Conceptual Mathematics 3

mOP mOB nOP nOA
mOP nOP mOB nOA, m n OP mOB nOA

mOB nOA
OP but OB b and OA a
mn
mb n a § m · § n ·
OP ¨ ¸b ¨ ¸a
mn ©mn¹ ©mn¹
§ m · § n ·
External division formula OP ¨ ¸b ¨ ¸a
©mn¹ ©mn¹
Example 10
A and B are two vectors whose are 3i j 2k and i 3 j k respectively. Find
the position vector of the points dividing AB externally in the ratio 3 : 1

Solution
a 3i j 2k , b i 3 j k and m : n 3 : 1
§ m · § n ·
External division ¨ ¸b ¨ ¸a
©mn¹ ©mn¹
§ 3 · § 1 ·
External division ¨ ¸ i 3j k ¨ ¸ 3i j 2k
© 3 1 ¹ © 3 1 ¹
3 1
External division i 3 j k 3i j 2k
2 2
1
External division 3i 9 j 3k 3i j 2k
2
1
External division 10 j k
2
1
? External division 5 j k
2
89
2.9 DIRECTION RATIO AND DIRECTION COSINE
(a) Direction Ratio (Dr)
Suppose we have a vector a xi y j z k , the direction ratio of a vector is
given by ratio of coefficient, Direction Ratio(Dr) x : y : z
Example 11
Find the direction ratios of the vector OP where P is the point (2,3,6) .
Solutions
Given that x, y, z 2,3,6
Direction ratio x : y : z 2 : 3 : 6
? Direction ratio 2 : 3 : 6
(b) Direction cosine

Consider the vector r xi y j z k in three dimension figure
fig 2. 24
x y z
From the figure above cosD , cos E and cosJ
r r r
§x y z·
Directioncosine cosD , cos E , cosJ ¨ , , ¸
¨r r r¸
© ¹
§x y z·
Directioncosine ¨¨ , , ¸¸
©r r r¹
90
NB
x2 y2 z2
cos2 D cos2 E cos2 J 2
2
2
r r r
x2 y2 z 2
r
Example 12
Find the direction cosines of the vector OP where P is the point 2,1,3
Solutions
Given that r x, y, z 2,1,3
r x2 y2 z2 2 2 12 32 14
x y z 2 1 3
Direction cosine , , , ,
r r r 14 14 14
2 1 3
? Direction cosine , ,
14 14 14
Example 13
Find the direction cosines of the vector OP where P is the point 2,3,6
Solutions
Given that r x, y , z 2,3,6
r x2 y2 z 2 2 2 32 (6) 2 49 7
x y z 2 3 6
Directioncosine , , , ,
r r r 7 7 7
2 3 6
? Directioncosine , ,
7 7 7
91
Example 14
Find the direction cosines of the vector OP where OP 5i 3 j 4k
Solutions
Given that OP 5i 3 j 4k
OP x2 y2 z2 5 2 32 4 2 50 5 2
x y z 1 3 4
Direction cosine , , , ,
OP OP OP 2 5 2 5 2
1 3 4
? Direction cosine , ,
2 5 2 5 2
Example 15
Find the vector joining the points P (2,3,0) and Q (1,2,4) and also direction
cosines of PQ .
Solution
OP 2,3,0
OQ 1,2,4
PQ OQ OP 1,2,4 2,3,0 3,5,4
? PQ 3i 5 j 4k
§ ·
¨ x y z ¸
Direction cosine ¨ , , ¸
¨ PQ PQ PQ ¸
© ¹
PQ 3i 5 j 4k 5 2
§ 3 5 4 ·
? Direction cosine ¨ , , ¸
©5 2 5 2 5 2 ¹
92
2.10 DOT PRODUCT
Dot product also known as the "scalar product", an operation that takes two
vectors and returns a scalar quantity. The dot product of two vectors can be
defined as the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of
the angle between the two vectors.
Suppose we have two vectors a a1 i b1 j c1 k and b a2 i b2 j c2 k , the
dot product of these vectors is given by §a · §a ·
¨ 1¸ ¨ 2¸
a b ¨ b1 ¸ ¨ b2 ¸ a1a2 b1b2 c1c2
¨c ¸ ¨c ¸
© 1¹ © 2¹
Standard definition of dot product, consider the figure below;
fig 2. 25
Standard dot product formula a b a b cosT
The angle between two vectors by using dot product § a b ·

T cos1 ¨¨ ¸
¸
© a b ¹
PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT

(a) Dot product result into scalar quantity
(b) Dot product is commutative, i.e. a b b a
(c) Dot product is distributive, i.e. a b c a b a c
(d) Parallel vectors are vectors whose angle between them is zero, i.e.
a b ab
(e) Orthogonal or perpendicular vectors are vectors whose angle between them
is 90 $ , i.e. a b 0
93
NB:
(a) i i j j kk 1 1 cos 0$ 1
i i j j k k 1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
(b) i j jk ik 1 1 cos 90$ 0

i j jk ik 0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
We can use the above concepts to determine the dot product formula
Let a a1 i b1 j c1 k and b a2 i b2 j c2 k then determine dot product
a b a1 i b1 j c1 k a2 i b2 j c2 k
a b a1a2 i i a1b2 i j a1c2 i k b1a2 i j b1b2 j j b1c2 k j
c1a2 i k c1b2 j k c1c2 k k
a b a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
2
(c ) a a a a cos 0$ aa a
2 2
a a .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iv)
2
( d ) ( a b) ( a b) a b a b cos 0$ ab ab ab
2
( a b) 2 a b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( v)
Example 16
Find the scalar or dot product of vectors i 2 j 3k and 2i j k .
Solution
Let a i 2 j 3k and b 2i j k
§ 1 · §2·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 1¸ 2 2 3 3
¨ 3¸ ¨ 1 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
? The scalar product is 3
94
Example 17
Given that a 2i 4 j Ok and b i 2 j 7k . Determine O such that
(a) a and b are perpendicular
(b) a and b are collinear
Solution
Given that a 2i 4 j Ok and b i 2 j 7k , determine O when
(a) a and b are perpendicular i.e.T 90$
From, a b a b cosT
a b a b cos 90$
a b 0
§ 2 · §1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 4 ¸ ¨ 2¸ 0
Ö ¸ ¨7¸
© ¹ © ¹
2 8 7O 0
10
?O
7
(b) a and b are collinear i.e.T 0$

From, a b a b cosT
a b a b cos0 $
a b a b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( i )
§ 2 · §1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 4 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 10 7O.......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
Ö ¸ ¨7¸
© ¹ © ¹
ab 20 O2 54
ab 54 20 O2 .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
Substitute equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
10 7O 54 20 O2
95
10 7O 54 20 O2
2
100 140O 49O2 1080 54O2

5O2 140 980 0
? O 14
Example 18
If a 2 , b 3 and T 60$ where T is the angle between a and b . Find the
values of ;
(a) a b (b) a b
Solution
(a) a b
2 2
From, a b ab
2 2 2
ab a 2a b b
2 2 2
ab a 2 a b cosT b
2
ab 2 2 2(2)(3) cos60$ 32
2
ab 19
? ab 19
(b) a b
2 2
From, a b a b
2 2 2
a b a 2a b b
2 2 2
a b a 2 a b cosT b
2
a b 2 2 2(2)(3) cos60$ 32
2
a b 10
? a b 7
96
Example 19
Show that vectors 2i 3 j 4k and 4i 6 j 8k are collinear.
Solution
a 2i 3 j 4k , a 29
b 4i 6 j 8k , b 116
If a and b are collinear the angle between them is 0 $ or 180$
From, a b a b cosT
§ a b ·
T cos1 ¨¨ ¸.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
¸
© a b ¹
§ 2 · § 4·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 3 ¸ ¨ 6 ¸ 58.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
¨ 4 ¸ ¨ 8¸
© ¹ © ¹
ab 29 116 58.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iii)
§ 58 ·
T cos1 ¨ ¸
© 58 ¹
T cos1 1 180$
? The two given vect ors are collinear
Alternative
a 2i 3 j 4k and b 4i 6 j 8k
If a and b are collinear b O a where O
a 2i 3 j 4k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
b 4i 6 j 8k 2 2i 3 j 4k .......... .......... .......( ii)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
b 2a where O 2
? Vectors a and b are collinear
97
Example 20
* & * & & &
If ( x a ) x ( x a ) 12 , where a is a unit vector, Find x
Solution
x a x a 12
2 2
x a 12
2 2
x a 12 but a 1
2
x 1 12
2
x 13
?x 13
Example 21
For any two vectors a and b prove that a b d a b
Solution
From a b a b cosT
a b
cosT but 1 d cosT d 1
ab
a b
cosT
ab
a b
cosT but cosT d 1
ab
a b
cosT d 1
ab
a b
d1
ab
? a b d a b
98
Example 22
For any two vectors a and b prove that a b d a b
Solution
2 2
From, a b ab
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ab a 2a b b but a a , b b
2 2 2
ab a 2 a b b but a b d a b
2 2 2
ab d a 2a b b
2 2
ab d a b
? ab d a b
Example 23
Find the angle between the vectors i 2 j 3k and 3i 2 j k
Solution
Let a i 2 j 3k , a 14
b 3i 2 j k , b 14
From a b a b cosT
§ a b ·
T cos1 ¨¨ ¸.......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
¸
© a b ¹
§ 1 · § 3 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 10.......... .......... .......... .(ii)
¨ 3 ¸ ¨ 1 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
ab 14 14 14.......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
§ 10 ·
T cos1 ¨ ¸ 44$ 24c
© 14 ¹
? The angle between ve ctors is 44$ 24c
99
Alternative
Let a i 2 j 3k , a 14
b 3i 2 j k , b 14
From a u b a b sinT
§ aub ·
T sin 1 ¨¨ ¸.......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
© a b ¸¹
i j k
aub 1 2 3 4i 8 j 4k
3 2 1
aub 4i 8 j 4k 96.......... .......... ........( ii)
ab 14 14 14.......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
§ 96 ·
T sin 1 ¨¨ ¸ 44$ 24c
¸
© 14 ¹
Example 24
Show that the vectors 2i 3 j 6k , 3i 6 j 2k and 6i 2 j 3k are mutually
perpendicular
Solution
Let a 2i 3 j 6k , b 3i 6 j 2k and c 6i 2 j 3k
If the given vectors are mutually perpendicular a b bc 0
§ 2· § 3 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 3 ¸ ¨ 6 ¸ 6 18 12 0
¨6¸ ¨ 2 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
§ 3 · § 6 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
b c ¨ 6 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 18 12 6 0
¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 3¸
© ¹ © ¹
Since a b b c 0
?The vectors are mutually perpendicular
100
Example 25
* & *
If a* 5i j 3k and b i 3 j 5k then show that the vectors a b and
& *
a b are perpendicular
Solution
a b 5i j 3k i 3 j 5k 6i 2 j 8k
a b 5i j 3k i 3 j 5k 4i 4 j 2k
If a b and a b are perpendicular T 90$ then a b a b 0
§ 6 · § 4 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b a b ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 4 ¸ 24 8 16 0
¨ 8¸ ¨ 2 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
? The vectors a b and a b are perpendicular
Example 26
* * *
If a* 2i 2 j 3k , b i 2 j k and c* 3i j and such that a Ob is
*
perpendicular to c then find O .
Solution
Given that a 2i 2 j 3k , b i 2 j k and c 3i j
If a Ob is perpendicular to c mean that a Ob c 0.......... .......... .......... ....( i )
a Ob 2i 2 j 3k O i 2 j k 2 O i 2 2O j 3 O k .......... ....( ii)
§ 2 O · § 3·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a Ob c ¨ 2 2O ¸ ¨ 1 ¸ 8 O 0
¨ 3 O ¸ ¨ 0¸
© ¹ © ¹
8O 0
? The value of O 8
Example 27
If is T the angle between two point unit vectors a and b . Show that
1 §T ·
( a b) cos¨ ¸ .
2 ©2¹
Solution
101
2
ab a 2 2a b b 2
2 2
But a 2 a , b2 b and a b a b cosT
2 2
a 2 a b cosT b
2
ab but a b 1 (unit vectors)
1 2 cosT 1
2
ab
2 2 cosT
2
ab
2 1 cosT
2
ab
1
1 cosT
2
ab
2
1 2
ab 1 2 cos2 T
2 1
2
1 2
ab 2 cos2 T2
2
1 2
ab cos2 T2
4
1
? a b cos T2
2
Example 28
Two vectors a and b have the same magnitude and angle between them is
1
60 $ . If their scalar product is . Find their magnitude.
2
Solution
from a b a b cosT
1
a b cos60$ but a b
2
1
a a cos60$
2
1 1 2
a
2 2
2
a 1
a 1
? The magnitude of vectors a and b is 1
102
Exercise 2.1
1. Two vectors a and b have the same magnitude and angle between them
is 60 $ . If their scalar product is 1 . Find their magnitude
4
& &
2. If x& a& x& a& 3 , where a is a unit vector, Find x
* * *
3. If a* 2i 2 j 3k , b i 2 j k and c* 3i j and such that a mb is
*
perpendicular to c then find m .
4. Find the scalar or dot product of vectors i 2 j 3k and 2i j k .
5. Find the direction ratios of the vector a 4i j 5 j
6. Find the direction cosine of the vector
APPLICATION OF DOT PRODUCT

(a) To verify cosine rule
Consider the vector diagram below
fig 2. 26
From the figure above BC CA BA

a b c , a c - b.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
Dot by a both sides equation (i)
aa a c -b
aa c -b c -b
a a c c -b c -b c b b
2 2 2
a c - 2b c b
2 2 2
a b c - 2b c .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
2 2 2 2 2 2
But a a , b b , c c and b c b c cos A
2 2 2
a b c 2 b c cos A
2 2 2
a b c 2 b c cos A
Likewise,
2 2 2 2 2 2
b a c 2 a c cos B and c a b 2 a b cosC
103
(b) Projection of one vector into another vector
Projection of one vector into another is divided into two categories which are,
(i) Scalar projection

Consider the figure below which show projection of vector a onto vector b
fig 2. 27
a
Pr ojb
cosT a cosT .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
a
, Pr ojb
a
a b
But from dot product a b a b cosT , a cosT .......... .......(ii )
b
Equate equation (i) and equation (ii)
a a b
Pr ojb
b
a a b
Projection of vector a onto vector b , Pr ojb
b
Hence or otherwise
b a b
Projection of vector b onto vector a , Pr oja
a
Example 29
Find the scalar projection of vector a (2,3,1) in the direction of
vector b (5,2,2) .
Solution
104
Given that a 2,3,2 and b 5,2,2
a a b
From, Projb .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
b
§ 2· § 5 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 3 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 10 6 2 6.......... .......... ........( ii)
¨1¸ ¨ 2 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
b 33.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iii)
a 6
? Projb
33
(ii) Vector projection

§ a b ·§ b ·
Vector projection of a onto vector b is given by Proj b
a
¨ ¸¨ ¸
¨ b ¸¨ b ¸
© ¹© ¹
§ a b ·§ a ·
Vector projection of b onto vector a is given by Proj a
b
¨ ¸¨ ¸
¨ a ¸¨ a ¸
© ¹© ¹
Example 30
Find the vector projection of vector a (1,2,2) in the direction of
vector b (5,2,2) .
Solution
Given that a 1,2,2 int the direction b 5,2,2
§ a b ·§ b ·
Proj b ¨
a
¸¨ ¸
¨ b ¸¨ b ¸.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
© ¹© ¹
§ 1 · § 5 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 13.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
b 33.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iii)
105
a § 13 ·§ 5i 2 j 2k ·
From, Proj b ¨¨ ¸¸¨¨ ¸¸
© 33 ¹© 33 ¹
a 13
? Proj b 5i 2 j 2k
33
(c) To find the workdone

Consider the figure below
fig 2. 28
Workdone W .d Force(F ) u Displacement d .......... .......... .(i)

F
cosT , F f cosT .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
f
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
W .d f d cosT by definition f d cosT f d
Workdone f d
Note:
(i) f magnitude of force times unit vector towards its direction
(ii) d Distance times unit vector towards its direction
Example 31
Find the work done on moving a particle from a (0,1,2) to b (1,3,2) in
the direction of f (1,2,2) when applied force is 6 N .
Solution
Let f m 6 N
f 1,2,2
f 12 (2) 2 2 2 9 3
106
§ f · § i 2 j 2k ·
F f m ¨¨ ¸¸ 6¨ ¸ 2 i 2 j 2k
© f ¹ © 3 ¹
F 2i 4 j 4k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
The distance from a 0,1,2 to b 1,3,2
d b a 1,3,2 0,1,2 1,2,4
d 1,2,4 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
From, Workdone F d
§ 2 · § 1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
Workdone ¨ - 4 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 2 8 16 26 26
¨ 4 ¸ ¨ 4¸
© ¹ © ¹
? Workdone 26Joules
Example 32
A force with magnitude 5 units parallel to 2i 2 j k displaces a point from
(1,2,3) to (5,3,7) . Find the work done.
Solution
Let f m 5 units
f 2i 2 j k
f 2 2 (2) 2 12 9 3
§ f · § 2i 2 j k · 5
F f m ¨¨ ¸¸ 5¨ ¸ 2i 2 j k
© f ¹ © 3 ¹ 3
5
F 2i 2 j k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
3
The distance from 5,3,7 to 1,2,3
d 5,3,7 1,2,3 4,1,4
d 4,1,4 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
From, Workdone F d
§ 2 · § 4·
5¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 5 50
Workdone ¨ - 2¸ ¨ 1¸ 824
3¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 3 3
© 1 ¹ © 4¹
50
? Workdone Joules
3
107
Example 33
Find the work done if the force of 2i 3 j 4k is pulling a load along a distance
of 2m in the direction a 3i 2 j 2k .
Solution
Let F 2i 3 j k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
a m 2m
a 3i 2 j 2k
a 32 2 2 2 2 17
§a· § 3i 2 j 2k · 2
d am ¨¨ ¸¸ 2¨ ¸ 3i 2 j 2k
©a¹ © 17 ¹ 17
2
d 3i 2 j 2k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
17
§ 3· § 2·
2 ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 2 28
? Workdone F d ¨ 2¸ ¨ 3¸ 14 Joules
17 ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 17 17
© 2¹ © 1¹
Example 34
Find the work done on moving a particle from ( 2,2,3) to (1,0,3) in the
direction of force of 3i 6 j 2k when the applied force is 7i 4 j 4k N .
Solution
Let f m 7i 4 j 4 k 9units
f 3i 6 j 2k
f 3i 6 j 2k 7
§ f · § 3i 6 j 2k · 9
F f m ¨¨ ¸¸ 9¨ ¸ 3i 6 j 2k
f
© ¹ © 7 ¹ 7
9
F 3i 6 j 2k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
7
The distance from 2,2,3 to 1,0,3
d 1,0,3 2,2,3 1,2,6
d 1,2,6 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
§ 3 · § 1·
9¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 9 27
From, Workdone F d ¨ 6¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 3
7¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 7 7
© 2 ¹ ©6¹
27
? Workdone Joules
7
108
2.11 CROSS PRODUCT
Cross Product also known as the "vector product", a binary operation on two
vectors that results in another vector. The cross product of two vectors in 3-
space is defined as the vector perpendicular to the plane determined by the two
vectors whose magnitude is the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors
and the sine of the angle between the two vectors.
Cross product or vector product is denoted by u or /
By definition of cross product of vectors a and b is a u b a b sinT nˆ ……….(i)
where nˆ is a unit vector perpendicular to both vectors a and b , when cross vectors a and b
it leads to a vector which is perpendicular to both vectors then determine its unit vector
aub
as follow nˆ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
aub
§ aub ·
aub a b sinT ¨¨ ¸
¸
© aub ¹
Cross product formula aub a b sin T
Note:
If a a1 i b1 j c1 k and b a2 i b2 j c2 k the cross product of vectors a and
i j k
b is given by a u b a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
The angle between two vectors by using cross product formula
§ aub ·
T sin 1 ¨¨ ¸
¸
© a b ¹
PROPERTIES OF CROSS PRODUCT

