Chapter 8

Chapter 8: Vector Multiplication

Dot Product

Definition
For a = a x i + a y j + a z k and b = b x i + b y j + b z k the dot product a  b is defined as the number
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
ax bx + ay by + az bz .

That is,

a  b = ax bx + ay by + az bz
˜ ˜

Note:
• The dot product is also known as the scalar product since the resulting product is a number
(not a vector).
• The above formula for calculating the dot product is defined also for two-dimensional vectors.
In this case, we put a z = b z = 0 .

Example 1
Given the vectors a = 2i + j – 3k and b = i + j + k , find a  b .
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Solution
a  b =  2   1  +  1   1  +  –3   1  = 0
˜ ˜

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 Chapter 8

Example 2
Prove the following properties for three-dimensional vectors a , b and c .
˜ ˜ ˜
(a) a  b = b  a (commutative)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
(b) a   b + c  = a  b + a  c (distributive)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
2
(c) a  a = a
˜ ˜ ˜

Solution
Let a = a x i + a y j + a z k , b = b x i + b y j + b z k , c = c x i + c y j + c z k ,
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
where a x b x c x a y b y c y a z b z c z  R .

(a) LHS = a  b = a x b x + a y b y + a z b z
˜ ˜
RHS = b  a = b x a x + b y a y + b z a z = a x b x + a y b y + a z b z = LHS
˜ ˜

(b)
LHS = a   b + c 
˜ ˜ ˜
=  a x i + a y j + a z k     b x + c x i +  b y + c y j +  b z + c z k 
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= ax  bx + cx  + ay  by + cy  + az  bz + cz 
= ax bx + ax cx + ay by + ay cy + az bz + az cz
=  ax bx + ay by + az bz  +  ax cx + ay cy + az cz 
= a  b + a  c = RHS
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

2 2 2
(c) LHS = a  a =  a x i + a y j + a z k    a x i + a y j + a z k  = a x + a y + a z
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
RHS = a =  a x + a y + a z  = a x + a y + a z = LHS
˜

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 Chapter 8

z
b
˜ a
˜


O
y

Theorem
If  is the angle between the vectors a and b then a  b = a b cos 
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The angle  is defined to be the smaller angle between a and b when both vectors begin at the
˜ ˜
origin. That is, their tails join at O , and 0     , as illustrated.

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 Chapter 8

Example 3
Prove the above theorem.

Solution

a–b
˜ ˜
b
˜
 a
˜
O

2 2 2
The cosine rule gives us a – b = a + b – 2 a b cos  (1)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
2
LHS = a – b =  a – b    a – b  by Example 2(c)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= a – b  a – a – b  b by the distributive property
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= aa–ba–ab+bb by the distributive property
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= a  a – 2a  b + b  b by the commutative property
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
2 2
= a – 2a  b + b by Example 2(c)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Therefore, (1) becomes
2 2 2 2
a – 2a  b + b = a + b – 2 a b cos 
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
a  b = a b cos 
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

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 Chapter 8

Example 4
Calculate a  b for vectors a and b shown below.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
z
b
˜ a
˜
4

30 6
O
y

Solution

3
a  b = a b cos  =  4   6  cos 30 = 24  ------- = 12 3
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ 2

The Angle between Two Vectors

Corollary to the above Theorem

ab
If  is the angle between two nonzero vectors a and b then cos  = -----------
˜ ˜-
˜ ˜ a b
˜ ˜
Example 5
Find the angle between each pair of vectors.
(a) a = i + 2j + 3k , b = – 2i + 4j + k
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
(b) a = 2i + j – 3k , b = i + j + k
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Solution
 1   –2  +  2   4  +  3   1  9
(a) cos  = --------------------------------------------------------------------------- = --------------------   = 58.34
2 2
1 + 2 + 3  –2  + 4 + 1
2 2 2 2 14 21

 2   1  +  1   1  +  –3   1 
(b) cos  = --------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0   = 90
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 + 1 +  –3  1 + 1 + 1

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 Chapter 8


In part (b) the angle  is --- or 90 , so  is a right-angle. When the angle between two nonzero
2
vectors is a right-angle, the vectors are called perpendicular or orthogonal, and it follows from
the above corollary that

two nonzero vectors a and b are orthogonal (perpendicular) if and only if

˜ ˜
ab = 0
˜ ˜

Example 6
Find the angle between the vector a = i + 6j + 3k and the positive z axis.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Solution
ab
If we consider cos  = -----------
˜ ˜- and let b = k = 0i + 0j +  1 k then
a b ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
˜ ˜
ak 10 + 60 + 31  3
˜ ˜- = ------------------------------------------------------------ = ----------   = 63.75
cos  = -----------
a b 2 2 2 46
˜ ˜ 1 +6 +3 1

