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SFRA Training
 SFRA History

Initial research started in the 60’s.

In the 80’s Engineers mainly used HP
network analyzers
First generation of SFRA purpose built test
sets developed by Doble in 1990.
Now SFRA technique has gained world
wide acceptance with several
manufacturers producing dedicated
instruments for SFRA
 SFRA History

Today
Doble’s SFRA has become the de facto
SFRA standard in North America and
wordwide with > 700 Instruments sold
Doble has been cataloging results for ten
years
Doble has developed standardized SFRA
procedures for IEEE & CIGRE
Doble develops support network for
SFRA analysis and interpretation
 National Grid FRA experience

• started evaluating FRA in late 1980’s

• initially used an impulse technique (KEMA digital
LVI)
• changed to swept frequency ( Ontario Hydro )
• hundreds of tests
• several examples of failures
• standardised test procedure ( ‘Euro Doble’ )
• Method now used by many other utilities in
Europe, Far East, Australia, North America
Support: Integration

SFRA is one tool in the tool box

Capacitance DC Resistance

OC: Open Circuit SFRA SC: Open Circuit

Exciting Leakage
Currents Reactance
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SFRA Training
Why Use SFRA?
Doble SFRA – summary

SFRA is a test set for transformers, reactors, and

rotating machines
SFRA can tell you if anything is damaged or broken
inside your transformer without going inside.
SFRA is used alongside other electrical tests such
as the M4000 and oil analysis
 Transformer Decisions

• There are many decisions relating to transformers:

– Is it safe to go back in service after a fault?
– Has it been damaged in transit?
– Is it deteriorating as it ages?
– Will it fail unexpectedly?

• Decision making for transformers is not easy

• Quality data and engineers support good decisions

 Transformer Data

• Data may relate to different transformer areas:

– Dielectric – ability to carry voltage
– Mechanical – ability to carry current
– Thermal – ability to sustain power transfer

• Field Testing provides the engineer with a

group of tools to assess the condition of a
transformer in each area

• Engineer should choose the right tool for the job

 Which Transformer Tests?

• Tests depend on the decision you need to

make!
 Motivation: SFRA When & Why?

• Acceptance
• Establish a Baseline
• Assess Condition after Electrical Disturbance
• Assess Condition after a Relocation
• Asset Management - Ranking and Prioritizing
• Reduce Catastrophic Failures

• Winding technology hasn’t changed much in 100

years
• Available tools have changed a great deal
 Why Do Things Move?

• Mechanical Shock during Shipping

• Loosening of Internal Structural
Components – loss of clamping
pressure
• Fault Duty
Mechanical Failure
Mechanical Failure
 Failure Mode

• The very large electromagnetic forces on windings

during fault conditions can cause winding movement
and even permanent winding and core deformation
• This may result in insulation damage.
• Turn to turn faults are the most likely.
• Insulation damage usually results in a failure of the
transformer which is uneconomic to repair.
 Design issues

• Transformers should be designed to withstand through

faults.
• However, transformers are rarely short-circuit tested
because of the costs involved.
• So the short-circuit strengths of designs are not often
checked.
• Many new transformers fail short circuit tests, so the short-
circuit strength of many designs must be suspect.
 Design limitations

• Design calculations don’t take into account the effects of

twisting forces.

• Designers can’t design against tap to tap faults.

• Tap windings are difficult to design for short-circuit

strength.
 Specification

• Impedance 20 % 5%

• Short-circuit current 5 p.u. 20 p.u.

• Short-circuit forces 1 : 16
 Detection

• Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) will only indicate

a problem when the insulation has been damaged
(usually too late to repair).
• Internal visual inspections often inconclusive
• Winding failures can usually be diagnosed by
various electrical tests ( but not always ).
• But latent damage is much harder to detect.
So your transformer may be critically damaged
without you being aware of it !
 Service

• The number and severity of short-circuit events

suffered are important.
• Close-up lightning strikes are a common cause
of winding movement failures.
• Tap-changer faults can cause tap winding
failures.
• Faulty synchronisation can cause winding
damage and failure.
 Ageing

• As a transformer ages the insulation shrinks

and clamping pressure is lost.
- reduces strength.

• Any minor winding deformation usually

results in mis-alignment of electromagnetic
centres - increases stresses during
subsequent faults.
Failure Mode
• Hoop buckling of inner
winding
• Conductor tipping
• Conductor telescoping
• Coil clamping failure
• End insulation collapse
• Spiral tightening
• Lead displacement
Bushing failure….

This bushing
failed
catastrophically

This bushing
was hit by
porcelain and
failed
Neutral bushing lifted from
turret and is no longer vertical
SFRA 2009
Bushing….

But did the

windings move
because of the
pressure wave
in the oil?
SFRA showed
that the
windings were
in good shape.
SFRA 2009
Transformer impact….

Or maybe we hit a
bridge?
 Bridge Impact

Paint scrapes on delivery are suspicious?

How did the

scrapes get
there, and what
does the impact
recorder say?
Do we know if anything moved
inside the transformer?
Transport Issues

t
Transformer Arrives by Barge
Almost!
 Symptoms - black box scenario

• How can we tell if anything has moved?

 SFRA as a transformer test

Sweep Frequency Response Analysis

A method to measure the frequency response of the

passive elements (RLC) of a transformer.

The result is a transfer function which produces a

fingerprint related to the mechanical geometry of
the transformer.

SFRA relates to Mechanical Integrity

 SFRA – What do you get?