(a) Cross product is not commutative i.e. a u b z b u a but a u b b u a
(b) If a and b are parallel vectors then a ub 0 since T 0 $
(c) If a and b are orthogonal vectors then a u b a b since T 90$
109
Example 35
Find the angle between the vectors i 2 j 3k and 3i 2 j k
Solution
Let a i 2 j 3k , a 14
b 3i 2 j k , b 14
From a u b a b sin T
§ a ub ·
T sin 1 ¨ ¸.......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
¨ ab ¸
© ¹
i j k
a ub 1 2 3 4i 8 j 4k
3 2 1
a ub 4i 8 j 4k 96.......... .......... ........( ii)
ab 14 14 14.......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
§ 96 ·
T sin 1 ¨¨ ¸ 44$ 24c
¸
© 14 ¹
Alternative
Let a i 2 j 3k , a 14
b 3i 2 j k , b 14
From a b a b cosT
§ a b ·
T cos1 ¨ ¸.......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
¨ ab ¸
© ¹
§ 1 · § 3 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 10.......... .......... .......... .(ii)
¨ 3 ¸ ¨ 1 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
ab 14 14 14.......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
§ 10 ·
T cos1 ¨ ¸ 44$ 24c
© 14 ¹
110
Example 36
* & & & &
If a* i 7 j 7 k and b 3i 2 j 2k find a u b and a u b .
Solution
a i 7 j 7k and b 3i 2 j 2k
i j k
a ub 1 7 7 19 j 19k
3 2 2
?a u b 19 j 19k
a ub 19 j 19k 722
? a ub 722
Example 37
Find O and P if (2i 6 j 27k ) u (i Oj Pk ) 0
Solution
2i 6 j 27k u i Oj Pk 0
i j k
2 6 27 i 6P 27O j 2P 27 k 2O 6 0
1 O P
Equate and solve for O and P
6P 27O 0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
2P 27 0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
2O 6 0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
27
? O 3 and P
2
Example 38
& & & & & &
Show that (a b ) u (a b ) 2(a u b )
Solution
a b u a b 2 a ub
Consider L.H.S
a b u a b a u a a ub b ua b ub
But a u a 0, b u b 0 and b u a a ub
a b u a b a ub a ub
? a b u a b 2 a ub
111
Example 39
Find a vector and unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors
* *
a 3i 2 j 2k and b i 2 j 2k
Solution
Given that a 3i 2 j 2k and b i 2 j 2k
When we cross vectors a and b the resulting vector is perpendicular to both vectors a and b
i j k
a ub 3 2 2 8i 8 j 4k
1 2 2
? Vector 8i 8 j 4k is perpendicular to both vectors a and b
Let c 8i 8 j 4k
c 1 1
cˆ 8i 8 j 4k 2i 2 j k
c 12 3
1
? The unit vector is 2i 2 j k
3
Example 40
* * * *
Find a vector and unit vector perpendicular to both vectors a b and a b
*
where a* 3i 2 j 2k and b i 2 j 2k
Solution
a b 4i 4 j.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
a b 2i 4k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
When we cross vectors a b and a b the resulting vector is perpendicular
to both vectors a b and a b
i j k
a b u a b 4 4 0 16i 16 j 8k
2 0 4
? Vector 16i 16 j 8k is perpendicular to both vectors a b and a b
16i 16 j 8k 16i 16 j 8k 1
The unit vector of 16i 16 j 8k is 2i 2 j k
16i 16 j 8k 24 3
1
? The unit vector is 2i 2 j k
3
112
APPLICATION OF CROSS PRODUCT
(a) To verify sine rule

Consider the vector diagram below
fig 2. 29
From the figure above BC CA BA, a b c.......... .......... ......( i )

Cross by a both sides of equation (i)
au a b auc
a u a a u b a u c but a u a 0 (parallel vectors T 0 $ )
a u b a u c.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
Also cross by b both sides of equation (i)
bu a b buc
b u a b u b b u c but b u b 0 (parallel vectors T 0 $ )
b u a b u c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......(iii)
From equation (iii) b u a b u c since b u a a u b
aub buc , aub buc
a u b c u b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....(iv)
Equate equation (ii) and equation (iv)
aub auc cub
aub auc c u b but a u b a b sin C , a u c a c sin B, c u b c b sin A
a b sin C a c sin B c b sin A divide by a b c to each term
a b sin C a c sin B c b sin A
abc abc abc
sin C sin B sin A
c b a
Sine Rule sin A sin B sin C

a b c
113
(b) To find area of a triangle
Consider the diagram below
fig 2. 30
Area 1
2 baseu height
Area 1
2 AB h.......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
h
sinT , h AC sinT .......... .......... ........( ii)
AC
Area 1
2 AB AC sinT
1
Area AB u AC where AB OB - OA and AC OC OA
2
Example 41
Find the area of a triangle with vertices A(1,1,2) , B (2,3,5) and C (1,5,5)
Solution
Given that A 1,1,2 , B 2,3,5 and C 1,5,5
1
Area of triangle AB u AC .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
2
AB OB OA 2,3,5 1,1,2 1,2,3 .......... .......... (ii)
AC OC OA 1,5,5 1,1,2 0,4,3 .......... .........( iii)
i j k
AB u AC 1 2 3 6i 3 j 4k .......... .......... .....( iv)
0 4 3
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (i)
1 1
Area of triangle 6i 3 j 4k 61
2 2
1
? Area of triangle 61 sq.units
2
114
(c) To find area of a parallelogram
Consider the figure below
fig 2. 31
Area base u height

Area AB h.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( i )
h
sinT , h AD sinT .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
AD
Area AB AD sinT
Area AB u AD
Area AB u AD
Example 42
Find the area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are 2i 4 j 5k and
i 2 j 3k .
Solution
Area of parallelogram a u b .......... .......... .......... (i )
i j k
a ub 2 4 5 22i 11 j.......... .......... .......( ii)
1 2 3
115
Area of parallelogram 22i 11 j 222 112 605
? Area of parallelogram 605 sq.unit
2.12 COLLINEAR VECTORS

Collinear vectors are vectors which lie on the same line
fig 2. 32
a, b and c are collinear vectors since they lie on the same line
Condition for collinear vectors a u b 0 or a O b
Example 43
Show that vectors 2i 3 j 4k and 4i 6 j 8k are collinear.
Solution
If a and b are collinear b Oa where O
a 2i 3 j 4k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
b 4i 6 j 8k 2 2i 3 j 4k .......... .......... .......( ii)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
b 2a where O 2
116
Alternative
If a and b are collinear a u b 0
i j k
a ub 2 3 4 0
4 6 8
a ub 0
Alternative
a 2i 3 j 4k , a 29
b 4i 6 j 8k , b 116
If a and b are collinear the angle between them is 0$ or 180$
From, a b a b cosT
§ a b ·
T cos1 ¨ ¸.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
äb ¸
© ¹
§ 2 · § 4·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b ¨ 3 ¸ ¨ 6 ¸ 58.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
¨ 4 ¸ ¨ 8¸
© ¹ © ¹
ab 29 116 58.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iii)
§ 58 ·
T cos1 ¨ ¸
© 58 ¹
T cos1 1 180$
? The two given vect ors are collinear
117
2.13 LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS
Suppose vectors a, b and c are three vectors with D , E and J as scalars so as to
resolve the vectors, let d be linear combination of vectors a, b and c
i.e. d D a E b J c
Example 44
Express the vector r 10i 3 j k as a linear combination of a , b and c such
that a 2i j 3k , b 3i 2 j 4k and c i 3 j 2k .
Solution
Given that r 10i 3 j k , a 2i j 3k , b 3i 2 j 4k and c i 3 j 2k
From, r Da Eb Jc
10i 3 j k D 2i j 3k E 3i 2 j 4k J i 3 j 2k
Equate
10 2D 3E J
°
® 3 D 2E 3J
° 1 3D 4E 2J
¯
Solve simulteneously
D 1, E 2 and J 2
From r a 2b 2c
r a 2b 2c
? r 2i j 3k 2 3i 2 j 4k 2 i 3 j 2k
2.14 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT (BOX PRODUCT)
Consider vectors a x1i y1 j z1k , b x2 i y 2 j z 2 k , and c x3 i y 3 j z 3 k .

The vectors are said to be scalar triple product if and only if a b u c or a u b c
x1 y1 z1
Alternative way of computing triple product is x2 y2 z2
x3 y3 z3
118
Example 45
Find the scalar triple product of vectors i 2 j 3k , i j k and i j k .
Solution
a i 2 j 3k , b i j k and c i j k
From a b u c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( i )
i j k
b uc 1 1 1 2i 2 j.......... .......... .........( ii)
1 1 1
§ 1· § 2·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b u c ¨ 2¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 2 4 0 2
¨ 3¸ ¨ 0 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
? The scalar triple product is 2
Alternative
a i 2 j 3k , b i j k and c i jk
From a u b c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
i j k
a ub 1 2 3 5i 4 j k .......... .......... .........( ii)
1 1 1
§ 5 · § 1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a ub c ¨ 4 ¸ ¨ 1¸ 5 4 1 2
¨ 1 ¸ ¨ 1¸
© ¹ © ¹
Alternative
a i 2 j 3k , b i j k and c i jk
1 2 3
Scalar triple product -1 -1 1 2
1 1 1
119
2.15 COPLANAR
Consider vectors a x1i y1 j z1k , b x2 i y 2 j z 2 k , and c x3 i y 3 j z 3 k .
The vectors are said to be coplanar if and only if a b u c 0 or a u b c 0
x1 y1 z1
Alternative way to find coplanar vector is x2 y2 z2 0
x3 y3 z3
Example 46
Find O if the vector i j 2k , Oi j k and 3i 2 j k are coplanar.
Solution
Let a i j 2k , b Oi j k and c 3i 2 j k
From a b u c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
i j k
b uc O 1 1 3i O 3 j 2O 3 k .......... .......... .........( ii)
3 2 1
§1· § 3 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a b uc ¨ 1 ¸ ¨ O 3 ¸ 12 3O 0
¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 2O 3 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
12 3O 0
? The value of O is 4
Alternative
From a u b c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
i j k
a ub 1 1 2 3i 1 2O j 1 O k .......... .......... .........( ii)
O 1 1
§ 3 · § 3 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
a ub c ¨ 1 2O ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 12 3O 0
¨ 1 O ¸ ¨ 1 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
12 3O 0
120
Alternative
1 1 2
Coplanar O -1 1 12 3O 0
3 2 1
12 3O 0
2.16 DERIVATIVE AND INTEGRATION OF VECTORS
Vectors can be integrated or differentiated with respect to its variable.
Example 47
If w 3t i cos2t j , find;
2
dw
(a)
dt
dw
(b)
dt
d2w
(c)
dt 2
Solution
Given that w 3t 2 i cos 2t j
dw
(a) 6t i 2 sin 2t j
dt
dw 2 2
(b) 6t 2 sin 2t 36t 2 4 sin 2 2t
dt
d 2w
(c ) 6i 4 cos 2t j
dt 2
121
Example 48
If r 3t i 2t 2 j t 3 k , find;
dr
(a)
dt
d2r
(b)
dt 2
Solution
Given that r 3t i 2t 2 j t 3 k
dr
(a) 3i 4tj 3t 2 k
dt
d 2r
(b) 2 4 j 6tk
dt
Example 49
Given B te t i cost j , find;
dB
(a)
dt
d 2B
(b)
dt 2
Solution
Given that B te t i cost j
dB
(a) e t te t i sin t j
dt
d 2B
(b) 2 te t 2e t i cost j
dt
Example 50
dr
If r 4t i 2t j 7k evaluate r and
2
when t 1.
dt
Solution
122
Given that r 4t 2 i 2t j 7k
When t 1 the value of r 4i 2 j 7k
dr
8t i 2 j
dt
dr
? When t 1 the value of 8i 2 j
dt
Example 51
Given r sin t i cost j , find;
(a) r
(b) r
(c) r
Solution
Given that r sin t i cost j
(a) r cost i sin t j
(b)r sin t i cost j
(c ) r sin t i cost j sin 2 t cos2 t 1
Example 52
1
If r 3t i t 2 j (1 2t )k , evaluate ³ rdt
0
Solution
Given that r 3t i t 2 j (1 2t )k
1 1
³ rdt ³ 3t i t j (1 2t )k dt
2
0 0
1 1
ª3 2 1 3 º
³ rdt «¬ 2 t i 3 t j (t t )k »¼
2
0 0
1
3 1
? ³ rdt i j 2k
0
2 3
123
Example 53
S
Given r 3sin t i cost j (2 t )k , evaluate ³
0
rdt
Solution
Given that r 3 sin t i cost j (2 t )k
S S
³ >3sin t i cost j (2 t )k @dt > 3 cost i sin t j 2t @

S
³ rdt
0 0
1 2
2t k 0
S
§ S2 ·
? ³ rdt 6i ¨¨ 2S ¸k
0 © 2 ¸¹
Example 54
Given v i 3 j k , evaluate;
1
(a) ³ vdt
0
2
(b) ³ vdt
0
Solution
Given that v i 3 j k
³ i 3 j k dt >it 3 jt kt@
1 1
(a) ³ vdt
1
0
i 3j k
0 0
³ i 3 j k dt >it 3 jt kt@
2 2
(b) ³ vdt
2
0
2i 6 j 2k
0 0
Example 55
A particle moves so that after time t its position vector r is given by
r (t ) (4t 1)i t 2 j (15 t 3 )k . Find the vector expression of its velocity and
acceleration at time t , find also speed and acceleration after 3 seconds.
Solution
124
Given that r (t ) (4t 1)i t 2 j (15 t 3 )k
The velocity and acceleration at time ' t '
dr
? 4i 2tj 3t 2 k (velocity)
dt
d 2r
? 2 2 j 6tk (acceleration)
dt
The speed and acceleration after 3 seconds