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 Chapter 8

Scalar Projection and Vector Projection

a
A simple rearrangement of â = -----
˜ (our formula for finding the unit vector of a ) gives
˜ a ˜
˜
a = a â , (1)
˜ ˜ ˜
from which it is clear that every vector a has magnitude a and direction â .
˜ ˜ ˜
Now let us consider the component of a vector b that lies along the line through another vector a .
˜ ˜
Suppose the angle between a and b is  .
˜ ˜

Case I:   --- .
2
B
b
˜

 a
O ˜
N A

The magnitude of ON is called the scalar projection of b onto a , and by trigonometry,

˜ ˜
ON = b cos  . (2)
˜
The vector ON is called the vector projection of b onto a , and by Equation (1) we have
˜ ˜
ˆ
ON = ON ON ,

and since the directions of ON and a are the same, we get

˜
ON = ON â
˜
=  b cos  â using Equation (2). (3)
˜ ˜
Equations (2) and (3) are useful for finding scalar projections and vector projections when our
vectors a and b are given in geometric form (that is, as a diagram).
˜ ˜

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 Chapter 8

ab
Substituting our formula cos  = -----------
˜ ˜- into Equations (2) and (3) gives the scalar projection of
a b
˜ ˜
b onto a as
˜ ˜
ab
ON = ---------
˜ ˜-
a
˜
and the vector projection of b onto a as
˜ ˜
ab
ON = ---------
˜ ˜- â ,
a ˜
˜
which are useful formulae for finding scalar projections and vector projections when our vectors
a and b are given in algebraic form (that is, in terms of i , j , k ).
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Summary

a and b given in a and b given in

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
geometric form algebraic form
scalar projection b cos  ba
˜ ---------
˜ ˜-
of b onto a a
˜ ˜ ˜
vector projection of  a
 b cos  â  b----------
b onto a ˜ ˜  ˜ a ˜  â˜
˜ ˜ ˜


Case II:   --- .
2
B

b
˜
 a
˜ A
N O

In this case, our formulas do not change. That is, we still use the formulas in the summary above
to find the scalar projection of b onto a , and the vector projection of b onto a .
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

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 Chapter 8

The vector projection of b onto a is still the vector ON . Our interpretation of the scalar projec-
˜ ˜
tion of b onto a , however, is different. Since cos   0 in this case, the scalar projection of b
˜ ˜ ˜
onto a will be negative, and the magnitude
˜
ON = – (scalar projection of b onto a ).
˜ ˜

Example 7
Given a = i – 2j – 2k and b = 6i + 3j + 2k find the scalar projection and vector projection of
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
b onto a .
˜ ˜

Solution
ba  1   6  +  –2   3  +  –2   2  –4
Scalar projection of b onto a = ---------
˜ ˜- = ------------------------------------------------------------------- = ------
˜ ˜ a 2 2 2 3
˜ 1 +  –2  +  –2 

b  a –4 –4 1 –4 1 4
Vector projection of b onto a =  ---------
˜ ˜- â = ------ â =  ------ ----- a =  ------ --- a = – ---  i – 2j – 2k 
˜ ˜  a ˜ 3 ˜ 3 a ˜ 3 3˜ 9 ˜ ˜ ˜
˜ ˜

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 Chapter 8

Example 8
Express b = 2i + j – 3k as the sum of a vector parallel to a = 3i – j and a vector orthogonal to
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
a.
˜

Solution

B
b
˜

 a
O ˜
N A

b = ON + NB , where ON is the vector projection of b onto a .

˜ ˜ ˜
Therefore,

a  b   2   3  +  1   – 1  +  – 3   0  1
ON =  ---------
˜ - â =  ------------------------------------------------------------------- ----- a
˜
 a ˜  2 2  a˜ ˜
˜ 3 +  –1 
5 1 1
= ---------- ---------- a = ---  3i – j 
10 10 ˜ 2 ˜ ˜

and
1 1 3
NB = OB – ON = 2i + j – 3k – ---  3i – j  = --- i + --- j – 3k
˜ ˜ ˜ 2 ˜ ˜ 2˜ 2˜ ˜

References
• Calculus and Analytic Geometry, G.B. Thomas and R.L. Finney (Addison-Wesley 1988).
• Calculus, J. Stewart (Brooks/Cole 1995).
• Elementary Linear Algebra (Fourth Edition), S. Venit and W. Bishop (Brooks/Cole 1996).

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