Main winding

Tap leads

Core Tap windings

Conclusions

SFRA is a means to provide data about

transformer mechanical integrity

Good results lead to good decisions

Doble support means you can extract

value from your SFRA measurements
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SFRA Training
Introduction:
RLC, dB & MHz
SFRA Theory and Practice

• In a passive device there are three basic

components:
– resistors
– capacitors
– inductors
• They each have a different response to an AC
signal
• Their response is closely related to their
geometry: both internal and in relation to other
components
 FRA theory

What is a winding ?
Inductance
Series capacitance
Shunt capacitance
High frequency model
 Winding

• inductance
• series capacitance ( turn to turn )
• shunt capacitance ( turn to earth )

• winding geometry determines values of L and

C
 Winding frequency responses

• windings have frequency dependent response

for transmitted signals
• the detailed form of the frequency response
depends on winding geometry
• a change in geometry will change the
frequency response
 FRA theory

If we can measure changes in the frequency

response of a winding caused by winding
movement,
then we can detect winding movement
 SFRA Theory and Practice

• Impedance of an ideal resistor, capacitor and inductor

450
400
Im pedance, Ohms
350
Resistance:
300 flat response v. frequency
250
200
Inductor:
150
100 Increased impedance with
50 increased frequency; dead
0 short at low frequency
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency, Hz
Capacitor:
Reduced impedance with increased frequency; open circuit at low
frequency
SFRA Theory and Practice

• dB’s: as impedance increases, Vout falls

V in V out
Impedance, Z

Response in dB’s = 20 log10(Vout /Vin)

• Each 20 dB drop means we are looking at

a tenth of the previous Vout/Vin
 SFRA Theory and Practice

Each 20 dB drop means we are looking at a

tenth of the previous Vout/Vin
Response in dB’s = 20 log10(Vout/Vin)
+20 Vout = 10 * Vin
dBs
0 Vout = Vin

-20 Vout = 0.1 * Vin

-40 Vout = 0.01 * Vin

-60 Vout = 0.001 * Vin

 SFRA Theory and Practice

Need to reference each measurement to ground

V signal V in V out
Im pedance, Z

50  C oax
50  C oax 50  C oax
S ignal L ead T est
R eference
M easurem ent M easurem ent
L ead L ead

Means we get a consistent measurement

 SFRA Theory and Practice

Response of a short circuit

0

Response, dB
-25 Response

-50
Frequency, Hz

0 dB across the frequency range

 SFRA Theory and Practice

Response of ideal resistors - no inductance or

capacitance present
0

Response, dB 50  Response
-25
500 
Response

-50
Frequency, Hz

Flat across the frequency range

 SFRA Theory and Practice

Response of an ideal inductor

Inductive
0 dB down at roll off
low frequency
means it looks
like a dead Larger inductances
short start to roll off at lower
frequencies
 SFRA Theory and Practice

Response of ideal capacitor

‘Knee’ point depends
on size of capacitor

0 dB down at
high
Low frequency
frequency
response is like
Capacitive like a dead
an open circuit
climb back short
 SFRA Theory and Practice

Parallel RLC Circuit:

Constant dBs
down v. frequency

Dead short at Open circuit at

low frequency high frequency

Open circuit at Dead short at

low frequency high frequency
 SFRA Theory and Practice

Impedance of the Parallel RLC Circuit:

Resonant frequency depends

R affects size of
only on L and C values
resonance peak 6

Im pedance, Ohms
5
4

3
2

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency, Hz
 SFRA Theory and Practice

Response of the RLC Circuit:

Capacitive
climb back

Inductive roll off Resonance

 4. Understanding SFRA - Basic Principle

Response of Multiple Circuits:

System 1
0
-20 Resonance ?
-40
Vin Vout -60
-80
-100
Resonance ? Resonance ?
System 2

100 1010
SFRA Theory and Practice

• We get a resonance for an inductor-capacitor

(LC) combination

• Changing L or changing C gives a new

resonance

• L and C are dependent on geometry

• Changing R changes the size of the resonance

Real World Measurements

HV
A real C
Winding C
C
CT
C
T
transformer has
H H H

R LH RH LH
many H
Inter
inductance
C
and CH CH
H Winding
capacitances
L L L

RL LL RL LL
Each LC pair
CT C
LV
CL CL
givesC a
T
L

Winding resonance
SFRA Theory and Practice

• Need to reference each measurement to ground

V signal V in V out
Im pedance, Z

50  C oax
50  C oax 50  C oax
S ignal L ead T est
R eference
M easurem ent M easurem ent
L ead L ead

 Means we get a consistent measurement

SFRA is really many measurements

Some individual resonances

 Hardware Test Leads
Signal & Reference
• Three lead system Leads
Signal + Reference Measurement
Measure lead
Ground
Ground Signal

M5x00
 5. SFRA – M5000 Series

M5200

M5300

M5400
 5. M5000 Test Cable

At Test Set - Color Coded Leads

Yellow - Signal (Gives Vin)
Red - Reference (Measures Vin)
Black - Test (Measure Vout)

At Transformer
Red => Vin
Black => Vout
Lead Grounds to Base of Bushings
Safety Ground - Twist Lock to Transformer
 A note about Test Leads

• 60 ft /18 m
• Cable Trunk 30 ft to the split
• Shield Ground 12 ft
• Application use if <= 362 kV
• 100 ft /30 m
• Cable Trunk 55 ft to the split
• Shield Ground 18 ft
• Application use if > 362 kV
• No longer using the white jumpers
Hardware Test Leads
IEC Definitions
Source lead
The lead connected to the voltage source of the measuring
equipment used to supply an input
voltage to the test object.
Reference lead (Vin)
The lead connected to the reference channel of the
measuring equipment used to measure
the input voltage to the test object (Vin).
Response lead (Vout)
The lead connected to the response channel of the
measuring equipment used to measure
the output voltage of the test object (Vout)
 FRA test leads and equipment