dr
? 4i 6 j 27k (velocity)
dt
d 2r
? 2 2 j 18k (acceleration)
dt
Exercise 2.3
1. If r t 2 i 2t j k evaluate d r when t 1.
dt
dr
2. If r t i t j evaluate r and
2
when t 1.
dt
dr
3. If r 3t i 2t j 5k evaluate r and
2
when t 0.
dt
1
4. Given v i j k , evaluate ³ vdt
0
2
5. Given v i 2 j 4k , evaluate ³ vdt
0
1
6. Given v 3t 2 i 8t j k , evaluate ³ vdt
0
125
2.17 REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS
Mathematics provides a language for describing quantities and the relationships
between them. Vectors are used to describe an amount and a related direction.
Anything that involves an amount and an associated direction is a potential
application of vectors. The direction and speed of a car during a collision is a
good example; the direction and distance from your house to your school or
office “as the crow flies” is another. Vectors are very useful for describing a
wide variety of very ordinary things, many of which have to do with movement,
because everything moves in a direction for a distance and over an amount of
time.
Vectors is the basic topic which helps us to make other topics in physics easier.
Kinematics has a special topic named Vector Reversal method which is the
easiest way of solving those sums.
While talking in reference day to day life vectors is used in machines which are
used to calculate speed of cricket ball while bowled. This is a great example of
usage of vectors in which just by the speed of the ball and angle at which it is
bowled we can find where it will reach.
REVISION EXERCISE 2
1. Find the values of x and y so that the vector 2i 3 j and xi yj are
equal.
2. Find the direction ratios and direction cosines of the vector a* 3i j 2k
& & & & & &
3. Find a b , if two vectors a and b are such that a 2 , b 3 and
* &
a xb 4
* & * &
4. Evaluate (3a 5b ) x (2a 7b )
5. Consider the points P and Q with position vectors OP 3i 2 j and
OQ i j . Find the position vector of a point R which divides line joining
the points P and Q in the ratio 2 :1 internally and externally respectively.
6. Show that points A(1,2,7) , B(2,6,3) and C (3,10,1) are collinear.
*
7. If a*, b , c* are unit vector such that a* b c* 0 then find
*
* * * * * *
a xb b xc c xa
* S S
8. If a unit vector a makes angle with i , with j and acute angle T
3 4
*
with k then find T and hence components of a
9. Find the area of a triangle with vertices A(1,1,2) , B (2,3,5) and C (1,5,5)
126
10. Find the area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are 2i 4 j 5k and
i 2 j 3k . Also find unit vector parallel to its diagonal.
11. If w 3t i t j and z 2t 2 i 3 j , verify the results
2
d dz dw
(a) (w z) w z
dt dt dt
d dz dw
(b) (w u z) w u uz
dt dt dt
and z (2 t )i t j 2k , find ;
2
12. If w t 3 i 7t k
(a) w z
dw
(b)
dt
dz
(c)
dt
d dz dw
(d) Show that (w z) w z
dt dt dt
13. Find the area of triangle ABC whose vertices are A(2,1,1) , B(3,2,1) and
C ( 2,4,1) .
14. Forces of magnitudes 5 and 3 units acting in the directions 6i 2 j 3k and
6i 2 j 6k respectively, act on particle which is displaced from the point
( 2, 2,1) to ( 4,3,1) . Find the work done by the forces.
15. A ball of mass 16 g moves along a curve defined by r ai bj ck
where a t 3 4t 2 , b 5t and c 2 t 4 . Find a force acting on the
body.
16. If the position vectors OA , OB and OC are defined by OA 2i j 3k ,
OB 3i 2 j 4k and OC i 3 j 2k .
(i) Find a unit vector perpendicular to both AB and BC .
(ii)Using cross product find the exact value of angle between AB and BC .
17. Find the projection of a into b such that a i 2 j 3k and b i 2 j 2k .
18. By using the concept of dot product, verify cosine rule’
19. Verify sine rule.
20. Consider a particle on which a constant force f acts. Let the particle be
given a displacement d
Show that the work done by the force is w f .d
127
21. A force with magnitude 5 units parallel to 2i 2 j k displaces a point from
(1,2,3) to (5,3,7) . Find the work done.
22. Find the work done on moving a particle from a (0,1,2) to b (1,3,2)
in the direction of F (1,2,2) when applied force is 6 N .
23. Find the work done if the fore of 2i 3 j 4k is pulling a load along a
distance of 2m in the direction a 3i 2 j 2k .
24. Find the work done on moving a particle from ( 2,2,3) to (1,0,3) in the
direction of force of 3i 6 j 2k when the applied force is
7i 4 j 4k N .
25. If a 2i 6 j 3k and b i 2 j 2k . Find the angle between a and b
using cross product.
26. Determine a unit vector perpendicular to a 2i 6 j 3k and
b 4i 3 j k .
27. The position vectors of the points A , B and C are ( 2,4,3) , (6,3,4) and
(7,5. 5) respectively. Find the angle between AB and BC , hence find
the area of a triangle ABC
28. A particle moves so that at time t its velocity is given by
v 10ti (3 6t 2 )k . Given that when t 1 the particle is at the point with
position vector j k . Find the expression for its position vector r at time
t.
d 2r
29. A particle moves so that at any time t , 2 2i tj . If r (t ) 4i 7 j and
dt
dr
2i j when t 0 . Determine r (t ) and r c(t ) when t 4.
dt
30. Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are 2i j 3k
and i 2 j k .
31. If the coordinates ( x, y , z ) of a particle that is moving in a space are
parametrically given by the equations x(t ) t 3 4t 2 2t , y (t ) t 2 4t and
z (t ) t 4 2 where t is time in seconds. Find the initial velocity of the
particle given that r (t ) x(t )i y (t ) j z (t )k , also find the acceleration of
the particle after a second.
32. If is T the angle between two point unit vectors a and b .
1 §T ·
Show that (a b) cos¨ ¸ .
2 ©2¹
33. Two vectors a and b have the same magnitude and angle between them is
1
60 $ . If their scalar product is . Find their magnitude.
2
128
34. Express the vector r 10i 3 j k as a linear combination of a , b and c
such that a 2i j 3k , b 3i 2 j 4k and c i 3 j 2k .
35. Two forces of magnitude 11N and 8 N acting on a particle with an angle at
30 $ between them, what is the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force.
36. Given the position vectors of the points L , M and N are respectively
L 2i 3 j 4k , M 5i j 2k and N 11i Oj 14k . Find;
(a) The unit vector parallel to LM
(b) The value of O if L , M and N are collinear.
(c) The position vector on LM if LQ : QM 2 : 1
37. The position vector r of a particle at mass 5kg moving in space at any
§ 65 ·
time 't ' seconds is given by r (t ) ¨ 2t 2 7t ¸i 4 j 3k .
© 8¹
(a) Verify that the acceleration of a particle is constant.
(b) Calculate;
(i)The time and distance at the particle from the origin when it is
temporally at rest.
(ii) The momentum and force of the particle at t 5 seconds.
38. Under the action of forces F1 (2i 2 j 3k ) N and F2 (i 3 j ) N a body
dr
attains a velocity (i 2tj k )m / s . If at t 0 the body was at the origin.
dt
Find the work done by the resultant force at t 4 seconds.
39. At time t , the position vector of a particle is given by
S
r (3 cos 2t )i (4 sin 2t ) j . Find its velocity and acceleration when t .
6
40. Find the direction ratios of r such that vector r is at right angles to both
3i _ 6 j 4k and 3i 2 j 2k
41. A body moves such that its position vector when at P is given by
OP (3 sin 5t )i (3 cos5t ) j where O is the origin and t is the time. Prove
that the velocity of the particle when at P is perpendicular to OP .
42. Two bodies A and B moves in a horizontal plane. A moves with
constant velocity 4i 4 j and B moves with constant acceleration of
2i 2 j . At t 0 , A is at point i 4 j while B is at point 4i j and is
moving with a velocity 2 j .
(a) Find the position vectors of A and B at time and hence show
that AB (t 2 4t 3)i (t 2 2t 3) j .
(b) Show that A and B will collide and give the time when this collision
occurs.
129
43. A particle with 200g of mass moving along a curve with the velocity
1 7 1
i j k
4t t 1 2t
(i) Find the force applied to the particle at any time t .
(ii) Find the position vector at time t where the particle is heading.
44. At time t the displacement of a particle from the origin O is given by
s >(2 sinSt )i (2 cosSt ) j @m . Prove that the particle is always 2m from O
and find the velocity and speed of the particle when t 2 seconds.
45. Given that A 2i 4 j Ok and B i 2 j 7 k determine O such that;
(a) A and B are perpendicular.
(b) A and B are collinear.
46. Given that points A , B and C have position vectors a i 2 j 2k ,
b 3i k and c i j 4k . Prove that triangle ABC is isosceles.
47. A body of mass 5 units moves following the path
v (2t 3 t )i (3t 4 t 2 8) j 12t 2 k . Find the momentum and force vectors
at any time t .
48. Let (4,0,0) , (2,6,0) and (1,4,2) be position vectors of points A , B and
C respectively,
(i) Find the cosine of an angle between BA and BC .
(ii) Find the area of a triangle ABC .
2 2
49. Prove that a b a b 4a x b
50. Two forces of magnitude 5 N and 7 N acting on a particle with an angle
of 90 $ between them, what is the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force.
130
Chapter Three
NUMERICAL METHODS
Introduction;
Numerical method is a method used to find an approximate value of a physical

quantity.
Numerical solutions of any mathematical problem has four main stages, one
leading into the next as follows,
fig 3. 1
PROPERTIES OF NUMERICAL METHODS

Numerical methods are effective if they have the following properties;
(a) Accuracy –refer to how the values are close to the true value.
(b) Precision –refer to closeness of data themselves
(c) Convergence –a method should give a convergent solution (should
approach the true value).
(d) Efficiency – is a measure of computation of work.
(e) Stability – small error in data should give small error in solution.
131
WHY DO WE NEED NUMERICAL METHODS?
We need numerical methods because of the following reasons,
1. When analytical solution is difficult to express in simple form, eg

³e
x2
dx
1
2. When analytical solution is difficult to evaluate, eg ³5 x 7
dx
3. When analytical solution is not known, eg find f ( 2.1)
x 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
f ( x) 1.02 1.09 1.99 2.3 2.9
Numerical method is divided into three categories;

(i) Errors
(ii) Numerical Approximation
(iii)Numerical Integration
3.1 ERRORS
Error is the difference between exact/actual value and measured value,
Let E - error
x actual/true value
x measured value
E x-x
132
TYPES OF ERRORS
There are two types of errors which are;
(a) Systematic errors is an error due to known cases such as reading a wrong
calibrated instrument or using wrong formula.
(b) Random errors is an error due to unknown cases such as environmental
condition i.e. temperature, winds, humidity etc.
FORMS OF ERRORS
There are three forms of errors which are;
(a) Absolute error i.e. x x
xx
(b) Relative error i.e.
x
xx
(c) Percentage error i.e. u 100%
x
SOURCES OF ERRORS
Some of sources of errors in numerical methods are;
(a) Initial source of errors is the primary source error where by extremely big
error result from use of wrong initial value/data.
(b) Truncation source of errors, this occurs when an infinite series or
successive steps of calculation is terminated.
(c) Rounding source of errors, this occurs when one fail to evaluate or compute
an exact arithmetic operation.
Example 1
An approximate value of S is given by 3.1428571 and its true value

is 3.1415926. Find the absolute and relative errors.
Solution
133
Let x 3.1415926(True value)
x 3.1428571 (Approximate value)
Absolute Error xx 3.1415926 3.1428571 0.0012645
xx 3.1415926 3.1428571 0.0012645
? Relative Error 0.0004025
x 3.1415926 3.1415926
Exercise 3.1
1. An approximate value of In 2 is given by 0.69313607 and its true value is

0.69314718. Find the absolute and relative errors.
2. An approximate value of sin 40$ is given by 0.643777777 and its true
value is 0.642787609. Find the absolute and relative errors.
3. An approximate value of 3 is given by 1.729010134 and its true value is
1.732050808. Find the absolute and relative errors.
3.2 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION
Numerical approximation consists of two parts which are;

(a) Newton’s Raphson method
(b) Secant method
(A) NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

This is a numerical method of approximation in which f ( x ) 0 given x 0 as
initial condition.
Newton’s Raphson Method involves iteration with one given initial condition.
134
Derivation of Newton’s Raphson Method
Consider the sketch below;
fig 3. 2
From the figure above, when point P converges to M, f(x n ) 0

The slope of the curve f(x n ) is given as f c(x n )
Δy f ( xn ) 0
f c(x n )
Δx xn xn1
f(x n ) f(x n ) f(x n )
f c(x n ) , x n xn1 , xn xn1
xn xn1 f c(x n ) f c(x n )
f ( xn )
Newton’s Raphson method xn1 xn
f c( xn )
Example 2
Use the Newton’s Raphson method to approximate the positions root of
x 2 x 1 0 correct to 4 decimal places. (perform 3 iterations starting with
x0 2)
Solution
135
Given that x 2 x 1 0 and x0 2
Express in function form f ( x) x 2 x 1 while f ( x) 0
Re - write the function in general form then differentiate
2
f ( xn ) xn xn 1
f c( xn ) 2 xn 1
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson method xn 1 xn
f c( xn )
2 2
x xn 1 xn 1
xn 1 xn n
2 xn 1 2 xn 1
2
xn 1
Now, xn 1
2 xn 1
2
x0 1 (2) 2 1
When n 0, x1 | 1.6667
2 x0 1 2(2) 1
2
x1 1 (1.6667) 2 1
When n 1, x2 | 1.6190
2 x1 1 2(1.6667) 1
2
x2 1 (1.6190) 2 1
When n 2, x3 | 1.6180
2 x2 1 2(1.6190) 1
? The approximate root of the equation after performing three iteration
by using Newton' s Raphson method is 1.6180
Example 3
Verify that the equation x 2 2 x 1 0 has a root lying between x 2 and
x 3 . Apply the method of Newton-Raphson in four iterations to obtain an
approximation of the roots.
Solution
Given that x 2 2 x 1 0
Express in function form f ( x) x 2 2 x 1 while f ( x) 0
2
f ( xn ) xn 2 xn 1
136
If the given equation has root between the given initial values, the values must
satisfy location theorem f ( xn ) f ( xn1 ) 0. Let xn 2, xn1 3
2
f ( xn ) xn 2 xn 1, f 2) 2 2 2(2) 1 1
2
f ( xn1 ) xn1 2 xn1 1, f (3) 32 2(3) 1 2
Therefore, f (2) f (3) 1u 2 2 0
?Since f ( xn ) f ( xn1 ) 0 , x 2 2 x 1 0 has a root lying between x 2 and x 3
By using Newton' s Raphson method determine the root of x 2 2 x 1 0

2
f ( xn ) xn 2 xn 1
f c( xn ) 2 xn 2
When the initial values are two take either one, but for easier converging of roots
23
take the average of the given valu es, x0 2.5
2
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson method formula xn1 xn
f c( xn )
2 2
xn 2 xn 1 xn 1
xn 1 xn
2 xn 2 2 xn 2
2
xn 1
Now, xn 1
2 xn 2
2
x0 1 (2.5) 2 1
When n 0, x1 | 2.4167
2 x0 2 2(2.5) 2
2
x0 1 (2.4167) 2 1
When n 1, x2 | 2.4142
2 x0 2 2(2.4167) 2
2
x0 1 (2.4142) 2 1
When n 2, x3 | 2.4142
2 x0 2 2(2.4142) 2
2
x0 1 (2.4142) 2 1
When n 3, x4 | 2.4142
2 x0 2 2(2.4142) 2
? The approximate root of the equation after performing 4 iteration
137
Example 4
Show that the equation e x 3 x has a root in the interval >0,1@ also find the
root correct to two decimal places in three iterations by using Newton’s
Raphson method.
Solution
Given that e x 3 x, e x x 3 0, f ( x) e x x 3
f ( xn ) e x n xn 3
If the given equation has root between the given initial values, the values must
satisfy location theorem f ( xn ) f ( xn 1 ) 0. Let xn 0, xn 1 1
f ( xn ) e xn xn 3, f 0) e0 0 3 2
f ( xn 1 ) e xn1
xn 1 3, f 1) e 1 3 | 0.7183
1
Therefore, f (0) f (1) 2 u 0.7183 | 1.4366 0

? Since f ( xn ) f ( xn 1 ) 0 , e x 3 x has a root in the interval >0,1@
By using Newton' s Raphson method determine the root of e x x 3 0

f ( xn ) e xn x n 3
f c( xn ) e xn 1
When the initial values are two take either one, but for easier converging of roots
0 1
take the average of the given valu es, x0 0.5
2
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson method formula xn1 xn
f c( xn )
e xn xn 3
Now, xn1 xn
e xn 1
e x0 x0 3 e 0.5 0.5 3
When n 0, x1 x0 0 .5 | 0.8214
e x0 1 e 0.5 1
e x1 x1 3 e 0.8214 0.8214 3
When n 1, x2 x1 0. 8214 | 0.7924
e x1 1 e 0.8214 1
e x2 x 2 3 e 0.7924 0.7924 3
When n 2, x3 x2 x 0 | 0.7921
e x2 1 e 0.7924 1
? The approximat e root of the equation after performing 3 iteration
138
Example 5
S
By using Newton’s Raphson formula with xo , find the next approximation
2
of 10cos x x 0 , (leave S as S )
Solution
S
Given that 10 cos x x 0 and x0
2
Express in function form f ( x) 10 cos x x while f ( x) 0
f ( xn ) 10 cos xn xn
f c( xn ) 10 sin xn 1
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson method xn1 xn
f c( xn )
10 cos xn xn 10 cos xn xn
xn1 xn xn
10 sin xn 1 10 sin xn 1
10 cos xn xn
Now, xn1 xn
10 sin xn 1
§S · S S
10 cos¨ ¸ 0
10 cos x0 x0 S ©2¹ 2 S 2 5S
When n 0, x1 x0
10 sin x0 1 2 §S · 2 10 1 11
10 sin¨ ¸ 1
©2¹
5S
? The next approximat ion is
11
Example 6
2
Use Newton’s method to estimates the point of intersection of y e x and
y x using three iterations only, take x0 0.5
Solution
2
At point of intersection the curves share the same coordinates which means e x x
2
e x x 0, since f ( x) 0
2 2 2
f ( x) e x x, in general f ( xn ) e xn xn and f c( xn ) 2 xn e xn 1
f ( xn )
By using Newton' s Raphson method xn 1 xn where x0 0.5
f c( xn )
2
e x n xn
xn 1 xn 2
2 xn e x n 1
139
2 2
e x0 x0 e ( 0.5) 0.5
When n 0, x1 x0 2 0.5 2 | 0.6567
2 x0 e x0 1 2(0.5)e ( 0.5) 1
2 2
e x1 x1 e ( 0.6567) 0.6567
When n 1, x2 x1 2 0.6567 2 | 0.6529
2 x1e x1 1 2(0.6567)e ( 0.6567) 1
2 2
e x2 x 2 e ( 0.6529) 0.6529
When n 2, x3 x2 2 0.6529 2 | 0.6529
2 x 2 e x2 1 2(0.6529)e ( 0.6529) 1
2
The approximat e value of x | 0.6529 and y e x or y x
since x y | 0.6529
? The approximat e point of intersection is ( x, y ) | (0.6529,0.6529)
APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

Newton’s Raphson Method is used to find;
(a) Square roots of a number ( N )
3
(b) Cube roots of a number ( N )
1
(c) Reciprocal of a number ( )
N
r
(d) r th roots of a number ( N )
(a) Square roots of a number ( N )
Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find square roots of a number

