect undervoltage fault. The output of both the transformers is connected to the
analog pin A3 of Arduino UNO.

Figure 4.1 Transformer

4.1.2 ACS712 30A Current Sensor

ACS712 is the Hall effect based current sensor that consists of an ACS712 IC (as the
name suggests ACS712).
The sensor uses indirect sensing technique in order to sense the current. In indirect
sensing when the current flows through the copper conductor strip (on the surface of
which Hall effect sensor is placed), it generates a magnetic field. The magnetic field is
sensed by the hall effect sensor/ transducer which converts the magnetic field into
voltage and the analog voltage is obtained at the output terminal of the sensor. The
analog voltage is fed to the analog input of arduino (at pin A4) and it convets the
voltage into current by programming ACS712 [4].
In this project 30A current sensor module is used which means that it can sense
currents upto the range of 30A. The 30A module has an output sensitivity of 66mV
per A.

Figure 4.2 ACS712 Current Sensor [8]

[1]

4.1.3 Arduino UNO

Arduino UNO is a microcontroller board used for this project. It serves as the brains
of the product (numerical relay). It is based on Atmega 328p microchip. It consists of
14 digital and 6 analog I/O pins. It is connected to the computer via a USB cable and
is programmed using Arduino IDE software. USB cable or an external 7V-12V
battery is used to provide power to the board.
All the components used in this project such as transformers, ACS712, keypad and
LCD is connected at the I/O ports of the arduino UNO
 Figure 4.3 Arduino UNO [9]

4.1.4 Keypad
Keypad is a device that allows the users to attract with the machines due to which it is
called the HMI unit of this project. In this project, 4x4 keypad consisting of 4 rows
and columns is used. It is used for switching between relay menu, relay functions and
for setting the threshold values of voltage and current.

Figure 4.4 4x4 Keypad

4.1.5 LCD
The module used in this project is 20x4 LCD Module. 20x4 means that it can display
4 rows with 20 characters at each row at a time. It is used to display the working of all
relay functions.
 Figure 4.5 20x4 LCD Module

4.2 Softwares and Simulation Tools

4.2.1 Arduino IDE:

Arduino IDE is the application that is used to program the Arduino UNO. It is written
in C or C++ language. It consists of two default functions void setup() and void
loop(), althrough other user defined and built-in functions can also be used in
programming the arduino..

Figure 4.6 Arduino IDE layout

4.2.2 Proteus

Proteus is the simulations software used for this project. This software is linked with
Arduino IDE to perform relay operations on the simulation. It is primarily used by
design engineers to design and simulate electrical and electronic circuits for
manufacturing PCBs.

Figure 4.7 Proteus Layout

4.3 Summary
This chapter contains details of hardware and software tools used in the project.
Simulation tools are also discussed at the end of this chapter.
Chapter 5

PROJECT RESULTS AND EVALUATION

The detailed analysis of the software results obtained from proteus software is
performed. The results and the findings from the result is explained below:

5.1 Presentation of the findings

5.1.1 Hardware Results

Split the project in major parts and discuss the results for each part.

5.1.2 Software Results

The software results of the component, current sensor ACS712 and all the relay
functions are obtained after simulating the circuit using the Proteus Software. The
results are shown below.

5.1.2.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent:

The table showing the behavior of the instantaneous overcurrent function of the
numerical relay with different measured currents and pickup current is shown below.

Table 5.1 Instantaneous Over Current relay behavior during different conditions

Sr. Measured Current Pickup Current Condition/Status State

No (A) (A)

1 2.20 4 Normal No Trip

2 3.56 4 Normal No Trip

3 5.2 4 Fault Trip

4 6.2 4 Fault Trip

5 6.2 7 Normal No Trip

6 8.2 7 Fault Trip

7 11.2 15 Normal No Trip

8 16.7 15 Fault Trip

 9 24.3 26 Normal No Trip

The measured values in the table shown above are obtained from changing the load
each time. The setting of the relay pickup current is done by using keypad. After that,
the state and the condition of fault was observed.

5.1.2.2 Definite Time Over current:

The table showing the behavior of the definite time overcurrent function of the
numerical relay is shown below:

Table 5.2 Definite Time Over Current relay behavior during different conditions

Sr. Fault Pickup Definite Time Condition / Stop-watch

Current (A) Current (A) Delay Status Reading
No
(seconds) (seconds)

1 8.42 4.00 3 Fault 3.69 3.22

2 8.42 4.00 4 Fault 4.55 3.62

3 8.42 4.00 5 Fault 5.11 5.22

4 9.89 7.00 5 Fault 4.97 5.12

5 9.89 7.00 6 Fault 6.22 6.11

6 9.89 8.00 7 fault 7.14 7.55

7 9.89 9.00 8 fault 8.45 8.1

5.1.2.3 Inverse Time Overcurrent

The table showing the behavior of the inverse time overcurrent function of the
numerical relay is shown below:
 Table 5.3 Inverse Time Over Current relay behavior during different conditions

Fault 7.69 9.63 10.99 12.92 15.54 17.37 18.31 20.14 21.97 25.74
Current
(I) A
Pickup 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Current
(Ip) A
Arduino 6.22 4.28 3.78 3.15 2.61 2.38 2.29 2.14 2.08 1.88
Reading
(T) sec
IEC 5.32 3.95 3.43 2.95 2.54 2.35 2.26 2.13 2.02 1.85
Standard
(t) sec

The fault currents shown in the above table are obtained by changing the load each
time while keeping the pickup current constant. The arduino tripping time (T) is
obtained from the simulations results while the IEC standard readings are obtained
using the formula explained in Chapter 3, section 3.6.