• High frequency co-axial cable

• Impedance matched ( 50 ohms ) at equipment
(to avoid reflections in test leads)
• Separate S and R leads for applying and
measuring signal at input terminal
Only then will layout of test leads have no
effect on measurement
• Any length ( 18 m popular )
 Applied and measured signals

Vi Vo

Response = Vo/Vi
Frequency Response Analysis

Sweep Frequency Method

 Vout 
H (dB)  20 log10  
 Vin 
 Vout  Most Useful Frequency Range
H ( )  tan 
1
 20 Hz - 2 MHz
 Vin 
Tutorial Session - Frequency Response Analysis

Achieve a Two Port Network

Hardware Range & Resolution

Signal Generation: Range &

Resolution
Two independent measurement channels
Oversample at up to 100 MS/s
20 V p-p
10 Hz-25 MHz
Log Scale at 1.02% of frequency
 Conclusions

RLC components have different SFRA

responses

Even simple circuits may have complex

responses

‘Real’ transformers have many resonances

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SFRA Training
Test Procedures
SFRA Test Procedures

There is a basic set of recommended tests for any

transformer.

Doble software comes complete with templates

which have IEEE and CIGRE compliant tests.

Further tests may be performed for diagnostic

purposes:
per phase short circuit
interwinding tests
Reverse short circuit
etc
Setting up the transformer

• Transformer should be disconnected

from system. Busbars removed if
possible. Line, neutral and any tertiary
line connections shall be disconnected
but tank earth, internal auxiliary
equipment and internal current
transformer connections shall remain
connected.
• Transformer should be in normal
service condition (assembled, oil-
filled).
Setting up the transformer

• Make connections as determined by

winding configuration. Phases not
under test are usually left floating.
• In the case where two connections to
one corner of a delta winding are
brought out, the transformer shall be
measured with the delta closed but not
with the earth connected.
 Setting up the transformer

• If special connections have been specified

and are provided on the test object to enable a
frequency response measurement to be made
when it is arranged for transport then the
measurement must be made in both the fully
assembled (fluid filled) and transport
configurations (drained if required for
transport) before transport and subsequently
as specified by the purchaser.
• Beware of different states of oil draining
 Setting up the transformer

• It is important that SFRA measurements

are always made in a consistent way and
that all details of the measurement
method are systematically recorded.
This will help to avoid false
discrepancies and ensure the
compatibility of frequency responses
during comparison.
Typical Measurements – two winding unit

• Connections - look at each winding

separately:
• Make measurements at extreme raise LTC
and nominal DETC
• With previous results – repeat those
procedures
HV - H1-H2, H2-H3, H3-H1
LV - X1-X0, X2-X0, X3-X0
Short Circuit - H1-H2, H2-H3, H3-H1
with X1-X2-X3-X1 shorted (all three phases, not X0)
FRA test connections
FRA test connections
Measurements
 5. SFRA Test Procedure

• Open-Circuit (OC) Tests

• Short-Circuit (SC) Tests
• Supplementary Test: Inter-Winding Tests

 LTC at extreme rise (16R or 1).

 DETC at nominal position.
 If possible to do additional tests - e.g. various tap
positions, short circuit tests, tertiary tests etc.
 5. Typical Test Procedure

Delta-Wye – Open Circuit (OC) Tests

Red Black
H1 - H3 HV Winding Tests
H2 - H1
H3 - H2
X1 - X0 LV Winding Tests
X2 - X0
X3 - X0
Supplementary
H1 - X1 Inter-Winding Tests
H2 - X2
H3 - X3
 5. Typical Test Connections

Delta-Wye – Short Circuit (SC) Tests

Red Black Short-Circuiting

H1 - H3 X1X2X3X1
H2 - H1 X1X2X3X1
H3 - H2 X1X2X3X1
Other Test Connections
 Software
Nameplate
Test Template
SFRA Trace
What – Shorted
kind Leads
of trace?
SFRA Trace – Open in Test
What kind Circuit
of trace?

Open
Circuit
inside test
specimen

Open
Circuit
within test
leads
What would be the measurements ?

Single phase two winding unit?

Three phase three winding D-D-Y unit?

Check Latest Doble connection guide

Measurements
Example from Manual
S/C Connections
Measurements
Example from Manual
Measurements
 Typical Results - Conclusions

• Results should be expected form

• Make sure connections are appropriate for

transformers

• Check with previous results for consistency

Troubleshooting

• Shorted cable measurement

• Shorted cable – open ground measurement
• Open cable measurement
• Ground check on transformer
• Repeat measurements on ‘good’ winding

• Does it make sense????