Let x N
2
x N
x N2
0 But f(x) 0
2
f(x) x N write this in general f(xn ) xn N .......... .......... ......( i )
2
Differentiate equation (i) f c(x n ) 2 xn .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)

f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson Method xn 1 xn
f c( xn )
140
2
x N
xn1 xn n
2 xn
1§ N·
2 2 2
2 xn xn N xn N
xn1 ¨¨ xn ¸¸
2 xn 2 xn 2© xn ¹
1§ N·
Formula used to find square root of a number xn 1 ¨¨ xn ¸¸
2© xn ¹
Example 7
Find the square root of 7 given that x0 2 perform three iteration only.
Solution
Required 7
1§ N·
From xn1 ¨¨ xn ¸¸, N 7 and x0 2
2© xn ¹
1§ 7 · 1§ 7·
When n 0, x1 ¨¨ x0 ¸¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 2.75
2© x0 ¹ 2 © 2¹
1§ 7 · 1§ 7 ·
When n 1, x2 ¨¨ x1 ¸¸ ¨ 2.75 ¸ 2.6477
2© x1 ¹ 2 © 2.75 ¹
1§ 7 · 1§ 7 ·
When n 2, x3 ¨¨ x2 ¸¸ ¨ 2.6477 ¸ 2.6458
2© x2 ¹ 2 © 2.6477 ¹
? The approximat e square root of 7 is 2.6458
Example 8
Find the square root of 10 starting with x0 1 perform five iteration only.
Solution
Required 10
1§ N·
From xn 1 ¨¨ xn ¸¸, N 10 and x0 1
2© xn ¹
1§ 10 · 1 § 10 ·
When n 0, x1 ¨¨ x0 ¸¸ ¨1 ¸ 5.5
2© x0 ¹ 2 © 1¹
141
1§ 7 · 1§ 7 ·
When n 1, x2 ¨¨ x1 ¸¸ ¨ 5.5 ¸ 3.6591
2© x1 ¹ 2 © 5.5 ¹
1§ 7 · 1§ 7 ·
When n 2, x3 ¨¨ x2 ¸¸ ¨ 3.6591 ¸ 3.1960
2© x2 ¹ 2 © 3.6591¹
1§ 7 · 1§ 7 ·
When n 3, x4 ¨¨ x3 ¸¸ ¨ 3.1960 ¸ 3.1625
2© x3 ¹ 2 © 3.1960 ¹
1§ 7 · 1§ 7 ·
When n 4, x5 ¨¨ x4 ¸¸ ¨ 3.1625 ¸ 3.1623
2© x4 ¹ 2 © 3.1625 ¹
? The approximate square root of 10 is 3.1623
3
(b) Cube roots of a number ( N )
Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find cube roots of a number
3
Let x N
3
x N
x N3
0 But f(x) 0
3
f(x) x 3 N write this in general f(x n ) x n N .......... .......... ......( i )
f c(x n ) 3x n .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
2
Differentiate equation (i)
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson Method x n 1 xn
f c( x n )
3
xn N
x n 1 xn 2
3x n
1 §¨ ·
3 3 3
3x n x n N 2xn N N
x n 1 2 xn 2 ¸
3x n
2
3x n
2
3© ¨ xn ¸
¹
1§ N ·
Formula used to find cube root of a number xn 1 ¨ 2 xn 2 ¸
3 ¨© xn ¸¹
142
Example 9
Find the cube root of 71 given that x0 3.6 perform three iteration only.
Solution
Required 3 71
1 §¨ N ·¸
From xn1 2 x , N 71 and x0 3.6
3 ¨© xn ¸¹
n 2
1 §¨ 71 ·¸ 1 § 71 ·
When n 0, x1 2 x ¨¨ 2(3.6) ¸ | 4.2261
¨ 2 ¸
(3.6) 2 ¸¹
0
3© x0 ¹ 3 ©
1 §¨ 71 ·¸ 1 § 71 ·
When n 1, x2 ¨ 2 x1 2 ¸
¨¨ 2(4.2261) ¸ | 4.1425
2 ¸
3© x1 ¹ 3 © (4.2261) ¹
1 §¨ 71 ·¸ 1 § 71 ·
When n 2, x3 ¨ 2 x 2 2 ¸
¨¨ 2(4.1425) ¸ | 4.1408
2 ¸
3© x2 ¹ 3 © (4.1425) ¹
? The approximate cube root of 71 is 4.1408
1
(c) Reciprocal of a number ( )
N
Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find reciprocalof a number
1 1
Let x , N
N x
1
N
x
1
N 0 But f(x) 0
x
1 1
f(x) N write this in general f(xn ) N .......... .......... ......( i )
x xn
1
Differentiate equation (i) f c(x n ) 2
.......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
xn
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson Method xn 1 xn
f c( xn )
1
xn N
xn1 xn
1
xn 2
143
2§ 1 ·
xn1 xn xn ¨¨ N ¸¸
© xn ¹
2
xn1 xn xn Nx n
2
Formula used to find reciprocal of a number xn1 2 xn Nxn
Example 10
Find the reciprocal of 3 starting with x0 0.28 `perform at least three iteration.
Solution
Required 31
2
From xn1 2 xn Nx n , N 3 and x0 0.28
2
When n 0, x1 2 x0 3 x0 2(0.28) 3(0.28) 2 0.3248
2
When n 1, x2 2 x1 3x1 2(0.3248) 3(0.3248) 2 | 0.3331
2
When n 2, x3 2 x2 3 x2 2(0.3331) 3(0.3331) 2 | 0.3333
? The approximate reciprocalof 3 is 0.3333
(d) r th roots of a number ( r N )

Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find cube roots of a number
r
Let x N
r
x N
x Nr
0 But f(x) 0
r
f(x) x N write this in general f(x n )
r
x n N .......... .......... ......( i )
r 1
Differentiate equation (i) f c(x n ) rxn .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson Method x n 1 xn
f c( x n )
r
xn N
x n 1 xn r 1
rxn
r r r
rxn x n N (r 1) x n N
x n 1 r 1 r 1
rxn rxn
r
(r 1) x n N
Formula used to find r th roots of a number
x n 1 r 1
rxn
144
Example 11
Find the 5 th root of 99 starting with x0 2 perform at least 3 iteration.
Solution
5
Required 99
r
(r 1) xn N
From xn 1 r 1
, N 99, r 5 and x0 2
rxn
5 5
(5 1) xn 99 4 xn 99
Now, xn1 51 4
5 xn 5 xn
5
4 x0 99 4(2) 5 99
When n 0, x1 4
2.8375
5 x0 5(2) 4
5
4 x1 99 4(2.8375) 5 99
When n 1, x2 4
| 2.5754
5 x1 5(2.8375) 4
5
4 x2 99 4(2.5754) 5 99
When n 2, x3 4
| 2.5104
5 x2 5(2.5754) 4
5
4 x3 99 4(2.5104) 5 99
When n 3, x4 4
| 2.5069
5 x3 5(2.5104) 4
5
4 x4 99 4(2.5069) 5 99
When n 4, x5 4
| 2.5068
5 x4 5(2.5069) 4
? The approximate 5 th root of 99 is 2.5068
ADVANTAGES OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD
(i) It require only one initial condition

(ii) It’s very strong method
(iii) It converges rapidly
(iv) It does not need to check whether the sequence is converging or diverging
DISADVANTAGES OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

(i) It’s difficult when the gradient of the function is undefined
(ii) The slope of the curve should not be equal to zero
(iii) It’s single step method
145
Exercise 3.2
1. The equation 5x cos x has a root near x 0.5 , solve this equation by
Newton’s Raphson method perform 4 iteration giving your answer correct
to 3 significant figures.
2. Show that the Newton’s Raphson formula of finding the roots of the
2
(24xn 4) xn 4
equation 12 x 3 4 x 2 15x 4 0 is xn1 and use this
(36xn 8) xn 15
formula to find the roots of 12 x 3 4 x 2 15x 4 0 correct to 3 decimal
places.
3. Use the Newton’s Raphson method to approximate the root of

e x (1 x ) 2 correct to four decimal places by performing three iterations
only (Use x0 0.1 ).
4. Show that the Newton’s Raphson formula for approximating the roots of
2
xn 1
x2 x 1 0 is xn 1 starting with x0 2 use the formula to find
2 xn 1
x1 , x 2 and x3 correct to four decimal places.
5. Newton’s Raphson method is an iteration method for showing equations

f ( x ) 0 where f is differentiable, what are the limitations of using this
method.
146
(B) SECANT METHOD
This is a numerical method of approximation of f ( x ) 0 given two initial

conditions. This is called multistep method because it involves two initial
conditions.
fig 3. 3
From the figure above, assume points P and N are two initial conditions converging to M
Here we have two possibilities either, slope NP slope MP or slope NP slope NM
consider slope NP slope MP
f ( xn1 ) f ( xn ) f ( xn1 ) 0
xn1 xn xn1 xn 2
xn1 xn 2 f ( xn1 ) f ( xn ) xn1 xn f ( xn1 )
xn1 xn f ( xn1 )
xn1 xn 2
f ( xn1 ) f ( xn )
Secant method formula § xn1 xn ·

xn 2 xn1 ¨¨ ¸¸ f ( xn1 )
© f ( xn1 ) f ( xn ) ¹
147
Alternative Derivation
consider slope NP slope NM

f ( xn1 ) f ( xn ) 0 f ( xn )
xn1 xn xn 2 xn
xn 2 xn f ( xn1 ) f ( xn ) xn1 xn f ( xn )
xn1 xn
xn 2 xn f ( xn )
f ( xn1 ) f ( xn )
§ xn1 xn ·
xn 2 xn ¨¨ ¸¸ f ( xn )
© f ( xn1 ) f ( xn ) ¹
NB: All the above formula are applicable and all formula give the desired
approximate solutions.
Example 12
The equation x 3 3 x 20 0 has a single real root inside the interval

>3,4@ approximate the root in four iterations using the Secant formula obtained.
Solution
Given that x 3 3x 20 0 where x0 3 and x1 4

3 3
In general f ( xn ) xn 3 xn 20 and f ( xn 1 ) xn 1 3 xn 1 20
xn 1 xn
From Secant method xn 2 xn 1 f xn 1
f ( xn 1 ) f ( xn )
xn 1 xn 3
Now, xn 2 xn 1 3 3
xn 1 3 xn 1 20
x n 1 3xn 1 20 xn 3 xn 20
x1 x0 3
When n 0, x2 x1 3 3
x1 3x1 20
x 3x1 20 x0 3x0 20
1
43
x2 4 (4) 3 3(4) 20 | 3.0588
(4) 3(4) 20 (3) 3(3) 20
3 3
148
x2 x1 3
When n 1, x3 x2 3 3
x2 3x2 20
x2 3x2 20 x1 3x1 20
x3 3.0588
>
3.0588 4 (3.0588) 3 3(3.0588) 20
| 3.0749
@
(3.0588) 3 3(3.0588) 20 (4) 3 3(4) 20
x3 x2 3
When n 2, x4 x3 3 3
x3 3x3 20
x3 3x3 20 x2 3x2 20
x4 3.0749
>
3.0749 3.0588 (3.0749) 3 3(3.0749) 20 @
| 3.0809
(3.0749) 3 3(3.0749) 20 (3.0588) 3 3(3.0588) 20
x4 x3 3
When n 3, x5 x4 3 3
x4 3x4 20
x4 3x4 20 x3 3x3 20
x5 3.0809
>
3.0809 3.0749 (3.0809) 3 3(3.0809) 20 @
| 3.0809
(3.0809) 3 3(3.0809) 20 (3.0749) 3 3(3.0749) 20
? The approximate root of the equation in the given interval is 3.0809
Alternative Method
Given that x 3 3 x 20 0 where x0 3 and x1 4

3 3
In general f ( xn ) xn 3 xn 20 and f ( xn 1 ) xn 1 3 xn 1 20
xn 1 xn
From Secant method xn 2 xn f xn
f ( xn 1 ) f ( xn )
xn 1 xn 3
Now, xn 2 xn 3 3
xn 3 xn 20
x n 1 3 xn 1 20 xn 3 xn 20
x1 x0 3
When n 0, x2 x0 3 3
x0 3 x0 20
x 3 x1 20 x0 3 x0 20
1
43
x2 3 (3) 3 3(3) 20 | 3.0588
(4) 3(4) 20 (3) 3(3) 20
3 3
x2 x1 3
When n 1, x3 x2 3 3
x2 3x2 20
x2 3x2 20 x1 3x1 20
x3 4
>
3.0588 4 (4) 3 3(4) 20 @
| 3.0749
(3.0588) 3 3(3.0588) 20 (4) 3 3(4) 20
149
x3 x2 3
When n 2, x4 x3 3 3
x3 3x3 20
x3 3x3 20 x2 3x2 20
x4 3.0588
>
3.0749 3.0588 (3.0588)3 3(3.0588) 20 @ | 3.0809
(3.0749)3 3(3.0749) 20 (3.0588)3 3(3.0588) 20
x4 x3 3
When n 3, x5 x4 3 3
x4 3x4 20
x4 3x4 20 x3 3x3 20
x5 3.0749
>
3.0809 3.0749 (3.0749) 3 3(3.0749) 20@ | 3.0809
(3.0809) 3 3(3.0809) 20 (3.0749) 3 3(3.0749) 20
? The approximate root of the equation in the given interval is 3.0809
Example 13
Use Newton’s Raphson formula to derived Secant method formula.
Solution
Consider the figure below;
150
f xn
From Newton' s Raphson Formula xn2 xn .......... ....( i )
f c xn
f xn1 f xn
f c xn .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
xn1 xn
f xn xn1 xn
xn 2 x n
f xn1 f xn
§ xn1 xn ·
? xn 2 xn ¨¨ ¸¸ f xn
© f xn1 f xn ¹
ADVANTAGES OF SECANT METHOD

(i) It does not require differentiation of a function
(ii) It require only one function to evaluate per iteration
DISADVANTAGES OF SECANT METHOD

(i) It involves tedious formula
(ii) It may not converge if the initial points are not close to each other
(iii) It’s multistep method, i.e. it require two initial points.
CONDITION FOR A FUNCTION TO HAVE A ROOT BETWEEN TWO

GIVEN INITIAL ROOTS.
A function is said to have a root between the given two initial roots if and only
if the location theorem is satisfied.
Let x n and x n1 be two initial roots of a function, if there is a root between the given
roots/conditions then f ( x n ) f ( x n 1 ) 0
151
3.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
Numerical integration are numerical methods which use the concepts defined
integral to find an approximate values of an integrand.
Numerical integration is divided into two parts

(a) Trapezium (Trapezoidal) rule/method.
(b) Simpson’s rule
(A) TRAPEZIUM (TRAPEZOIDAL) RULE/METHOD
Trapezium (Trapezoidal) rule/method is one of the numerical method used to

approximate the area of the curve.
Consider the sketch below to determine the Trapezoidal Rule,
fig 3. 4
b
From the sketch above, the area of a curve from " a" to " b" analytically is given by ³ f ( x)dx,
a
But numerically the area of a curve from " a" to " b" can be estimated by dividing the curve
from " a" to " b" into " n" trapeziums of the same height " h".
The area of the curve from " a" to " b" is equal to the sum of all areas of trapeziums
b
h h h h h
Area (A) ³ f ( x)dx
a
2
y0 y1 y1 y2 y2 y3 ... yn2 yn1 yn1 yn
2 2 2 2
h
Trapezoidal rule Area ( A) > y0 yn 2 y1 y2 y3 y4 ... yn 1 @
2
Shortly; Area( A)
h
2
>
First Last 2¦ middle terms @
ba
NOTE : h , n Number of strips Number of ordinate 1
n
152
Example 13
Apply Trapezoidal rule with five ordinates to obtain an approximation for the
1
1
integral ³ 1 x dx
0
Solution
ba 1 0
h 0.25
n 4
x y
1 First Last Middle
1 x
0 1 1
0.25 0.8000 0.8000
0.50 0.6667 0.6667
0.75 0.5714 0.5714
1 0.5 0.5
¦ 1.5 ¦ 2.0381
Area ( A)
h
2
>
First Last 2¦ Middle terms @
0.25
Area ( A) > 1.5 2 2.0381 @ 0.697025
2
? The approximat e area is 0.697025 sq.units
Alternative method
ba 1 0
h 0.25
n 4
x 1
y
1 x
0 1
0.25 0.8000
0.50 0.6667
0.75 0.5714
1 0.5
153
Area ( A)
h
2
>
y0 y n 2¦ y1 y 2 y n1 @
0.25
Area ( A) > 1 0.5 2 0.8 0.6667 0.5714 @ 0.697025
2
Example 14
S
Use Trapezoidal rule to find the approximating value of ³
0
sinT dT given that
the number of strips is four.