5.1.2.4 Under Voltage

The table showing the behavior of the under-voltage function of the numerical relay is
shown below:
Table 5.4 Under Voltage relay behavior during different conditions
Sr. Measured Voltage(V) Preset Voltage Condition/Status State
No (V)

1 5 3 Normal No Trip
2 5 4 Normal No Trip

3 1.88 4 Fault Trip

4 4 4 Fault Trip

5 4 7 ERROR No Trip
 6 3 7 ERROR No Trip

7 3 1 Normal No Trip

8 5 1 Normal No Trip

5.1.2.4 ACS712 Output

The graph and table showing the relation between sensed current and the output
voltage is given below.

Table 5. 5 The output voltage corresponding to the sensed current

Sr No. Sensed Current (A) Output Voltage (V)

0 2.5

2 3 2.78

3 5 2.96

4 9 2.97

5 11 3.53

6 15 3.9

7 20 4.37

8 22 4.55

9 25 4.83
 Figure 5. 1 Graph showing relation between output voltage and sensed current

5.2 Discussion on the Findings

The discussion includes the findings of the software results of each feature of the
numerical relay that were explained in the previous section 5.1.2 of this chapter.

5.2.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent

The Table 5.1 shows that when the values of current measured from current sensor
were less than the pickup current, the system is in normal condition and the relay does
not gives the tripping signal to the circuit breaker trip the circuit.

Figure 5.2 The LCD in simulation showing the normal opeartion of Instantaneous Over Current
Relay
When the fault was created by increasing the load, the system is in fault condition and
the relay trips the circuit.
 Figure 5.3 The LCD in simulation showing the fault condition of Instantaneous Over Current
Relay

The graph showing the instantaneous overcurrent behavior when the fault current was
4A and the preset value is 3A. is shown below.

3A 4A
Figure 5.4 Graph showing behaviour of Instantaneous Over Current Relay

5.2.2 Definite Time Overcurrent

The outcome result table of definite time over current, Table 5.2 displays five
important parameters that is pickup current, measure current, status on LCD, and
tripping signals with the help of LED and then the definite delays generated by the
simulations is compared with the readings of stop watch. The results are very close to
the simulation outcomes.

The results show that the microprocessor is evaluating exact time and sending an
appropriate result by comparing the pickup value with the measures value.

It is to be noted that the pickup current values are changed through the main menu
without disconnecting the numeric relays however for the setting of definite time
delay, changes in the coding has to be done.
The graph showing the definite time overcurrent behavior when the definite time was
set to 7 sec. when the fault current was 4A and the preset value is 3A. is shown below.
t(sec)

I (A)
3 4
Figure 5.5 Graph showing behavior of Definite Time Over Current Relay

5.2.3 Inverse Time Overcurrent

Table 5.3 shows the inverse relation between the fault current and the tripping time.
When the fault increases the time required by the relay to trip the circuit decreases.

The graph showing the trend of tripping time calculation using Arduino reading and
the IEC standard with respect3 to the fault current is given below.
4

Figure 5.6 Graph showing behavior of Inverse Time Over Current Relay

It can be seen from the graph that when the fault current increases, the tripping time
of the relay decreases.

5.2.4 Under Voltage

The outcome result table of Under Voltage, Table 5.4 displays three important
parameters that is pickup Voltage, measure Voltage and status, the results shows that
relays is working perfectly fine and sends a tripping signal if the measures voltage
drops from the preset voltage

It is to be noted that for voltage faults, these relays have only one feature that is under
Voltage and the PT used for this relay is of 220/5 V so the maximum input Voltage
that can be given to PT is 220v for this reason if the preset value is set above 5v the
relay will display an error message until the preset value is changes to any value
below 5V.

5.3 Reasoning for Short Comings

In definite Time over current the reading taken from the stopwatch and countdown
generated by the microcontroller has some variations, although the difference is very
small but it is because of the time delay of execution of code moreover the reading
taken from stop watch also include some human error.

In Under Voltage the LCD displays an error if the preset value is above the 5V this is
because of the fact that the preset value can never be set greater than the input signal
of PT.

The reading on the Volt meter connected in parallel with the transformer and the
reading of measured voltage on LCD differs slightly this is due to the fact that
microcontroller can’t measure analog value directly, for this ADC is used which cut
the input signal into discrete values In our project the ADC convert input signal into
1024 discrete values and map it to 0 to 5V, during this mapping some of the data is
lost but as the difference is very small it can be neglected especially when dealing
with High Voltage.

5.4 Limitations of the Working Prototype

After analyzing the results and finding of the project, it was found that the project has
following limitations.

 The numerical relay can detect fault currents only upto the range of 25A. Fault
currents greater than 25A cannot be detected by this relay.
  The numerical relay can perform operations on only 4 functions IOC, DTOC,
ITOC and U-V.

5.5 Summary
The results of all four functions of numerical relay under different loaded conditions
and different predetermined values of current, voltage and time is explained in this
chapter.
Chapter 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

This report was about Numeric relay for feeder protection. In electric Power system
different measures are taken to ensure the continuity of electric supply without any
damage for this reason different types of protection devices are used some of them are
mentioned in chapter 2, Numeric relay implemented in this project have four main
features which are Instantaneous Over Current, definite Time over, Current Inverse
Time over Current and Under Voltage These Four features standout this relay from
other protection devices which can perform only single task, not only this, huge
demand of protection devices in Pakistan is being fulfilled from multinational
companies so a locally manufactured product with arduino uno will positively affect
the users in respect to the cost of the product another important element of this relay is
the usage of EEPROM for storing the threshold values and previously used mode of
the relay this way even after disconnection the relay will restore it values without any
human help.

This product has more capability as compared to old electromagnetic and static relays
however in future this relay can be improved in many different ways such as using
remote control device to switch from one mode to other and for the setting of
threshold values Moreover, algorithms for more than four faults can be implemented.
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