Troubleshooting

If differences are observed when

comparing with a finger print result,
it is important to first verify the
measurement by repeating to ensure
that the differences are not caused by
bad measurement practice or by
making different measurement
connection.
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SFRA Training
Typical Results
Wye-wye : HV’s
Note low frequency variations
Wye-wye: LV’s
Less dB down than HV
Wye-wye HV Short Circuit
LV windings shorted
Another HV Wye
HV winding – three phases one DETC positions
Another HV Wye
Detail – three phases

Center phase
Two outer
phases
Another HV Wye
Detail – three phases

Center phase

Two outer
phases
Delta-wye HV’s
Typical response at low frequencies
Delta-Wye: LV’s
Less dB down than HV
 4. Simple Transformer Model

Which Winding has higher

Open Circuit (OC)
impedance? HV LV
Vi Vi
Which trace is highest
and lowest? Vo Vo
• OC HV Trace
Lowest
• OC LV Trace Middle Short Circuit (SC)
HV LV
• SC Trace Highest
Vi

Vo
 4. Simple Transformer Model

HV LV • Which trace is VH
Vi
Vi
0
VH -20 VL
VL
-40
-60
-80
ZH > ZL: -100
VH: Lower response VH
or more attenuated
100 1010
Delta-Wye HV Short Circuit
LV windings shorted together
 Autotransformer HV
HV LV and Tertiary compared

Tertiary winding

LV (common) winding

HV (series) winding
Measurement Sense: H1-H0 v. H0-H1

Effect is smaller when the two bushings are

similar – e.g. H1-H3 v H3-H1

H0-H1

H1-H0
Variation with LTC position
16 Lower through 8 Lower for one winding
Variation with LTC position
Mid frequency detail

16 Lower

8 Lower
 Variation with and without oil
LV winding

With oil – Without oil

Lower Higher
resonant resonant
frequencies frequencies
Effect of Bad grounds
Original and Bad Red lead ground

Bad red lead

ground

Original
Effect of Bad grounds
Original and Bad Black lead ground

Original

Bad red lead

ground
 Effect of Magnetization
Low frequency variation is severe – but identifiable

Magnetization affects the

core response
 Magnetization & Grounding variation

HV winding

High frequency variation

due to grounding

Magnetized center phase Magnetization affects the

core response
 Sister Units showing Magnetization
HV winding

Magnetization variation
 Sister Units showing Magnetization
HV winding – same unit, more magnetization

Magnetization variation
 HV Wye winding: Open and Short
HV winding – same unit, more magnetization

Short circuit wye winding

Open circuit wye winding

Very similar at high
frequencies
 HV Delta winding: Open and Short
HV winding – same unit, more magnetization

Short Circuit

Open Circuit Similar at high

frequencies
 Typical Results - Conclusions

• Results vary between units – depending on

size and type of unit
• Results vary with magnetization &
grounding
• Results vary with tap changer positions
• Results vary with oil level

• Know what to expect – see next slide!!!

 4. Simple Transformer Model

HV LV • Which trace is VCHL

Vi VCHL
0 VCHL
VH CHL -20
-40
-60
-80
CHL: High-to-Low or -100
Inter-Winding VH

100 1010
 One Transformer: HV, LV, SC & IW

IW = Interwinding measurement
Short Circuit

LV Open Circuit

HV Open Circuit

H-X interwinding
 Wye : HV open circuit
Note low frequency variations
2Highs and 1 Low
V and W shape
 Interpretation
• Experience: Certain Frequency Bands
Indicate Different Problem Conditions
<2kHz: Core 400kHz to
Deformation, Open 2MHz:
Circuits, Shorted Movement of
Turns & Residual main and tap
Magnetism winding leads

2kHz to 20kHz:
Bulk Winding
20 kHz to 400kHz:
Movement Relative
Deformation Within
to Each Other,
the main and tap
clamping structure
windings
 4. Simple Transformer Model

High Low High

W shape = A/C Phase B
A C
Vi
V shape = B Phase

Vo

=> Exciting Currents = 2 similar Highs & 1 Low

 2. SFRA – Logarithm Graph

100 Hz
1 MHz
2. What is SFRA? – Linear Graph

Impossible to see 100 Hz

Interpretation
Power of a Null Result

• 600 MVA GSU Transformer

• SFRA results from factory and initial field
• New SFRA results taken after the fire
 Fire: factory to field comparison

HV and LV results overlay almost

exactly up to 2 MHz

Low frequency
Short circuit results
variations are due to
to within 0.01 dB
core magnetization
 Post fire conclusions

• Results show no variation to 2 MHz

using different:
– Doble test sets
– test personnel
– test leads
– lead positions etc
Post fire conclusions

• SFRA results show no indication of a

mechanical problem within the transformer –
this is a NULL result

• SFRA data was key in the decision to return

the unit to service

• Full details in 2005 Doble Conference Paper

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SFRA Training
Open and Short Circuit
Test Variation
SFRA Typical Results

This presentation gives typical results for open

and short circuit tests

It explains why the two tests are different and

the value in each test

A T-model of a transformer is used to make

things clearer

Only low frequencies are considered – no

capacitive effects
 Test Connections - SFRA Open Circuit

Normal test on HVs the LVs float

HV Winding LV Winding
Signal & Reference

R small R small

Core
M5100
R high

Test

Model is relevant for LOW FREQUENCIES

Test Connections - SFRA Short Circuit

Short circuit test on HVs - LVs

shorted
HV Winding LV Winding
Signal & Reference

R small R small

Core LV Short
M5100
R high

Test

Model is relevant for LOW FREQUENCIES

Short Circuit v. Open Circuit
Open circuit responses dominated by core at
low frequency – as with Exciting current
Different magnetic paths lead to different
responses – typical outer v center phase
variation

Short circuit responses remove effect of core

at low frequencies – as with leakage
Reactance
All three short circuit responses should be
identical
 Short Circuit Test - Setup

• Short secondaries together, use

proper size jumpers, close the delta,
X1-X2-X3-X1
• Do not short multiple secondaries
together
• Test each phase
– Phase A
– Phase B
– Phase C
 Short Circuit (SC) Analysis

• Analyze the “inductive roll-off” region

• This roll-off defines the primary
winding inductance model
• Very similar to the LRT
 SC Analysis

• The SC test the phases should be no further than 0.1

dB from each other
• Roll-off should be close to -20dB/decade
• Analysis will require you to zoom in very close
Step 1:

Overlay the
three HVSC Test Results
Step 2:

Zoom in on the LF Region

that shows the “Inductive
Roll-off”
Step 3:

Identify the key artifacts

A) LF DC Section
B) Inductive Roll-off Knee
(Low-Pass Filter Cut-off
Frequency)
C) Inductive Roll-off Section
D)End of Inductive Roll-off
Step 4: Analyze LF DC Section

This is the few points that are at

the very beginning – 20 Hz

There should be very close offset

between the three results.