Solution
ba S 0 S
h
n 4 4
x y sin x First Last Middle
0 0 0
S
4 0.8409 0.8409
S
2 1 1
3S
4 0.8409 0.8409
S 0 0
¦ 0 ¦ 2.6818
Area ( A)
h
2
>
S
Area ( A) 4
> 0 2 2.6818 @ | 2.1063
2
Alternative method
ba S 0 S
h
n 4 4
154
x
y sin x
0 0
S
4 0.8409
S
2 1
3S
4 0.8409
S 0
Area ( A)
h
2
>
y0 y n 2¦ y1 y 2 y n1 @
S
Area ( A) 4
> 0 0 2 0.8409 1 0.8409 @ | 2.1063
2
? The approximate area is 2.1063 sq.units
(B) SIMPSON’S RULE

Simpson’s rule/method is one of the numerical method used to approximate the
area of the curve.
Consider the sketch below to determine the Simpson’s Rule
fig 3. 5
155
From the figure above points A, B and C satisfiesthe function f ( x) ax 2 bx c
At point A(h, y 0 ) satisfies y ax 2 bx c
y0 a ( h) 2 b( h) c
y0 ah 2 bh c o ah 2 y 0 bh c.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
At point B (0, y1 ) satisfies y ax 2 bx c

y1 c.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
At point C (h, y 2 ) satisfies y ax 2 bx c

y2 ah 2 bh c
ah 2 y 2 bh c.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iii)
Add equation (i) and equation (iii)

°ah 2 y 0 bh c
® 2 2ah 2 y 0 y 2 2c.......... .......... .......... ....( iv)
°̄ah y 2 bh c
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (iv)
2ah 2 y0 y 2 2 y1
2ah 2 y0 2 y1 y 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( v)
b
Area under the curve is given by ³ f ( x)dx
a
h h
ª1 1 º
Area ³ ax bx c dx « ax3 bx 2 cx »
2
h ¬3 2 ¼ h
§1 1 · § 1 1 ·
Area ¨ ah3 bh 2 ch ¸ ¨ ah3 bh 2 ch ¸
©3 2 ¹ © 3 2 ¹
2 3
Area ah 2ch
3
h
Area 2ah 2 6c but c y1
3
h
Area 2ah 2 6 y1 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( vi)
3
156
Substitute equation (v) into equation (vi)
h
Area y0 2 y1 y 2 6 y1
3
h
Area y0 4 y1 y 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (vii)
3
NOTE : Equation (vii) represent the area of the curve by considering two strips,
consider all " n" strips from " a" to " b" ,
h h h h
Area( A) y0 4 y1 y 2 y 2 4 y3 y 4 y 4 4 y5 y6 ... y n2 4 y n1 y n
3 3 3 3
h
Area( A) > y0 yn 4 y1 y2 y3 y5 ... 2 y2 y4 y6 ... @
3
Shortly, Area( A)
h
3
>First Last 4¦ Odd ordinates 2¦ Even ordinates @
ba
NOTE : h , n Number of strips Number of ordinate 1
n
Example 15
Use the most accurate method of the numerical integration to evaluate the
3
Inx 2
integral using 5 ordinates ³1 x dx
Solution
ba 3 1
h 0 .5
n 4
x Inx 2 First Last Odd Even

y
x
1 0 0
1.5 0.5406 0.5406
2.0 0.6931 0.6931
2.5 0.7330 0.7330
3 0.7324 0.7324
¦ 0.7324 ¦ 1.2736 ¦ 0.6931
157
Area ( A)
h
3
>
First Last 4¦ Odd terms 2¦ Even terms @
0.5
Area ( A) > 0.7324 4 1.2736 2 0.6931 @ | 1.2022
3
Alternative method
ba 3 1
h 0 .5
n 4
x Inx 2
y
x
1 0
1.5 0.5406
2.0 0.6931
2.5 0.7330
3 0.7324
Area ( A)
h
3
>
y0 y n 4¦ y1 y3 y n1 2¦ y 2 y 4 y n2 @
0.5
Area ( A) > 0 0.7324 4 0.5406 0.7330 2 0.6931 @ | 1.2022
3
Example 16
Use both Simpson’s and Trapezium rules with ten strips to evaluate
0 .5
approximately the value of ³0
1 0.5 sinT dT correct to four decimal places.
Solution
ba 0.5 0
h 0.05
n 10
158
T y 1 0.5sinT First Last Middle Odd Even
0 1 1
0.05 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874
0.1 0.9747 0.9747 0.9747
0.15 0.9619 0.9619 0.9619
0.2 0.9490 0.9490 0.9490
0.25 0.9361 0.9361 0.9361
0.3 0.9232 0.9232 0.9232
0.35 0.9102 0.9102 0.9102
0.4 0.8974 0.8974 0.8974
0.45 0.8846 0.8846 0.8846
0.5 0.8719 0.8719
¦ 1.8719 ¦ 8.4245 ¦ 4.6802 ¦ 3.7443
By using Simpson' s rule
Area ( A)
h
3
>First Last 4¦ Odd terms 2¦ Even terms @
0.05
Area ( A) > 1.8719 4 4.6802 2 3.7443 @ | 0.4680
3
By using Trapezoida l rule
Area ( A)
h
2
>First Last 2¦ Middle terms @
0.05
Area ( A) > 1.8719 2 8.4245 @ | 0.4680
2
159
Alternative method
ba 0.5 0
h 0.05
n 10
T y 1 0.5sinT
T0 0 y0 1
T1 0.05 y1 0.9874
T2 0.1 y2 0.9747
T 3 0.15 y3 0.9619
T4 0.2 y4 0.9490
T 5 0.25 y5 0.9361
T 6 0.3 y6 0.9232
T 7 0.35 y7 0.9102
T 8 0.4 y8 0.8974
T 9 0.45 y9 0.8846
T10 0.5 y10 0.8719
By using Simpson' s rule

h
Area ( A) > y0 y10 4 y1 y3 y5 y7 y9 2 y2 y4 y6 y8 @
3
0.05 ª 1 0.8719 4 0.9874 0.9619 0.9361 0.9102 0.8846 º
Area ( A)
3 «¬ 2 0.9747 0.9490 0.9232 0.8974 » | 0.4680
¼

h
Area ( A) > y0 y10 2 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8 y9 @
2
0.05 ª § 0.9874 0.9747 0.9619 0.9490 0.9361·º
Area ( A) « 1 0.8719 2¨¨ ¸¸» | 0.4680
2 ¬ © 0.9232 0.9102 0.8974 0.8846 ¹¼
160
Example 17
1
³ xe dx with 6 ordinates. Use both rules Simpson’s and

2
x
Approximate
0
Trapezoidal rules, hence evaluate and calculate the percentage error committed
for each case. Give comments.
Solution
ba 1 0
h 0 .2
n 5
x y xe x
2
First Last Middle Odd Even
0 0 0
0.2 0.2082 0.2082 0.2082
0.4 0.4694 0.4694 0.4694
0.8600 0.8600 0.8600
0.6
0.8 1.5172 1.5172 1.5172
1 2.7183 2.7183
¦ 2.7183 ¦ 3.0548 ¦ 1.0682 ¦ 1.9866
By Simpson's rule
Area ( A)
h
3
>
First Last 4¦ Odd 2¦ Even @
0.2
Area ( A) > 2.7183 4 1.0682 2 1.9866 @ | 0.7310
3
? The approximate area is 0.7310
Area ( A)
h
2
>
0.2
Area ( A) > 2.7183 2 3.0548 @ | 0.8828
2
? The approximate area is 0.8828
161
1
The actual value/true value of ³ xe x dx 0.85914(By using Calculator)
2
'x 0.85914 0.7310

Percentage error committedfor Simpson' s rule u100% u100% | 14.91%
x 0.85914
'x 0.85914 0.8828
Percentage error committedfor Trapezoida l rule u100% u100% | 2.75%
x 0.85914
? Trapezoida l rule it has small percentage error compared to Simpson rule, thereforeTrapezoida l rule
give better approximat ion than Simpson' s rule in this problem.
Example 18
4 S
1
Show that ³x (1 x 2 ) 1 dx hence by using Simpson’s rule find the value
2
0
4
of S correct to 4 decimal places.
Solution
>x tan x@ S 4 S
1 1 1 1 1
1 x2 § 1 · 1 1
Consider ³ x 2 1 x 2 dx ³ dx ³0 ¨©1 1 x 2 ¸¹dx ³ dx ³ dx 1
0 1
0 0
1 x2 0 0
1 x2 4 4
4 S
1
1
? ³ x 2 1 x 2 dx shown
0
4
By Simpson' s rule we need to evaluate the value of S

b a 1 0
h 0.1 (Take 10 strips)
n 10
x y f (x ) First Last Odd Even
0 0 0
0.1 0.0099 0.0099
0.2 0.0385 0.0385
0.3 0.0826 0.0826
0.4 0.1379 0.1379
0.5 0.2000 0.2000
0.6 0.2647 0.2647
0.7 0.3289 0.3289
0.8 0.3902 0.3902
0.9 0.4475 0.4475
1 0.5 0.5
¦ 0.5 ¦ 1.0689 ¦ 0.8313

162
From Simpson' s rule, Area
h
3
>
First Last 4¦ Odd 2¦ Even @
0.1
Area > 0.5 4 1.0689 2 0.8313 @ | 0.214606667| 0.21407
3
4 S
1
2 1
Therefore, ³ x 1 x
2
dx | 0.21407
0
4
4 S
Consider | 0.21407
4
4 S | 4(0.21407)
S | 4 4(0.21407) 3.14372
? The approximate value of S is 3.14372
Example 19
The velocity of a train which starts from rest is given by the following table, the
time being recorded in minutes from the start and speed in km / hour.
T(min) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
V(km/hr) 10 28.8 40 46.4 51.2 32.0 17.6 8 3.0 0
Using the Simpson’s rule to estimate the approximately total distance run in 20
minutes.
Solution
If a train started at rest T 0 ( min) and V 0 km hr
T(min) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
V(km/hr) 0 10 28.8 40 46.4 51.2 32.0 17.6 8 3.0 0
By using simpson's rule
Area
h
3
>
First Last 4¦ Odd 2¦ Even but h@ 2 min 2
60 hr
2
Area 60
> 0 0 4 10 40 51.2 17.6 3.0 2 28.8 46.4 32.0 8 @ | 7.973333333km
3
? Total distance run in 20 minutes is approximate equal to 7.97km
163
Exercise 3.3
1. Using the numerical integration methods where the interval >0,1@ is divided
1
into 4 equal parts, evaluate ³ 1 x 2
dx correct to four decimal places.
2. Using Simpson’s rule with nine ordinates to obtain the approximate value
1
1
of ³
0 1 x2
dx .
3. Use trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule with eight strips to obtain the
S
x sin x
approximate value of ³ 1 cos
0
2
x
dx .
4. Use Integral method, Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rules with eleven
2
ordinates to find the approximate values of ³ xe x dx round off your answer
0
into 5 significant figure.

4
5. Evaluate, correct to three decimal places the ³
0
9 x 2 dx using;
(a) Trapezium rule with 4 strips.

(b) Simpson’s rule taking 5 ordinates.
(c) Analytical method.
3.4 APPLICATIONS OF NUMERICAL METHODS

Numerical methods are algorithms used for computing numeric data. They are
used to provide ‘approximate’ results for the problems being dealt with and
their necessity is felt when it becomes impossible or extremely difficult to solve
a given problem analytically.
It is important to recognize under what conditions a method can be followed

and what starting value(s) to choose from in order to ensure that the chosen
method shall work(converge).
Numerical methods can be used for-
x Computing integrals and derivatives

x Solving differential equations
164
x Building models based on data, be it through interpolation, Least
Square, or other methods
x Root finding and numerical optimization
x Estimating the solution to a set of linear and nonlinear equations
x Computational geometry
x Development and computation of optimal control algorithms
x Development of high fidelity simulations to model viscous flow around
a race car to see if the wing designs generate sufficient downforce
x Machine learning algorithms, like estimating optimal weights of
parametric models using only subsets of the full dataset (like stochastic
gradient descent)
x Photorealistic renderer
x Design optimization based on simulation and multi-objective
optimization formulations
x Game Engines
x Filtering of noisy data based on an approximately expected model of the
dynamics (Kalman Filter, Particle Filter, etc.)
There are many more uses for numerical methods out there, but this will
hopefully show a range of areas to prove its uses are broad.
REVISION EXERCISE 3
1
x2 S 1
1. Show that ³0 (1 x 2 ) 2 dx 8

4
hence by using the Simpson’s rule find
the value of S correct to four decimal places.

2. Using Simpson’s rule find an approximate value of the length of the
x2
portion of the ellipse y 2 1 that lies in the first quadrant between
4
x 0 and x 1 and has equal interval between the ordinates is 0.25
3. Use Simpson’s rule with 7 ordinates to find an approximate value of
6
³ xe dx .
x
0
0 .8
³e
x2
4. Find the value of dx with 5 ordinates, using
0
(a) Trapezium rule

165
5. Apply Simpson’s rule with n 4 to obtain an approximation for the
1
1
integral ³ 1 x dx
0
1
6. By using analytical method show that ³ 1 xdx In3 from x 0 to
x 2.
x 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
f ( x) 1.0 0.833 0.714 0.625 0.5556 0.500 0.4545 0.4166
1.6 1.8 2.0
0.3846 0.3571 0.3333
From the table approximate In3 to 4 decimal places using;

(a) Trapezium rule
7. (a) Given the function f ( x) x 3 2 x 4 , show that it has real roots
which lies between x 1 and x 1.5
(b) Using the function in (a) above and taking x0 1.2 as the first
approximation of its root use the Newton’s-Raphson method to find x1 ,
x 2 and x3 giving your answer to 4 decimal places.
(c) Give a reason why you think x3 is the mostly correct answer.
8. Show that the equation e x 3 x has a root in the interval >0,1@ also find
this root correct to two decimal places in three iterations by using
Newton’s Raphson method.
9. Apply the Newton’s Raphson technique to establish the simple formula
for calculating the reciprocal of a positive real number A and use it to
1
approximate to six decimal places in three iterations starting from
13
x0 0.1
S
10. Use Simpson’s rule to find the approximating value of ³
0
sinT dT
given that n 4 .
166
11. Apply both the Trapezium rule and Simpson’s rule with n 10 to obtain
1
³e
x2
an approximation for dx , (give your answer in six decimal
0
places).
12. (a) Explain with the aid of example why the two numerical methods,
Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule are useful in evaluating definite
integrals.
(b) Using Numerical integration methods mentioned in part (a) above

and where the interval >0,1@ is divided into four equal parts evaluate
1
³ (1 x
2 1
) dx correct to four decimal places.
0
13. (a) Use Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule with eleven ordinates to
1
1
find an approximate value of ³ 2 2x
0
2
dx compare your results with the
exact values of the integral and hence state which rule is more correct
(Give your answer correct to four decimal places).
(b) (i) Derive Secant formula.
(ii)The equation x 3 3 x 20 0 has a single real root inside the
interval >3,4@ approximate the root in four iterations using the Secant
formula obtained.
14. Use the Newton’s Raphson formula with three iteration to compute the
value of 3 7 correct to 5 significant figures (Use x0 2 ).
S
4
³ cos
2
15. (a) Evaluate xdx by Simpson’s rule with five ordinates and write
0
your answer to 4 decimal places.
S
4
³ cos
2
(b) Find the actual value of xdx and compare your answer with
0
part (a) above.
16. Point R(h, y1 ) , S (0, y2 ) T (h, y3 ) lies on the parabola
f ( x) kx 2 lx m which opens upward. The lines x h , x h and
y 0 and the parabola makes a region which is symmetrical to the line
167
x 0 . Use the information given and the figure below to derive the
Simpson’s rule for approximation of area RSTUV .
17. The figure below has point P , Q and B on the quadratic curve
f ( x) ax 2 bx c . Derive the Simpson’s rule with n ordinatesto
approximate the area PQRST .
18. (a) (i) Write down four sources of error in numerical computations.
(ii) If xn 1 is a better approximation to a root of equation f ( xn ) 0 .
Derive the Newton’s-Raphson for the function f ( x n )
(b) Use the Newton’s-Rahson method obtained in (a)(ii) to derive the
Secant formula and comment why would you want to use it instead of
the Newton’s Raphson method.
(c) Using the Secant method obtained in (b) with x1 2 and x2 3
perform three iterations to approximate the root x 2 2 x 1 0 and
hence compute the absolute error correct to four decimal places.
168
19. Show that the Newton’s Raphson formula of finding the roots of the
2
(24xn 4) xn 4
equation 12 x 3 4 x 2 15x 4 0 is xn1 and use
(36xn 8) xn 15
this formula to find the roots of 12 x 3 4 x 2 15x 4 0 correct to 3
decimal places.
1
20. (a) Approximate the area under the curve y between x 3
x2
to x 5 with six ordinates by;
(i) Trapezoidal rule
(ii) Simpson’s rule
21. The velocity of a train which starts from rest is given by the following
table, the time being recorded in minutes from the start and speed in
km / hour.
T(min) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
V(km/hr) 10 28.8 40 46.4 51.2 32.0 17.6 8 3.0 0
Using the Simpson’s rule to estimate the approximately total distance

run in 20 minutes.
22. An experiment being performed produces oxygen at a continuous rate.
The rate of oxygen produced is measured each minute and the results
were recorded as shown below,
Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rate of oxygen cm 3 / mm 0 14 18 22 30 42 41 36 29 20 12
Using the Trapezium rule, estimate the total volume of oxygen produced
in 10 minutes.
23. Using the Simpson’s rule with five ordinates, find an approximate value
S
of the integral ³
0
sinT dT correct to five decimal places.
24. (a) The equation 5x cos x has a root near x 0.5 , solve this equation
by Newton’s Raphson method perform 4 iteration giving your answer
correct to 3 significant figures.
(b) Use a secant method to find the value of 3 4 starting from x 1 to
x 2 perform three iteration and give your answer correct to three
decimal places.
169
25. (a) By using five ordinates apply both Trapezoidal and Simpson’s rules
3
1
to evaluate the integral ³ 2x
1
2
x 1
dx
3
1
(b) Use the normal integral method to evaluate ³ 2x
1
2
x 1
dx then
check the absolute error for each method done in (a) above.
26. The area in cm 2 of the cross section of a model boat 28cm long at
interval of 3.5cm as follows;
0 11.5 15.3 16.3 16.2 13.4 9.3 4.9 0
27. Find the area of a region of half a wave of sinT from the axes (positive
axes) with 4 strips using;
(i) Trapezium rule
(ii) Simpson’s rule
(iii) Give a comment on your answer above.
28. The following table gives the values of x and f (x ) . Find the area
bounded by the curve y f (x) the x axis and the ordinate x 7.47
and x 7.52 using Trapezium rule.
x 7.47 7.48 7.49 7.50 7.51 7.52
f (x ) 1.93 1.95 1.98 2.01 2.03 2.06
170
Chapter Four
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Introduction
Complex number is a number which can be expressed in the form of z x iy

where x , y are real number and i is imaginary unit or iota.
Complex number is divided into two parts which are;
(i) Real part, i.e. R ( z ) x

(ii) Imaginary part, i.e. Im( z ) y
The value of imaginary unit or iota is given by i 1 o i2 1
Properties of imaginary unit or iota i n
(a) If n is even number divisible by four i n 1

(b) If n is even number not divisible by four i n 1
(c) If n is odd number greater than or equal to three i n i or in i
Example 1
Simplify the following
(a) i4 (e) i 3
(b) i 16 (f) i 5
(c) i6 (g) i 7
(d) i 10 (h) i 11
Solution
Consider the basic definition of imaginary unit i 2 1
2 2
(a) i 4 i2 1 1
8 8
(b) i 16 i2 1 1
3 3
(c) i 6 i2 1 1
171
5 5
(d) i 10 i2 1 1
(e) i3 i2 i 1 i i
2 2
(f) i 5 i2 i 1 i i
2 3 3
(g) i 7 i i 1 i i
5 5
(h) i 11 i2 i 1 i i
Exercise 4.1
Simplify the following;
(a) i 32 (d) i 21
(b) i 60 (e) i 77
(c) i 70 (f) i 101
4.1 REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ON THE ARGAND

DIAGRAM
A complex can be drawn (viewed) in the complex plane as shown below;
Consider the complex numbers z x iy , z x iy , z x iy and
z x iy
172
fig 4. 1
Example 2
Draw the argand diagram of the following complex number
(a) z 3 i 2
(b) z 4 3i
(c) z 2 4i
(d) z 2 i 3
Solution
173
Exercise 4.2
Draw the argand diagram of the following complex numbers
(a) z 5 5i
(b) z 7 i
(c) z 3 6i
(d) z 4i
(e) z 8i
(f) z 5
(g) z 2
4.2 CONJUGATE OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Conjugate of a complex number is the reflection of a complex number about the
real axis.
Conjugate of complex number is denoted by z
Consider the reflection of a complex number z x iy
fig 4. 2
The conjugate of a complex number z x iy is z x iy

Example 3
Determine the conjugate of the following complex numbers
(a) Z 3 2i
(b) Z 1 5i
(c) Z 4i
(d) Z a bi
(e) Z x iy
Solution
(a) Z 3 2i
(b) Z 1 5i
(c) Z 4i
(d) Z a bi
(e) Z x iy
174
4.3 MODULUS AND ARGUMENT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
(i) Modulus of complex numbers

Modulus is the magnitude/length of complex numbers from the origin to its
point ( x, y ) . Modulus of complex numbers is denoted by z .
Consider a complex number z x iy to its argand diagram below,
fig 4. 3
Apply Pythagoras theorem to the triangle above

2
z x2 y2
Modulus of complex numbers z x2 y2
PROPERTIES OF MODULUS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

2
(a) z zz
(b) z1 z 2 z1 z 2
z1 z1
(c)
z2 z2
Note; Prove the above properties of modulus of complex numbers.
Example 4
Determine the modulus or magnitude of the following complex numbers
(a) Z 1 i
(b) Z 3 4i
(c) Z 2i
(d) Z a bi
Solution
175
The modulus of complex number z x iy is given by z x2 y2
(a) Z 1 i
Z 12 12 2
(b) Z 3 4i
Z 32 (4) 2 5
(c ) Z 2i
Z 22 2
(d ) Z a ib
Z a2 b2
(ii) Argument of a complex number

Argument of a complex number is the angle subtended by the complex number
from positive real axis.
The argument of a complex number is denoted by Arg z or T
Consider the figure below which represent a complex number z x iy
fig 4. 4
y
tan T
x
§ y· § y·
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ Arg z tan 1 ¨ ¸
©x¹ ©x¹
Example 5
Determine the argument of the following complex numbers
(a) Z 1 i 3 (f) Z 1
(b) Z 3 i (g) Z 2 3i
(c) Z i
(d) Z 2i (h) Z 1 i
(e) Z 3 (i) Z a bi
176
Solution
§ y·
The argument of complex number z x iy is given by T tan 1 ¨ ¸
©x¹
(a) Z 1 i 3
§ y· § 3· S
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨¨ ¸ 60$
¸
©x¹ © 1 ¹ 3
(b) Z 3 i
§ y· § 1 · S
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 30$
©x¹ © 3¹ 6
(c ) Z i
§ y· §1· S
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 90$
©x¹ ©0¹ 2
(d ) Z 2i
§ y· §2· 3S
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 270
$
©x¹ © 0 ¹ 2
( e) Z 3
§ y· §0·
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 0 $
©x¹ ©3¹
( f ) Z 1
§ y· § 0 ·
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 180$ S
©x¹ © 1 ¹
( g ) Z 2 3i
§ y· §3·
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ | 56$18c35cc
©x¹ ©2¹
( h) Z 1 i
§ y· § 1 · S
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 45$
©x¹ © 1 ¹ 4
(i ) Z a ib
§ y· §b·
T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸
©x¹ ©a¹
177
4.4 OPERATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Operation of complex number is the process of performing addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of complex numbers.
There are four operation of complex numbers which are;
(a) Addition of complex numbers

Two or more complex numbers can be added by adding real and imaginary
parts respectively.
Let z1 x1 iy1 and z 2 x 2 iy 2 , z1 and z 2 can be added as follows
z1 z 2 x1 iy1 x 2 iy 2
z1 z2 x1 x2 i y1 y2
(b) Subtraction of complex numbers

Two or more complex numbers can be subtracted by subtracting real and
imaginary parts respectively.
Let z1 x1 iy1 and z 2 x 2 iy 2 , z1 and z 2 can be subtraced as follows
z1 z 2 x1 iy1 x 2 iy 2
z1 z 2 x1 x2 i y1 y 2
(c) Multiplication of complex numbers

Two or more complex numbers can be multiplied as follows,
Let z1 x1 iy1 and z 2 x 2 iy 2 be two complex numbers,
We can multiply z1 and z 2 as follows
z1 z 2 x1 iy1 x 2 iy 2
z1 z 2 x1 x 2 ix1 y 2 iy1 x 2 i 2 y1 y 2 but i 2 1
z1 z 2 x1 x 2 ix1 y 2 iy1 x 2 y1 y 2
z1 z2 x1 x2 y1 y2 i x1 y2 x2 y1
178
(d) Division of complex numbers
Two or more complex numbers can be divided as follows,
Let z1 x1 iy1 and z 2 x 2 iy 2 be two complex numbers,
We can divide z1 by z 2 as follows
z1 x1 iy1
z2 x 2 iy 2
z1 § x1 iy1 ·§ x2 iy2 ·
¨¨ ¸¸¨¨ ¸¸
z2 © x2 iy2 ¹© x2 iy2 ¹
z1 x1 x2 ix1 y2 iy1 x2 i 2 y1 y2
2 2
but i 2 1
z2 x2 y 2
z1 x1 x2 y1 y2 i x1 y2 y1 x2
2 2
z2 x2 y 2
z1 § x1 x2 y1 y2 · § x1 y2 y1 x2 ·
¨ 2 ¸ ¨ ¸
z2 ¨ x y 2 ¸ i¨ x 2 y 2 ¸
© 2 2 ¹ © 2 2 ¹
Example 6
Given that z1 4 2i and z 2 3 5i find the following;
(a) z1 z 2
(b) z1 z 2
(c) z1 z 2
z1
(d)
z2
(e) 5z1 3z 2
2
(f) z1 2z 2
Solution
(a) z1 z2 4 2i 3 5i 7 3i
(b) z1 z2 4 2i 3 5i 1 7i
(c) z1 z 2 4 2i 3 5i 12 20i 6i 10i 2 12 20i 6i 10 22 14i
(d) z1 §¨ 4 2i ·¸ u §¨ 3 5i ·¸ 12 20i 6i 10i 12 20i 6i 10 2 26i

2
2 26 1 13
i i
z2 © 3 5i ¹ © 3 5i ¹ 32 5 2 i 2 9 25 34 34 34 17 17
(e) 5z1 3z2 5 4 2i 3 3 5i 20 10i 9 15i 29 5i
(f) z12 2z2 4 2i 2 2 3 5i 16 16i 4 6 10i 12 16i 6 10i 6 26i
179
4.5 REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Complex number can be expressed in three different form which are Cartesian,
Polar and Euler’s forms;
(a) Cartesian form of a complex number

Cartesian form of a complex number is the form in which a complex number is
expressed in polynomial form (i.e. z x iy where x, y )
Consider the figure below;
fig 4. 5
Cartesian (polynomial) form of complex numbers z x iy
(b) Polar form of a complex number, (i.e. z r cosT i sinT )

Polar form of a complex number is a complex number expressed in terms of
variable r and T .
fig 4. 6
180
From the figure above, express x and y interms of r and T
x
cosT , x r cosT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
r
y
sin T , y r sin T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
r
Apply Pythagoras theorem
r2 x2 y2
r x 2 y 2 but r z .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
Substitute equation (i) and equation (ii) into cartesian equation z x iy,
z r cosT ir sin T r (cosT i sin T )
Polar form of complex numbers z r (cosT i sin T )
Example 7
Express the following complex numbers into polar form
(a) Z 1 i 3
(b) Z 1 i
(c) Z 5i
(d) Z i
(e) Z 9
(f) Z 9
Solution
181
( e) z 9
§ y· §0·
r x2 y2 92 9 and T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 0$
©x¹ ©9¹
From z r cosT i sinT 9 cos0 i sin 0 $
$
?z 9 cos0 $ i sin 0 $
(f)z 9
§ y· § 0 ·
9 and T
2
r x2 y2 9 tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 180
$
x
© ¹ © 9 ¹
From z r cosT i sinT 9 cos180 i sin180 or z 9 cosS i sin S
$ $
?z 9 cos180$ i sin180$
MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM

Two or more complex numbers can be multiplied together as shown below;
Let z1 r1 (cosT1 i sin T1 ) and z 2 r2 (cosT 2 i sin T 2 ) be two complex numbers,
We can multiply z1 and z 2 as follows
z1 z 2 r1 (cosT1 i sin T1 ) u r2 (cosT 2 i sin T 2 )
z1 z 2 r1 r2 cosT1 cosT 2 i cosT1 sin T 2 i sin T1 cosT 2 i 2 sin T1 sin T 2 but i 2 1
z1 z 2 r1 r2 > cosT1 cosT 2 sin T1 sin T 2 i sin T1 cosT 2 cosT1 sin T 2 @
z1 z 2 r1r2 >cos(T1 T 2 ) i sin(T1 T 2 )@
182
DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM
Two or more complex numbers can be as shown below;
Let z1 r1 (cosT1 i sin T1 ) and z 2 r2 (cosT 2 i sin T 2 ) be two complex numbers,
Divide z1 by z 2
z1 r1 (cosT1 i sin T1 )
z 2 r2 (cosT 2 i sin T 2 )
z1 r1 § cosT1 i sin T1 cosT 2 i sin T 2 ·
¨¨ x ¸¸
z2 r2 © cosT 2 i sin T 2 cosT 2 i sin T 2 ¹
z1 r1 § cosT1 cosT 2 i cosT1 sin T 2 i sin T1 cosT 2 i 2 sin T1 sin T 2 ·
¨¨ ¸¸
z2 r2 © cos 2
T 2 i 2
sin 2
T 2 ¹
z1 r1 § cosT1 cosT 2 sin T1 sin T 2 i sin T1 cosT 2 cosT1 sin T 2 ·
¨¨ ¸¸
z2 r2 © cos2 T 2 sin 2 T 2 ¹
z1 r1
cos(T1 T 2 ) i sin(T1 T 2 )
z2 r2
Example 8
Given that z1 12 cos60$ i sin 60$ and z 2 3 cos 45$ i sin 45$ , find
(a) z1 z 2
z1
(b)
z2
z
(c) 2
z1
Solution
Given that z1 12 cos60$ i sin 60$ and z 2 3 cos 45$ i sin 45$
From z1 , r1 12, T1 60$ and also from z 2 , r2 3, T 2 45$
(a) z1 z 2 r1r2 >cos(T1 T 2 ) i sin(T1 T 2 )@ 36 cos105$ i sin105$
z1 § r1 ·
(b) ¨¨ ¸¸>cos(T1 T 2 ) i sin(T1 T 2 )@ 4 cos15$ i sin15$
z2 © r2 ¹
z2 § r2 · 1 1
(c ) ¨¨ ¸¸>cos(T 2 T1 ) i sin(T 2 T1 )@ cos(15$ ) i sin(15$ ) cos15$ i sin15$
z1 r
© 1¹ 4 4
183
Example 9
Given that z1 2 cos30$ i sin 30$ and z 2 3 cos10$ i sin10$ , find
(a) z1 z 2
z1
(b)
z2
z2
(c)
z1
2
(d) z1
Solution
Given that z1 2 cos30$ i sin 30$ and z1 3 cos10$ i sin10$ >
3 cos 10$ i sin 10$ @
From z1 , r1 2, T1 30 and also z 2 , r2 3, T 2
$
10 $
a z1 z 2 r1r2 >cos T1 T 2 i sin T1 T 2 @ >

6 cos 20$ i sin 20$ @
b
z1
z2
r1
r2
>cos T1 T 2 i sin T1 T 2 @ 2
3 >cos40 i sin 40 @
$ $
c
z2
z1
r2
r1
>cos T 2 T1 i sin T 2 T1 @ 3
2 >cos 40 $
i sin 40$ @ >cos40 i sin 40 @
3
2
$ $
d z1
2
>2 cos30 i sin 30 @
$ $ 2
4 cos60$ i sin 60$
(c) Exponential (Euler’s) form of a complex number, (i.e. z re iT )

Consider a polar complex number z cosT i sin T
dz
sin T i cosT but i 2 1
dT
dz 2
i sin T i cosT
dT
dz
i (cosT i sin T ) but z cosT i sin T
dT
dz
iz (This is separable D.E)
dT
dz
idT
z
184
1
³ z dz i ³ dT
In z iT c let c 0
In z iT (Change into exponential)
z e iT but z cosT i sinT
? In general z reiT , z r cosT i sinT
Euler’s form of a complex number

z reiT
Example 10
Express the following complex numbers into Euler’s form
(a) z 3 i
(b) z 1 i
(c) z 3 4i
(d) z 1 3i
(e) z 3 3i
(f) z 6i
Solution
§ y·
To express z x iy into the form z reiT where r x 2 y 2 and T tan 1 ¨ ¸
©x¹
2 § 1 · S
(a ) z 3 i, r 3 12 2 and T tan 1 ¨ ¸ 30$
© 3¹ 6
S
i
iT
? z re 2e 6
§1· S
(b) z 1 i, r 12 12 2 and T tan 1 ¨ ¸ 45$
©1¹ 4
S
i
iT
? z re 2e 4
185
§4·
(c) z 3 4i, r 32 4 2 5 and T tan 1 ¨ ¸ 53$ 7c48cc
©3¹
§4·
i tan 1 ¨ ¸
iT
?z re 5e ©3¹
2 § 3· 5S
(d ) z 1 3i, r 12 3 2 and T tan 1 ¨¨ ¸ 60$
¸ 300$
© 1 ¹ 3
5S
i
?z reiT 2e 3
2 § 1 · 4S
2 3 and T
2
( e) z 3 i 3 , r 3 3 tan 1 ¨ ¸ 240$
© 3¹ 3
4S
i
?z reiT 2 3e 3
§6·
( f ) z 6i, r 62 6 and T tan 1 ¨ ¸ 90$ S
©0¹
?z reiT 6e iS
MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN EULER’S FORM

Two or more Euler’s complex numbers can be multiplied together as described
below,
Let z1 r1e iT1 and z 2 r2 e iT 2 be any two complex numbers in Euler's form,
z1 z 2 r1e iT1 u r2 e iT 2
z1 z2 r1r2 ei (T1 T 2 )
DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN EULER’S FORM

Two or more Euler’s complex numbers can be divided as shown below,
Let z1 r1e iT1 and z 2 r2 e iT2 be any two complex numbers in Euler's form,
z1 r1e iT1
z2 r2 e iT2
z1 r1 i T1 T 2
e
z2 r2
186
Example 11
$ $
Given that z1 5ei 75 and z 2 4e i15 , find
z1 z2 2
(a) z1 z 2 (b) z (c) z (d) z1
2 1
Solution
5S S
i i
r1e iT1 r2 e iT 2
$ $
From, z1 5e i 75 5e 12 and z 2 4e i15 4e 12
S
i
r1r2 e i (T1 T 2 )
$
(a) z1 z 2 20e i 90 20e 2
S
z1 r1 i (T1 T 2 ) 5 i 60$ 5 i3
(b) e e e
z2 r2 4 4
S
z r2 i (T 2 T1 ) 4 i 60$ 5 i 3
(c ) 2 e e e
z1 r1 5 4
S
2 i
2 iT 2 2 i15$ i 30$
(d ) z 2 r2 e 4e 16e 16e 6
Exercise 4.3
1. Express z 1 i 3 into polar form.
4. Express z 4 4i into polar form.
5. Express z i into polar form.
6. Given that z1 2 cos10$ sin10$ and z2 3 cos 5$ sin 5$ find z1 z 2
z1
7. Given that z1 6 cos 25$ 6 sin 25$ and z2 3 cos 4$ sin 4$ find
z2
8. Given that z1 5 cos 20 sin 20 and z2
$ $
3 cos 30$ 0.5 find z1 z 2
9. Express z 1 i into Euler’s form.
5eiS and z1 4e i find
S
10. Given that z1 3
z1 z 2
iS z1 iS
11. Given that z1 7e 2 and z1 3.5e 4 find
z2
iS iS z
12. Given that z1 7e 2 and z1 3.5e find 2 4
z1
187
4.6 DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM
Demoivre’s theorem is a theorem used in simplification of complex number,
change angles from powered to multiple and multiple to powered angles.
Derivation of Demoivre’s theorem

Consider the expansion of polar form of a complex number
step1 : cosT i sinT cosT i sinT .......... .......... .......... .........( i )
1
step 2 : cosT i sinT cos2 T sin 2 T 2i sinT cosT

2
cosT i sinT cos 2T i sin 2T .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)

2
step 3 : cosT i sinT cos3 T 3i cos2 T sinT 3i 2 cosT sin 2 T i 3 sin 3 T

3
cosT i sinT cos3 T 3 cosT sin 2 T 3i cos2 T sinT i sin 3 T

3
cosT i sinT cos3 T 3 cosT 1 cos2 T 3i 1 sin 2 T sinT i sin 3 T

3
cosT i sinT cos3 T 3 cosT 3 cos3 T i 3 sinT 3 sin 3 T sin 3 T

3
cosT i sinT 4 cos3 T 3 cosT i 3 sinT 4 sin 3 T

3
cosT i sinT cos3T i sin 3T

3
.
.
.
cosT i sinT cos nT i sin nT
n
cosT i sinT cosnT i sin nT

n
Demoivre’s theorem
APPLICATION OF DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM

Demoivre’s theorem is used to,
(i) Change powered angles into multiple angles
(ii) Change multiple angles into powered angles
(iii) Simplify problems
188
(i) Change powered angles into multiple angles
Consider Demoivre's theorem
n
zn
z cos nT i sin nT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
n
1 1 n
cosT i sinT
n n
z
1
cos nT i sin nT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
zn
Add equation (i) and equation (ii)
zn cos nT i sin nT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
1
cos nT i sin nT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
zn
1
zn 2 cos nT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
zn
Subtract equation (i) and equation (ii)
1
z n n 2i sin nT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iv)
z
where n 1,2,3,4,..., k
These identities are used to change powered angles to multiple angles for cosine
and sine respectively
1 1
z n n 2 cos nT z n n 2i sin nT
z z
Example 12
Change the following powered angles trigonometric functions into multiple
angles
(a) cos3 T
(b) sin 3 T
(c) sin 4 T
(d) cos5 T
(e) sin 7 T
Solution
189
(a ) cos3 T
1
From 2 cosT z
z
3
§ 1·
2 cosT
3
¨z ¸
© z¹
2 3
§1· §1· §1·
8 cos3 T z 3 3z 2 ¨ ¸ 3z¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
©z¹ ©z¹ ©z¹
§ 1· § 1·
8 cos3 T ¨ z 3 3 ¸ 3¨ z ¸
© z ¹ © z¹
8 cos T 2 cos3T 3 2 cosT
3
1 3
? cos3 T cos3T cosT
4 4
(b) sin 3 T
1
From 2i sinT z
z
3
§ 1·
2i sinT
3
¨z ¸
© z¹
2 3
3 §1· §1· §1·
8i sin T
3
z 3z ¨ ¸ 3z¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
3 2
©z¹ ©z¹ ©z¹

3 § 3 1 · § 1·
8i sin 3 T ¨ z 3 ¸ 3¨ z ¸
© z ¹ © z¹
3
8i sin 3 T 2i sin 3T 3 2i sinT
3
8i sin 3 T 2i sin 3T 3 sinT
2
4i sin 3 T sin 3T 3 sinT but i 2 1
3 1
? sin 3 T sinT sin 3T
4 4
190
(c) sin 4 T
1
From 2i sinT z
z
4
§ 1·
2i sinT
4
¨z ¸
© z¹
2 3 4
4 §1· §1· §1· §1·
16i sin T z 4 z ¨ ¸ 6 z 2 ¨ ¸ 4 z ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
4 4 3
©z¹ ©z¹ ©z¹ ©z¹

§ 1 · § 1 ·
16 sin 4 T ¨ z 4 4 ¸ 4¨ z 2 2 ¸ 6
© z ¹ © z ¹
16 sin T 2 cos 4T 4 2 cos 2T 6
4
1
sin 4 T 2 cos 4T 8 cos 2T 6
16
1
sin 4 T cos 4T 4 cos 2T 3
8
1
? sin 4 T 3 cos 4T 4 cos 2T
8
(d ) cos5 T
1
From 2 cosT z
z
5
§ 1·
2 cosT
5
¨z ¸
© z¹
§1· § 1· §1· § 1· 1
32 cos5 T z 5 5 z 4 ¨ ¸ 10z 3 ¨ 2 ¸ 10z 2 ¨ 3 ¸ 5 z ¨ 4 ¸ 5
©z¹ ©z ¹ ©z ¹ ©z ¹ z
1 1 1
32 cos5 T z 5 5 z 3 10z 10 5 3 5
z z z
§ 5 1· § 3 1· § 1·
32 cos5 T ¨ z 5 ¸ 5¨ z 3 ¸ 10¨ z ¸
© z ¹ © z ¹ © z¹
32 cos5 T 2 cos5T 5 2 cos3T 10 2 cosT
1
? cos5 T cos5T 5 cos3T 10 cosT
16
191
(e) sin 7 T
1
From 2i sinT z
z
7
§ 1·
2i sinT
7
¨z ¸
© z¹
7 §1· § 1 · §1· § 1· §1· §1· § 1·
128i sin 7 T z 7 7 z 6 ¨ ¸ 21z 5 ¨ 2 ¸ 35z 4 ¨ 3 ¸ 35z 3 ¨ 4 ¸ 21z 2 ¨ 5 ¸ 7 z ¨ 6 ¸ ¨ 7 ¸
©z¹ ©z ¹ ©z ¹ ©z ¹ ©z ¹ ©z ¹ ©z ¹
7 1 1 1 1
128i sin 7 T z 7 7 z 5 21z 3 35z 35 21 3 7 5 7
z z z z
7 § 7 1· § 5 1· § 3 1· § 1·
128i sin 7 T ¨ z 7 ¸ 7¨ z 5 ¸ 21¨ z 3 ¸ 35¨ z ¸
© z ¹ © z ¹ © z ¹ © z¹
7
128i sin 7 T 2i sin 7T 7 2i sin 5T 21 2i sin 3T 35 2i sinT
2i
sin 7 T sin 7T 7 sin 5T 21sin 3T 35sinT
128i 7
1
sin 7 T sin 7T 7 sin 5T 21sin 3T 35sinT but i 6 1
64i 6
1
? sin 7 T sin 7T 7 sin 5T 21sin 3T 35sinT
64
(ii) Change multiple angles into powered angles

Demoivre’s theorem is used to change multiple angles to powered angles by
>
applying the theorem direct i.e. cosT i sinT n cosnT i sin nT @
Example 13
Change the following multiple angles trigonometric functions into powered
angles
(a) z cos3T and z sin 3T
(b) z cos4T and z sin 4T
(c) z cos5T and z sin 5T
Solution
192
In each case apply De Moivre's Theorem cosT i sinT cos nT i sin nT
n
a z cos3T and z sin 3T

3
cos3T i sin 3T cosT i sinT

3
cos3T i sin 3T cos3 T 3i cos2 T sinT 3i 2 cosT sin 2 T i 3 sin 3 T but i 2 1, i 3 i
cos3T i sin 3T cos T 3i cos T sinT 3 cosT sin T i sin T
3 2 2 3
cos3T i sin 3T cos3 T 3 cosT sin 2 T i 3 cos2 T sinT sin 3 T .......... .......... (i )
From equation (i) equate real part
cos3T cos3 T 3 cosT sin 2 T
cos3T cos3 T 3 cosT 1 cos2 T
? cos3T 4 cos3 T 3 cosT
From equation (i) equate imaginary part

sin 3T 3 cos2 T sinT sin 3 T
sin 3T 3 1 sin 2 T sinT sin 3 T
sin 3T 3 sinT 3 sin 3 T sin 3 T
? sin 3T 3 sinT 4 sin 3 T
b z cos 4T and z sin 4T

cosT i sin T cos 4T i sin 4T
4
cos 4T i sin 4T cosT i sin T

4
cos 4T i sin 4T cos4 T 4i cos3 T sinT 6i 2 cos2 T sin2 T 4i 3 cosT sin3 T i 4 sin4 T
cos 4T i sin 4T cos4 T 4i cos3 T sinT 6 cos2 T sin2 T 4i cosT sin3 T sin4 T
193
c z cos5T and z sin 5T
5

5
cos5T i sin 5T cos5 T 5i cos4 T sinT 10i 2 cos3 T sin 2 T 10i 3 cos2 T sin 3 T 5i 4 cosT sin 4 T i 5 sin 5 T
cos5T i sin 5T cos5 T 5i cos4 T sinT 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 10i cos2 T sin 3 T 5 cosT sin 4 T i sin 5 T
cos5T i sin 5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 5 cosT sin 4 T i 5 cos4 T sinT 10 cos2 T sin 3 T sin 5 T
From equation (i) equate real part
cos5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 5 cosT sin 4 T
2
2
cos5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 1 cos2 T 5 cosT 1 cos2 T
cos5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 10 cos5 T 5 cosT 1 2 cos2 T cos4 T
cos5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 10 cos5 T 5 cosT 10 cos3 T 5 cos5 T
? cos5T 16 cos5 T 20 cos3 T 5 cosT
From equation (i) equate imaginary part

sin 5T 5 cos4 T sinT 10 cos2 T sin 3 T sin 5 T
2
sin 5T 5 sinT cos2 T 10 sin 3 T cos2 T sin 5 T
2
sin 5T 5 sinT 1 sin 2 T 10 sin 3 T 1 sin 2 T sin 5 T
sin 5T 5 sinT 1 2 sin 2 T sin 4 T 10 sin 3 T 1 sin 2 T sin 5 T
sin 5T 5 sinT 10 sin 3 T 5 sin 5 T 10 sin 3 T 10 sin 5 T sin 5 T
? sin 5T 16 sin 5 T 20 sin 3 T 5 sinT
Example 14
By using the concepts of complex numbers show that,
3 sinT 4 sin 3 T
(a) tan 3T
4 cos3 T 3 cosT
4 cos3 T sinT 4 cosT sin 3 T
(b) tan 4T
8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1
194
16 sin 5 T 20 sin 3 T 5 sinT
(c) tan 5T
16 cos5 T 20 cos3 T 5 cosT
Solution
3 sinT 4 sin 3 T
a Required to show that, tan 3T
4 cos3 T 3 cosT
sin 3T
Consider tan 3T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
cos3T
First express z cos3T and z sin 3T into powered form
3

3
3 2 2 3
cos3T i sin 3T cos3 T 3 cosT sin 2 T i 3 cos2 T sinT sin 3 T .......... .......... (ii)
From equation (ii) equate real part
cos3T 4 cos3 T 3 cosT .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
From equation (ii) equate imaginary part

sin 3T 3 sinT 4 sin 3 T .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
Subsitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 3T 3 sinT 4 sin 3 T
tan 3T
cos3T 4 cos3 T 3 cosT
3 sinT 4 sin 3 T
? tan 3T
4 cos3 T 3 cosT
195
b Required to show that, tan 4T
8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1
sin 4T
Consider tan 4T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......(i)
cos 4T
Express z cos 4T and z sin 4T into multiple form
cosT i sinT cos 4T i sin 4T
4
cos 4T i sin 4T cosT i sinT

4
cos 4T i sin 4T cos4 T 4i cos3 T sinT 6i 2 cos2 T sin 2 T 4i 3 cosT sin 3 T i 4 sin 4 T
cos 4T i sin 4T cos4 T 4i cos3 T sinT 6 cos2 T sin 2 T 4i cosT sin 3 T sin 4 T
cos 4T i sin 4T cos4 T 6 cos2 T sin 2 T sin 4 T i 4 cos3 T sinT 4 cosT sin 3 T .....( ii)
2
cos 4T cos4 T 6 cos2 T sin 2 T sin 2 T
2
cos 4T cos4 T 6 cos2 T 1 cos2 T 1 cos2 T
cos 4T cos4 T 6 cos2 T 6 cos4 T 1 2 cos2 T cos4 T
? cos 4T 8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)

sin 4T 4 cos3 T sinT 4 cosT sin 3 T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
Substitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 4T 4 cos3 T sinT 4 cosT sin 3 T
tan 4T
cos 4T 8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1
? tan 4T
8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1
196
16 sin5 T 20 sin3 T 5 sin T
c Required to show that, tan 5T
sin 5T
Consider tan 5T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
cos 5T
5

5
cos 5T i sin 5T cos5 T 5i cos4 T sin T 10i 2 cos3 T sin 2 T 10i 3 cos2 T sin3 T 5i 4 cosT sin 4 T i 5 sin5 T
cos 5T i sin 5T cos5 T 5i cos4 T sin T 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 10i cos2 T sin3 T 5 cosT sin 4 T i sin5 T
cos 5T i sin 5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 5 cosT sin 4 T i 5 cos4 T sin T 10 cos2 T sin3 T sin5 T ......( ii)
2
2
cos5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 1 cos2 T 5 cosT 1 cos2 T
cos5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 10 cos5 T 5 cosT 1 2 cos2 T cos4 T
cos5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 10 cos5 T 5 cosT 10 cos3 T 5 cos5 T
cos5T 16 cos5 T 20 cos3 T 5 cosT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)

sin 5T 5 cos4 T sinT 10 cos2 T sin 3 T sin 5 T
2
sin 5T 5 sinT cos2 T 10 sin 3 T cos2 T sin 5 T
2
sin 5T 5 sinT 1 sin 2 T 10 sin 3 T 1 sin 2 T sin 5 T
sin 5T 5 sinT 1 2 sin 2 T sin 4 T 10 sin 3 T 1 sin 2 T sin 5 T
sin 5T 5 sinT 10 sin 3 T 5 sin 5 T 10 sin 3 T 10 sin 5 T sin 5 T
sin 5T 16 sin 5 T 20 sin 3 T 5 sinT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iv)
sin 5T 16 sin 5 T 20 sin 3 T 5 sinT
tan 5T
cos5T 16 cos5 T 20 cos3 T 5 cosT
16 sin 5 T 20 sin 3 T 5 sinT
? tan 5T
Example 15
3t t 3
By using the concepts of complex numbers show that,(a) tan 3T where t tan T
t 3t 2
4 tan T 4 tan 3 T t 5 10t 3 5t
(a) tan 4T tan 5T where t tan T
tan 4 T 6 tan 2 T 1 (c) 5t 4 10t 2 1
197
3t t 3
a Required to show that, tan 3T
1 3t 2
sin 3T
Consider tan 3T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
cos3T
First express z cos3T and z sin 3T into powered form
3

3
3 2 2 3
cos3T i sin 3T cos3 T 3 cosT sin 2 T i 3 cos2 T sinT sin 3 T .......... .......... (ii)
cos3T 4 cos3 T 3 cosT .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)

sin 3T 3 sinT 4 sin 3 T .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
Subsitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 3T 3 sinT 4 sin 3 T
tan 3T
cos3T 4 cos3 T 3 cosT
3 sinT 4 sin 3 T
tan 3T
4 cos3 T 3 cosT
Divide by cos3 T to each term on right hand side
3 tan T sec2 T 4 tan 3 T
tan 3T but sec2 T 1 tan 2 T
4 3 sec T
2
3 tan T 1 tan 2 T 4 tan 3 T 3 tan T 3 tan 3 T 4 tan 3 T

tan 3T
4 3 1 tan 2 T 4 3 3 tan 2 T
3 tan T tan 3 T
tan 3T but tan T t
1 3 tan 2 T
3t t 3
? tan 3T
1 3t 2
198
4 tan T 4 tan 3 T
b Required to show that, tan 4T
tan 4 T 6 tan 2 T 1
sin 4T
Consider tan 4T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......(i)
cos 4T
4

4
2
2
? cos 4T 8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)

sin 4T 4 cos3 T sinT 4 cosT sin 3 T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
sin 4T 4 cos3 T sinT 4 cosT sin 3 T
tan 4T
tan 4T
8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1
4 tan T 4 tan 3 T 4 tan T 4 tan 3 T 4 tan T 4 tan 3 T
tan 4T
8 8 sec2 T sec4 T 8 8 sec2 T sec2 T
2
8 8 1 tan 2 T 1 tan 2 T
2
4 tan T 4 tan 3 T 4 tan T 4 tan 3 T

tan 4T
8 8 8 tan 2 T 1 2 tan 2 T tan 4 T tan 4 T 6 tan 2 T 1
4 tan T 4 tan 3 T
? tan 4T
tan 4 T 6 tan 2 T 1
199
t 5 10t 3 5t
c Required to show that, tan 5T where t tan T
5t 4 10t 2 1
sin 5T
Consider tan 5T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
cos 5T
5

5
cos 5T i sin 5T cos5 T 5i cos4 T sin T 10i 2 cos3 T sin 2 T 10i 3 cos2 T sin 3 T 5i 4 cosT sin 4 T i 5 sin 5 T
cos 5T i sin 5T cos5 T 5i cos4 T sin T 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 10i cos2 T sin 3 T 5 cosT sin 4 T i sin 5 T
cos 5T i sin 5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 5 cosT sin 4 T i 5 cos4 T sin T 10 cos2 T sin 3 T sin 5 T ......( ii)
cos 5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 5 cosT sin 4 T
2
cos 5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T sin 2 T 5 cosT sin 2 T
2
cos 5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 1 cos2 T 5 cosT 1 cos2 T
cos 5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 10 cos5 T 5 cosT 1 2 cos2 T cos4 T
cos 5T cos5 T 10 cos3 T 10 cos5 T 5 cosT 10 cos3 T 5 cos5 T
cos 5T 16 cos5 T 20 cos3 T 5 cosT .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)

sin 5T 5 cos4 T sin T 10 cos2 T sin3 T sin5 T
2
sin 5T 5 sin T cos2 T 10 sin3 T cos2 T sin5 T
2
sin 5T 5 sin T 1 sin 2 T 10 sin3 T 1 sin 2 T sin5 T
sin 5T 5 sin T 1 2 sin 2 T sin 4 T 10 sin 3 T 1 sin 2 T sin5 T
sin 5T 5 sin T 10 sin3 T 5 sin5 T 10 sin3 T 10 sin5 T sin5 T
sin 5T 16 sin5 T 20 sin3 T 5 sin T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iv)
sin 5T 16 sin 5 T 20 sin 3 T 5 sin T
tan 5T
cos 5T 16 cos5 T 20 cos3 T 5 cosT
16 sin5 T 20 sin3 T 5 sin T
tan 5T
Divide by cos5 T to each term on RHS
16 tan 5 T 20 tan 3 T sec2 T 5 tan T sec4 T
tan 5T
16 20 sec2 T 5 sec4 T
2
16 tan 5 T 20 tan 3 T sec2 T 5 tan T sec2 T
tan 5T 2
16 20 sec2 T 5 sec2 T
200
2
16 tan 5 T 20 tan 3 T 1 tan 2 T 5 tan T 1 tan 2 T
tan 5T 2
16 20 sec2 T 5 1 tan 2 T
tan 5 T 10 tan 3 T 5 tan T
tan 5T where tan T t
5 tan 4 T 10 tan 2 T 1
t 5 10t 3 5t
? tan 5T
5t 4 10t 2 1
Example 16
4t 4t 3
Show that tan 4T where t tan T . Hence find the roots of the
t 6t 2 1
4
equations
(a) t 4 4t 3 6t 2 4t 1 0 correct to 4 decimal places
(b) t 4 4t 3 6t 2 4t 1 0
(c) t 4 2t 3 6t 2 2t 1 0
Solution
4 tan T 4 tan 3 T
Required to show that, tan 4T
tan 4 T 6 tan 2 T 1
sin 4T
Consider tan 4T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......(i)
cos 4T
4