If there is a fan-out at the

beginning this could indicate a
winding resistance problem.
Recommend a winding
resistance test
This example is good
Step 5: Locating the Knee point.

Starting at 20 Hz, look for

maximum deflection point
where the traces go into the
inductive roll-off section (next
slides explains this more)

The LP Filter cut-off frequency

by definition is the point where
the frequency response goes
from flat to -3db down
 Start “Inductive
Roll-off”
Step 5: Find the start and end points of the
“Inductive Roll-off”

The inductive roll-off is the ramped linear section

that drops at -20dB/Decade. On a logarithmic
plot it appears as a linear ramp. One of the
reasons logarithmic display is better than
linear. Stop
Use the ruler-method if you need to find where the
ramp stays linear (straight line ramp down to
the right). Find the start and stop points where
is stays on a straight edge
 “Inductive
Roll-off”

Zoom in here

Step 6: Choose a point to analyze

Select a point somewhere very close to the half

way points between Start and Stop and zoom
in very tight
Step 7: Calculate the offset

12.64-12.57=0.07dB = GOOD!

In general, most transformers will be below

0.1 db offset, but up to 0.2 dB is not
uncommon.

This analysis is sensitive to the same issues

as Leakage Reactance.
 HV Wye winding: Open and Short
HV winding – same unit, more magnetization

Short circuit wye winding

Open circuit wye winding

Very similar at high
frequencies
 Good Short Circuit Results
Good Transformer – Good Results – Lo Frequency

All three have same

roll off
All three have very
similar resistance
element at 20 Hz

Resistive section in
this case is not
horizontal. This is
common
 SC Analysis

• If SC results do not match....

– at 20 Hz -> Check Winding Resistance
Variation in results may occur near 20 Hz due to
variation in resistance element of shorting leads.
May indicate a need to check transformer with DC
resistance tests
– Compare LRT results throughout roll off
– Variation in inductive roll off is due to variation in
winding impedance
• Center phase may be slightly different
• We expect all three phases to be within 0.1 dB
Short Circuit Variation
Recommended is a three phase equivalent short
circuit test

Can do a per phase equivalent by repeating tests

and just shorting appropriate LV winding

Can do LV short circuit (with HV’s shorted)

Per phase and LV measurements are useful in

diagnostic investigations
Short Circuit v. Open Circuit
At open circuit the load on the LV side is
‘infinite’

At short circuit the load on the LV side is

zero

We should expect a result to lie between the

open and short circuit results!
 Case Studies
1 Shorted Turn

2 Hoop Buckling

3 Axial Collapse

4 Clamping Failure

5 Bushing Failure
 Case 1: Shorted Turn

• Demonstrates need for good low

frequency resolution
• Many electrical tests should show a
shorted turn
• No baseline data required for
diagnosis
 Case 1: Normal Response

Three normal open circuit responses

Three phases
respond
differently at
low
Results as expected and acceptable
frequencies
 Case 1: Shorted Turn

After an incident - one year later...

One phase has clear
inductive roll off associated
with short circuit
measurement

Variation is clear indicator of shorted

turn on A phase
 Case 1: Shorted Turn

Low frequency responses clearly show

inductive roll off associated with short
circuit
Another transformer measurement
- no reference results

Results indicate shorted turn on one phase

 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

• Compressive Failure of Winding - also known as Hoop

Buckling
– Need repeatability to within 1 dB
– Need low frequency repeatability to within 0.3 dB

• Expect increase in LC combination of winding bulk - seen

as left shift of resonance at mid range

• Consequent increase in winding impedance - seen in short

circuit results
 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

• Example here of two 28 MVA sister

units

• One known bad after internal

inspection

• Other unit suspect based on

Dissolved Gas Analysis
 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

Inspection of bad transformer revealed hoop

buckling on TWO windings

Clear bulge
in winding
 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

Open Circuit LV results Two bad phases have shift to lower

frequency at this frequency

The B phase is different - By itself, this is not conclusive

which may be due to evidence as we have no
design and construction reference results
 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

Low frequency
short circuit results
show consistent
increased
impedance on bad
phases

The variation was

consistent and repeatable: Results are anomalous
attributable to variation but symmetrical -
within the transformer evidence is inconclusive

0.2 dB delta is significant here!

 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

• For the bad transformer we have picked

out two possible indicators of variation
for the two bad phases

• For the suspect unit, we look at the

same areas
 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

Open circuit results

show same effect on Clear shift left at
ONE phase same frequency
range

In the known bad unit two phases had

Now
a shift left and both had hoop we have just one phase shift left
buckling

Small change in frequency and dB

 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

Both units - displayed for comparison

This is good evidence that one

phase may have hoop buckling
 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

Suspect unit shows same increased impedance

(more dB’s down) for one phase - the same one
with the shift left on open circuit results

One phase appears to have symptoms of

hoop buckling

0.2 dB delta is significant here!