4
2
2
cos 4T 8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
201
sin 4T 4 cos3 T sin T 4 cosT sin 3 T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
sin 4T 4 cos3 T sin T 4 cosT sin3 T
tan 4T
4 cos3 T sin T 4 cosT sin3 T
tan 4T
8 cos4 T 8 cos2 T 1
202
(b) t 4 4t 3 6t 2 4t 1 0
4t 4t 3 t 4 6t 2 1
4t 4t 3 4t 4t 3
1 but tan 4T
t 4 6t 2 1 t 4 6t 2 1
tan 4T 1
4T tan 1 (1)
S
4T 45$ , principle angle (D ) 45$
4
From general angle formula for tangent of an angle, T Sn D
S
4T Sn
4
Sn S
T where n 0,1,2,3.
4 16
S 3S 7S 11S
T , , ,
16 16 16 16
But t tan T
§ S ·
t tan T tan ¨ ¸ | 0.0626
© 16 ¹
§ 3S ·
t tan T tan ¨ ¸ | 0.1897
© 16 ¹
§ 7S ·
t tan T tan ¨ ¸ | 0.4677
© 16 ¹
§ 11S ·
t tan T tan ¨ ¸ | 0.8211
© 16 ¹
203
(c) t 4 2t 3 6t 2 2t 1 0
t 4 6t 2 1 2t 2t 3
Multiply by 2 both sides
2 t 4 6t 2 1 4t 4t 3
4t 4t 3 4t 4t 3
2 but tan 4T
t 4 6t 2 1 t 4 6t 2 1
tan 4T 2
4T tan 1 (2)
4T 63$ 26c, principle angle (D ) 63$ 26c
From general angle formula for tangent of an angle, T Sn D
4T 180$ n 63$ 26c
T 45$ n 15$51c where n 0,1,2,3.
T 15 51c, 60 51c, 105 51c, 150$51c,
$ $ $
But t tan T
t tan T tan 15$ 51c | 0.2839
t tan T tan 60$ 51c | 1.7930
t tan T tan 105$ 51c | 3.5222
t tan T tan 150$ 51c | 0.5577
(iii) Simplification of problems

Demoivre’s theorem is a theorem used to simplify problems by applying the
concepts of this theorem i.e. cosT i sinT n cosnT i sin nT
Example 17
By using De Moivre’s theorem simplify the following;
(a) cosS 4 i sin S 4 cosS 3 i sin S 3
(b) cosS 2 i sin S 2 cosS 6 i sin S 6
(c) cosS i sinS cosS i sinS
1
5
13
(d) cosS i sinS cosS i sinS
1
2
cosS 8 i sin S 8
(e)
cosS 6 i sin S 6
cosS 2 i sin S 2 cosS 3 i sin S 3
(f)
cosS 3 i sin S 3
204
Solution
In each case express in the form cosnT i sin nT cosT i sinT
n
cosS i sin S cosS i sin S

1 1
(a) cosS 4 i sin S 4 cosS 3 i sin S 3 4 3
cosS i sin S
7
? cosS 4 i sin S 4 cosS 3 i sin S 3 12
cos7S 12 i sin 7S 12
12
cosS i sin S cosS i sin S
1
(b) cosS 2 i sin S 2 cosS 6 i sin S 6 6
1
? cosS 2 i sin S 2 cosS 6 i sin S 6 cosS i sin S 3
cosS 3 i sin S 3
15 1
(c) cosS i sin S cosS i sin S cosS i sin S cosS i sin S
1
5
65
? cosS i sin S cosS i sin S cosS i sin S
1
5
cos6S 5 i sin 6S 5
13
(d ) cosS i sin S cosS i sin S cosS i sin S cosS i sin S
1 1 1
2 2 3
13
? cosS i sin S cosS i sin S cosS i sin S
1 5
2 6
cos5S 6 i sin 5S 6
cosS i sin S
1
cosS 8 i sin S 8 8
cosS i sin S
7
( e) 24
cos 7S 24 i sin 7S 24
cosS 6 i sin S 6 cosS i sin S
1
6
cosS 8 i sin S 8
? cos 7S 24 i sin 7S 24
cosS 6 i sin S 6
1
cosS i sin S 2 cosS i sin S
1
cosS 2 i sin S 2 cosS 3 i sin S 3 3
f 1
cosS 3 i sin S 3 cosS i sin S 3
cosS i sin S
1
6
cosS 6 i sin S 6
cosS 3 i sin S 3
? cosS 6 i sin S 6
cosS 3 i sin S 3
205
4.7 COMPLEX ROOTS
These are roots obtained when the discriminant is less than zero.
Consider the equation az 2 bz c 0
b r b 2 4ac
From general solution z
2a
The above equation it has complex roots if and only if b 2 4ac 0
Note:
If z a ib is a root of a complex number then its conjugate z a ib is also a root.
Example 18
Solve the equation z 2 6 z 13 0
Solution
Consider z 2 6 z 13 0
By using Quadratic general formula
6 r 6 2 4(13) 6 r 16 6 r 4 1
z 3 r 2i
2 2 2
? z 3 2i , z 3 2i
Example 19
If z 2 3i is a root of polynomial P( z ) z 4 4 z 3 12z 2 4 z 13 . Find the
other roots and hence factorize the polynomial completely.
Solution
Given that P z z 4 4 z 2 12z 2 4 z 13
Given root z 2 3i and its conjugate is a root z 2 3i
Multiply the given roots and it is conjugate to form a quadratic equation which is also a root of P z
>z 2 3i @>z 2 3i @ z 2 3i z 2 3i z 2 4 z 13 0
Therefore z 2 4 z 13 0 is a factor of P z z 4 4 z 2 12z 2 4 z 13
Divide the given polynomial P z by z 2 4 z 13
z 2 1
z 4 z 13 z 4 z 12z 4 z 13
2 4 2 2
z 4 4 z 2 13z 2
z 2 4 z 13
z 2 4 z 13
After long division z 2 1 0 is a root which implies that z 1 z 1 0
Other roots are z 2 3i, z 1 and z 1
? Factorization of P z z 2 3i z 2 3i z 1 z 1
206
Example 20
If one root of the equation z 2 pz q 0 is 2 3i . Find the value of p and q
Solution
Given that z 2 pz q 0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
Given z 2 3i is a root and its conjugate is also root z 2 3i
Multiply the given root and its conjugate
>z 2 3i @>z 2 3i @ z 2 3i z 2 3i
z 2 4 z 13 0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
Equate equation (i) and (ii)
? The values of p 4 and q 13
4.8 ROOTS OF THE COMPLEX NUMBERS

Roots of a complex number are the solutions of a complex number,
Generally
§ 2Sk T · § 2Sk T
1
ª ·º
zk 1 r n «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» where k 0,1,2...
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
Roots of complex numbers in polar form
§ 2Sk T · § 2Sk T
1
ª ·º
zk 1 r n «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» where k 0,1,2...
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
Roots of complex numbers in exponential l(Euler’s) form

§ 2Sk T ·
1
i¨ ¸
© n ¹
z k 1 r ne
207
Example 21
Solve for z if,
(a) z 4 1 i
(b) z 2 1 i 3
(c) z 3 3 3i
Solution
(a) z 4 1 i
§ y· §1· S
n 4, r x2 y2 12 12 2, T
tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 45$
©x¹ ©1¹ 4
1 ª § 2Sk T · § 2Sk T ·º
From z k 1 r n «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» where k 0,1,2,3
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
4 ª §S · § S ·º
1
2 «cos¨ 4 ¸ i sin¨ 4 ¸» 2 8 cos S 16 i sin S 16

1
When k 0, z1
4
¬ © ¹ 4
© ¹¼
1
4 ª § 2S 4 ·
S
§ 2S S 4 ·º 1
When k 1, z2 2 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» 2 8 cos 9S 16 i sin 9S 16
¬ © 4 ¹ © 4 ¹¼
1
4 ª § 4S S 4 · § 4S S 4 ·º 1
When k 2, z3 2 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» 2 8 cos 17S 16 i sin 17S 16
¬ © 4 ¹ © 4 ¹¼
1
4 ª § 6S S 4 · § 6S S 4 ·º
¸ i sin¨ ¸» 2 8 cos 25S 16 i sin 25S 16
1
When k 3, z4 2 «cos¨
¬ © 4 ¹ © 4 ¹¼
1 1
? The values of z are z 2 8 cos S 16 i sin S 16 , z 2 8 cos 9S 16 i sin 9S 16
z 2 8 cos 17S 16 i sin 17S 16 and z 2 8 cos 25S 16 i sin
1 1
25S
16
(b) z 2 1 i 3
2 § y· § 3· S
n 2, r x2 y2 12 3 tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨¨
2, T ¸ 60$
¸
©x¹ © 1 ¹ 3
1 ª § 2Sk T · § 2Sk T ·º
From z k 1 r n «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» where k 0,1
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
1 ª §S · § S ·º § 3 1 · 6 2
When k 0, z1 2 2 «cos¨ 3 ¸ i sin¨ 3 ¸» 2 cos S 6 i sin S 6 2 ¨¨ i ¸¸ i
¬ ©2¹ © 2 ¹¼ © 2 2 ¹ 2 2
1 ª § 2S S 3 · § 2S S 3 ·º
When k 1, z2 2 2 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» 2 cos 7S 6 i sin 7S
6
¬ © 2 ¹ © 2 ¹¼
6 2
? The values of z are z i, z 2 cos 7S 6 i sin 7S
6
2 2
208
(c ) z 3 3 3i
2 § y· § 3· S
12, T
2
n 3, r x2 y2 3 3 tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 60$
©x¹ © 3¹ 3
1 ª § 2Sk T · § 2Sk T ·º
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
3 ª § · § S ·º
1 S
12 «cos¨ 3 ¸ i sin¨ 3 ¸» 12 6 cos S 9 i sin
1
When k 0, z1 S
9
¬ © 3 ¹ © 3 ¹¼
ª § 2S S 3 ·
1
§ 2S S 3 ·º 1
«cos¨ 3 ¸ i sin¨ 3 ¸» 12 cos 9 i sin 9

3
When k 1, z2 12 6 5S 5S
¬ © ¹ © ¹ ¼
1
3 ª § 4S S 3 · § 4S S 3 ·º
¸ i sin¨ ¸» 12 6 cos 11S 9 i sin 11S 9
1
When k 2, z3 12 «cos¨
¬ © 3 ¹ © 3 ¹¼
1 1 1
?z 12 6
cos S 9 i sin S
9 ,z 12 6
cos 5S 9 i sin 5S
9 ,z 12 6
cos 11S 9 i sin 11S 9
Example 22
Solve the following complex numbers
(a) z 4 i 0
(b) z 3 8i 0
(c) z 3 1 i 0
(d) z 4 16 0
(e) z 3 27 0
Solution
(a) z 4 i 0, z 4 i
§ y· §1· S
n 4, r 1, T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 90$
©x¹ ©0¹ 2
1 ª § 2Sk T · § 2Sk T ·º
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
1 ª § 2Sk S 2 · § 2Sk S 2 ·º
z k 1 1 4 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ © 4 ¹ © 4 ¹¼
§S · §S ·
When k 0, z1 cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸
©8¹ ©8¹
§ 5S · § 5S ·
When k 1, z 2 cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸
© ¹8 © 8 ¹
§ 9S · § 9S ·
When k 2, z3 cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸
© 8 ¹ © 8 ¹
§ 13S · § 13S ·
When k 3, z 4 cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸
© 8 ¹ © 8 ¹
§S · §S · § 5S · § 5S · § 9S · § 9S · § 13S · § 13S ·
? z cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸, z cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸ , z cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸, z cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸
©8¹ ©8¹ © 8 ¹ © 8 ¹ © 8 ¹ © 8 ¹ © 8 ¹ © 8 ¹
209
(b) z 3 8i 0, z 3 8i
§ y· § 8· 3S
n 3, r 8, T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 270$
©x¹ © 0 ¹ 2
1 ª § 2Sk T · § 2Sk T ·º
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
1 ª § 2Sk 3S 2 · § 2Sk 3S 2 ·º
z k 1 8 3 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ © 3 ¹ © 3 ¹¼
ª §S · § S ·º
When k 0, z1 2«cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» 2 0 i 2i
¬ ©2¹ © 2 ¹¼
ª § 7S · § 7S ·º
When k 1, z2 2«cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ © 6 ¹ © 6 ¹¼
ª § 11S · § 11S ·º
When k 2«cos¨
2, ¸ i sin¨
z3 ¸»
¬ © 6 ¹ © 6 ¹¼
ª §S · § S ·º ª § 7S · § 7S ·º ª § 11S · § 11S ·º
? z 2«cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» , z 2«cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» , z 2«cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ ©2¹ © 2 ¹¼ ¬ © 6 ¹ © 6 ¹¼ ¬ © 6 ¹ © 6 ¹¼
(c) z 3 1 i 0, z 3 1 i
§ y· § 1 · 5S
n 3, r 2, T tan 1 ¨ ¸ tan 1 ¨ ¸ 225$
x
© ¹
© ¹ 1 4
1 ª § 2Sk T · § 2Sk T ·º
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
1 ª § 2Sk 5S 4 · § 2Sk 5S 4 ·º
2 6 «cos¨
z k 1 ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ © 3 ¹ © 3 ¹¼
1 ª § 5S · § 5S ·º
When k 0, z1 2 6 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ © ¹ 12 © 12 ¹¼
1 ª § 13S · § 13S ·º
When k 1, z2 2 6 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ © 12 ¹ © 12 ¹¼
1 ª § 7S · § 7S ·º
When k 2, z3 2 6 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ © 4 ¹ © 4 ¹¼
1 ª § 5S · § 5S ·º 1 ª § 13S · § 13S ·º 1 ª § 7S · § 7S ·º
? z 2 6 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» , z 2 6 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸» , z 2 6 «cos¨ ¸ i sin¨ ¸»
¬ © 12 ¹ © 12 ¹¼ ¬ © 12 ¹ © 12 ¹¼ ¬ © 4 ¹ © 4 ¹¼
210

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mOP  mOB nOP  nOA

mOP  nOP mOB  nOA, m  n OP mOB  nOA

the position vector of the points dividing AB externally in the ratio 3 : 1

(b) Direction cosine

Standard definition of dot product, consider the figure below;

Standard dot product formula a b a b cosT

The angle between two vectors by using dot product § a b ·

PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT

(b) i  j jk ik 1 1 cos 90$ 0

(b) a and b are collinear i.e.T 0$

100  140O  49O2 1080  54O2

APPLICATION OF DOT PRODUCT

From the figure above BC  CA BA

(i) Scalar projection

(ii) Vector projection

(c) To find the workdone

Workdone W .d Force(F ) u Displacement d .......... .......... .(i)

Cross product formula aub a b sin T

PROPERTIES OF CROSS PRODUCT

(a) To verify sine rule

From the figure above BC  CA BA, a  b c.......... .......... ......( i )

Sine Rule sin A sin B sin C

Area base u height

2.12 COLLINEAR VECTORS

Condition for collinear vectors a u b 0 or a O b

2.14 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT (BOX PRODUCT)

Consider vectors a x1i  y1 j   z1k , b x2 i  y 2 j   z 2 k , and c x3 i  y 3 j   z 3 k .

2.16 DERIVATIVE AND INTEGRATION OF VECTORS

Vectors can be integrated or differentiated with respect to its variable.

³ >3sin t i  cost j  (2  t )k @dt > 3 cost i  sin t j  2t  @

The speed and acceleration after 3 seconds

Show that the work done by the force is w f .d

Numerical method is a method used to find an approximate value of a physical

PROPERTIES OF NUMERICAL METHODS

We need numerical methods because of the following reasons,

1. When analytical solution is difficult to express in simple form, eg

3. When analytical solution is not known, eg find f ( 2.1)

f ( x) 1.02 1.09 1.99 2.3 2.9

Numerical method is divided into three categories;

There are two types of errors which are;

Some of sources of errors in numerical methods are;

An approximate value of S is given by 3.1428571 and its true value

1. An approximate value of In 2 is given by 0.69313607 and its true value is

3.2 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION

Numerical approximation consists of two parts which are;

(A) NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

From the figure above, when point P converges to M, f(x n ) 0

By using Newton' s Raphson method determine the root of x 2  2 x  1 0

Therefore, f (0)  f (1) 2 u 0.7183 | 1.4366  0

By using Newton' s Raphson method determine the root of e x  x  3 0

APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

(a) Square roots of a number ( N )

Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find square roots of a number

Differentiate equation (i) f c(x n ) 2 xn .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)

(d) r th roots of a number ( r N )

ADVANTAGES OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

(i) It require only one initial condition

DISADVANTAGES OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

3. Use the Newton’s Raphson method to approximate the root of

5. Newton’s Raphson method is an iteration method for showing equations

This is a numerical method of approximation of f ( x ) 0 given two initial

Consider the sketch below;

Secant method formula § xn1  xn ·

consider slope NP slope NM

mOP mOB nOP nOA

mOP nOP mOB nOA, m n OP mOB nOA

Standard dot product formula a b a b cosT

The angle between two vectors by using dot product § a b ·

(b) i j jk ik 1 1 cos 90$ 0

100 140O 49O2 1080 54O2

From the figure above BC CA BA

From the figure above BC CA BA, a b c.......... .......... ......( i )

Consider vectors a x1i y1 j z1k , b x2 i y 2 j z 2 k , and c x3 i y 3 j z 3 k .

³ >3sin t i cost j (2 t )k @dt > 3 cost i sin t j 2t @

By using Newton' s Raphson method determine the root of x 2 2 x 1 0

Therefore, f (0) f (1) 2 u 0.7183 | 1.4366 0

By using Newton' s Raphson method determine the root of e x x 3 0

Secant method formula § xn1 xn ·

The equation x 3 3 x 20 0 has a single real root inside the interval

Given that x 3 3x 20 0 where x0 3 and x1 4

Given that x 3 3 x 20 0 where x0 3 and x1 4

At point B (0, y1 ) satisfies y ax 2 bx c

At point C (h, y 2 ) satisfies y ax 2 bx c

x Inx 2 First Last Odd Even

'x 0.85914 0.7310

Complex number is a number which can be expressed in the form of z x iy

The value of imaginary unit or iota is given by i 1 o i2 1

Consider the basic definition of imaginary unit i 2 1

The conjugate of a complex number z x iy is z x iy

Modulus of complex numbers z x2 y2

(d) z1 §¨ 4 2i ·¸ u §¨ 3 5i ·¸ 12 20i 6i 10i 12 20i 6i 10 2 26i

Cartesian (polynomial) form of complex numbers z x iy

(b) Polar form of a complex number, (i.e. z r cosT i sinT )

a z1 z 2 r1r2 >cos T1 T 2 i sin T1 T 2 @ >