 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

• Diagnosis is that suspect unit has one bad phase through

hoop buckling

• Transformer is bent, but not broken

• Unit was returned to service for some months, under

advice that it was less likely to withstand a close in fault

• Subsequent internal inspection revealed hoop buckling

on the suspect phase, as expected and predicted
 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

Inspection showed hoop buckling

on suspect phase - as predicted

Transformer returned to service before being rewound

 Case 2: Hoop Buckling

• Need good resolution - especially below 1 kHz

for short circuit results
• Need good repeatability over a range (less than
0.3 dB)

• Use of results from similar unit as reference

was key for diagnosis
 Case 3: Axial Shift of a Winding

• Example uses reference results taken 7 years

previously
• Need range up over 1 MHz
• Need repeatability to within 1%
• Need confidence in results to avoid a false negative
• Failure mode is reduction in LC combination
• Resonances should shift right at higher frequencies
as a consequence of LC reduction
Case 3: Axial Shift of a Winding

Scattered blocking
under a collapsed
winding
 Case 3: Axial Shift of a Winding
0
Results from one GOOD phase taken in 1994 and 2001
-10

-20
Amplitude in dB

-30

-40

-50

-60

Small dB variations
-70
0 0.5 are acceptable: no 1
No variation betweenFrequency
tracesin implies
MHz LC variation implied

that THIS PHASE has little change

22/11/94 8/11/01
 Case 3: Axial Shift of a Winding
0
Results from bad phase taken in 1994 and 2001
-10

-20
Amplitude in dB

-30

-40

-50

-60

Low frequency results, up to Clear and consistent shift to higher

-70
over 2000 kHz, are acceptable frequencies
0.5 of several resonances 1
Variation implies we have
Frequency in MHz a

substantial problem
22/11/94 8/11/01
 Case 3: Axial Shift of a Winding
0

-10
Good SFRA repeatability
-20
gives confidence in the
Amplitude in dB

-30
integrity of the good phase
-40

-50
0
-60
-10
-70
0 0.5 -20 1

Amplitude in dB
-30

Good SFRA repeatability -40

allows confident -50

diagnosis of bad phase -60

-70
0 0.5 1
Frequency in MHz
 Case 3: Axial Shift of a Winding

• Bad phase clearly identified

• SFRA results up to >1 MHz required

• SFRA results taken with different test

sets by different test teams

• Repeatability is key
 Case 4: Clamping Failure

• 750 MVA transmission transformer

• Close in fault caused center winding to

‘jump’ and break the clamping

• Stress shield dropped on to winding,

altering capacitance of that winding
 Case 4: Clamping Failure

Clamping beam broken

Stress shield collapsed on

to center phase
 Case 4: Clamping Failure

Three HV phase results shown together

0
Center phase shows shift
-10
to lower frequency for
-20
first resonances
-30
Amplitude in dB

-40

-50

-60

Low frequency results

-70
show
Transformer has expectedfurther
a problem form
-80
investigation required
0 5 Frequency in kHz10 15 20
 Case 4: Clamping Failure

• Initial low frequency (< 2kHz) core

related resonance unaffected

• Resonances usually associated with

bulk capacitance of windings to
ground are moved to lower
frequencies
 Case 5: Bushing Failure

• Transmission Transformer had a

bushing failure

• No reference results available

• Did the failure move the windings?

• Sister unit available for reference

 Case 5: Bushing Failure

Minor variations in suspect unit at

high frequencies may relate to
some internal lead movement

Variation is small - but needs further investigation

Low frequency
variation as expected
between phases
 Case 5: Bushing Failure

Six traces here - suspect

unit and sister unit

Variation is still a concern - need to do a

phase-by-phase comparison of two sister units
 Case 5: Bushing Failure

There are two traces here - suspect

phase of suspect unit and same
phase of sister transformer

The two traces are

clearly very similar -
can just see one trace
behind the other Sister unit has exactly
the same variation - it
must be design related as
No variation between sister
traces implies this
is known good
phase is OK, despite bushing failure
 Case 5: Bushing Failure

• Suspect phase does show some

variation at high frequency
• Sister unit shows same variation -
known to be a good transformer
• Consequently - SFRA variation is
due to design and construction
 Case 5: Bushing Failure

• Sister Transformers may show variation between

corresponding phases on each transformer

• If two phases are similar between the two units, it is

likely that the third phase is also similar

• So we can use sister units as a reference, even if there

are variations in response between the units
 Interpretation
• Experience: Certain Frequency Bands
Indicate Different Problem Conditions
<2kHz: Core 400kHz to
Deformation, Open 2MHz:
Circuits, Shorted Movement of
Turns & Residual main and tap
Magnetism winding leads

2kHz to 20kHz:
Bulk Winding
20 kHz to 400kHz:
Movement Relative
Deformation Within
to Each Other,
the main and tap
clamping structure
windings
Together We Power
The World

SFRA Training
Using the Software
Using the Software

Communication protocol – Ethernet

cable
Using the Software

Communication protocol – CSMUAB (USB)

Cable
 USB Drivers

• Communication: Ethernet or USB over

Ethernet
• Ethernet 192.168.1.0
• USB over Ethernet 192.168.1.1
• Windows will ask to install the USB driver
when the USB cable is plugged into the
M5X00 for the first time.
• Point to location of USB drivers
 Windows Vista

• SFRA V5.1 will operate on Windows VISTA

• The communication limitations still apply,
regarding profiles and settings
• One issue has surfaced.
 VISTA Workaround

• Some people have had issues even when

logged in as an administrator.
• The workaround so far has been to tell the user
to turn off the 'User Account Control' in the
Vista User Manager.
• Turning this off has fixed every issue we have
had so far.
User Account Control
SFRA Software

The best way to become familiar with the

software is to use it

Topics on the following slides may help

direct discussion and experimentation
To try…
Software installation
Connect to an M5200

Data management: settings, folders and files

Test philosophy:
Set up data files
Select particular files
Run test
Review results
To try…
Choosing & Using templates

Select Apparatus & Run test

Reviewing, overlaying and comparing data

Analysis tab

Filenames & e-mailing files

Conclusions
Key points:

Collect data in an organized manner

Always make notes for tap positions

Backup for your test data regularly

Together We Power
The World

SFRA Training
Basic Analysis
 3. Are Baseline Results Necessary?

Not always - but they are preferable

Phase-to-phase comparisons
Comparison with sister units
Comparison with units from the same
manufacturer
Results have a generally predictable shape
SFRA Analysis is Logical

Analyzing SFRA data is a logical and

methodical process

Examples are given here to show the

approach taken
SFRA Analysis : getting Started

Make sure all results are available:

Current SFRA results

Any previous SFRA results
Any results from similar units
Any electrical test or DGA data

Understand the context: why are these

tests being performed?
In general
Trace shapes:

HV

LV

Short Circuit

Do they look as expected? Any variance?

Analysis with benchmark
Have the same measurements been made?

LTC and DETC the same?

Oil, bushings etc

Sister Units
Real sister?

Example
Phase-by-phase
When it gets down to basics…
Causes of variation
Check two useful documents:

Practical variability

Field and Factory variation

Integration

SFRA is one tool in the tool box

Capacitance DC Resistance

OC: Open Circuit SFRA SC: Short Circuit

Exciting Leakage
Currents Reactance
Context
Link SFRA to other tests:

DC resistance
Leakage Reactance
Exciting Currents
Capacitance
Conclusions
Analysis takes experience and time
Using Cross-Correlation Coefficients to
Analyze Transformer SFRA Traces
 The Problem

• Analyzing SFRA Traces can be Challenging

• No simple categorization available
• Natural desire to apply “limits” to SFRA
results

• “Smart” SFRA analysis routines

may have dubious outputs
 The Reality

• Human element needed - pictures

• Every transformer is an individual
• No perfect “pass/fail” criteria for any range
• SFRA analysis is still prone to outlandish claims
from some quarters
• Someone has to know what they are doing…
 The Stop-Gap

• Cross-correlation coefficients (CCF) are

commonly used in a variety of industries to
monitor signal integrity
• CCF’s provide a method to:
– Quantify SFRA Trace similarities
– Communicate results
– Apply limits to analysis
– Don’t rely on hidden or secret “black box”
analysis routines
 What is a CCF really?

• Take two sets of numbers

• Work out a ‘sameness’ value
• Same… different… opposite…
• Math is simple, as shown here
 Still keeping the math simple....

CCF 2

 ( Xi  X )(Yi  Y )
 ( Xi  X ) *  (Yi  Y )
2 2

In words, the CCF calculates the convoluted mean error

and normalizes to the individual mean over a particular
range of frequencies
Keeping the math simple....
• CCF is a number between 1.0 and -
1.0.
• For SFRA, it’s usually between 1.0
and 0.0
• The closer the value is to 1.0, the
more similar the traces are.
• The lower the value, the more the
two traces diverge.
• CCF can also be expressed in Percent
 Example CCFs

CCF
Good Match 0.95-1.0
Close Match 0.90-1.0
Poor Match <.89
No or very poor match <= 0.0

What you really need to know

 Regions of Interest

Region Frequency Sub-Band Components

1 < 2kHz Main Core; Bulk Winding Inductance

2 2kHz to 20 kHz Bulk Component Shunt Impedances

3 20 kHz to 400 kHz Main Windings

4 400 kHz to ~1 Mhz Main windings, Tap windings etc

Every transformer is different, these are just general

guidelines
SFRA Regions
Select your Band and Calculate
 Selecting Limits

• Depending on the type of comparison, the CCFs

limit should be adjusted. Starting Point!
– Benchmark comparison:

– Phase to Phase (A/C) or sister units:

 Case 1: Benchmark Comparison

• 675 MVA GSU built in 2002

• Suffered a fire on connected iso-phase bus
• Bushing had been degraded during the fire
– Expect some high frequency variation
• The unit was known to be magnetized
– Expect some low frequency variation
Case 1: Benchmark Comparison: H2-H0

Frequency Sub Band CCF

Region 1: 0 - 2 kHz 0.9879
Region 2: 2kHz – 20 kHz 0.9964
Region 3: 20 kHz – 400 kHz 0.9882
Region 4: 400 kHz – 1 MHz 0.9988
 Case 2: Phase-to-phase : Bent Unit

• 1960’s vintage GE 50
MVA transformer
• Tripped out of server
on protection
• No reference SFRA
results available
• Phase to phase
Close up view of LV winding shift
analysis required
Case 2: Bent Transformer: A/C Phase
comparison

Frequency Sub Band CCF

Region 1: 0 - 2 kHz 0.9831
Region 2: 2kHz – 20 kHz 0.9868
Region 3: 20 kHz – 400 kHz 0.8262
Region 4: 400 kHz – 1 MHz 0.9567
 Case 3: Two Large Sister Units

• Two 370 MVA Alstom transformers

• 345/14 kV
• Routine health assessment of the units was
conducted
• SFRA was used to ascertain construction
consistency between the units
• Determines if two units are in fact identical
 Case 3: Sister Units

Frequency Sub Band CCF

Region 1: 0 - 2 kHz 0.9898
Region 2: 2kHz – 20 kHz 0.9994
Region 3: 20 kHz – 400 kHz 0.9914
Region 4: 400 kHz – 1 MHz 0.9923
 Considerations

• Case studies did not change region limits

– Not necessarily true in all cases
– May change limits for different designs
• Recommended limits are starting points
– Can adjust limits; situation may require fine tuning
• Still does not replace the trained SFRA user
• Poor test technique can throw off results
 Conclusion

• CCF can help in the analysis of traces

by drawing attention to various
regions
• CCF assign a “Figure of Merit” that
can be used to quantify SFRA traces
similarities
• CCF can not diagnose the failure
mode, only the trained human eye and
experience can do that
• Still does not replace the trained
SFRA user
 7. Conclusions

• SFRA is a useful and sensitive tool

• Use in Conjunction with other Tools
• SFRA is a reliable and repeatable means of
making FRA measurements
• Use on relocation or after an incident
• Use as part of factory QA
 7. Notes...

• Need for good grounds

• Make sure transformer is in the same state

as last time

• Use a reference library

SFRA Case Studies:
Dealing With Noise

Presented by Doble Engineering Company

 Signal To Noise Ratio (SNR)

The Test signal can

Neighboring Transformers
become “swallowed” by
neighboring sources of
interference

The Real World has

Real Sources of Line
interference

Doble Provides 20 Vpp

to prevent this problem.

Overhead Lines Substation Equipment

Ground Grids
239
 SNR: Why it’s important

You may end up measuring the surrounding noise.

Results for a test set using low SNR

 Doble SFRA Leads

Clip-1 •Tests above 1 MHz are dominated by the test leads

(IEC & IEEE)

•Every test connection is a chance to make a

mistake and mess up results; Doble keeps it simple

•We all test in every possible environment so don’t

complicate it!
Done.

Clip-2

241 Inside Transformers Adverse Weather At Night

 Advanced Analysis: Cross Correlation & Difference

Cross-Correlation Analysis
-Assess Condition by
Winding Region

Difference Analysis
- Compare offset variations
for simple quick analysis

242
 Technical – automated analysis

• Diagnosis by difference and cross correlation is most advanced

available
• Training and support mean we don’t lose sight of the ‘picture’,
numbers can only tell you so much
• Cross-correlation (CC) looks at curve shape – will be the basis of
the Doble expert system
• Some systems have a single CC value for the whole trace

243
 Intermediate Frequency (IF) Bandwidth

Doble follows Laboratory Best Frequency to be

Practices of always ensuring IF measured
Bandwidth is < 10 %

In simple Terms: We don’t try to

make the results look prettier by
allowing other surrounding
signals to smooth the result out.

Doble

Some Others

244
 Nameplate Information

• Auto Transformer with Tertiary

• 20 MVA
• 138/69/13.2 kV
• Year of manufacture: 2011
• Test configuration:
– No Oil
– Spark plug (transit) Bushings
 The story unfolds

SFRA tests were performed on a transformer

after delivery to the site and then compared to
factory results

Something didn’t quite agree…..

H1-X1 Comparison to Factory
X2-H0X0 Comparison to Factory
Hey why are these different?

Site Test HVSC Test Results

Factory
Results
 Summary of initial SFRA analysis

• Both HVOC and LVOC results were

satisfactory when compared to previous

• Upon evaluation it was decided the HVSC

results did not compare to factory tests

• An investigation followed and ultimately the

transformer was tested again
 The Investigation showed ….

• That the shorting leads for the HVSC tests

were allowed to sag and come in contact with
the transformer tank.

• The leads were tightened up with no sagging

and the short circuit tests were performed
again.
Retest Satisfactory - 9 tests shown

Shorting leads
resting on tank

Factory results
and Retest after
fixing the leads
 Nameplate Information

• Auto Transformer with Tertiary

• 100 MVA

• 220/132 kV

• New unit

• Test configuration:

– Fully dressed
 The story unfolds

SFRA tests were performed on a transformer

after delivery to the site and then compared to
factory results

Field results were different when compared to

previous (factory) tests

Again, something didn’t quite agree…..

 Series Winding Factory vs. Field

Field

Factory
Common Winding Factory vs. Field

Field

Factory
Field retest after Demagnetization

But what is this here?

This is better
 Let’s get a closer look

Series Winding Field Retest

 Common winding field retest

This isn’t good

This is better
Conclusion

Effects of magnetic viscosity were evident

in both the series and common windings
between tests.

Cause of difference in field retest –

Tertiary was ungrounded for the test
SFRA Case Studies:
Field LV Anomaly

Presented by Doble Engineering Company

 Nameplate Information

• 125 MVA

• 220 kV Wye Delta

• Three winding transformer

• In service unit, DGA starting at the end of

previous year showed rising trend

• SFRA was performed

 Initial SFRA analysis

• SFRA results indicated problems in the LV

• Even to the untrained eye one should be able

to pick out the differences
LVOC SFRA Test

Houston we have a problem!

 Time to go inside

An internal investigation was

conducted and visible evidence of the
problem was found,
Pictures tell the story
Internal inspection
Internal Inspection
Internal Inspection
SFRA LVOC after repair
 SFRA Example

 Transformer Type: 3 Power Transformer

 Manufacturer: Waukesha
 Capacity: 30/40/50 MVA
 Voltage: 138/27 kV
 Tap Changer: 10% load tap changer; HV reconfiguration
tap changer, de-energized

 Entered service July 2002

 Removed from service two weeks later
Transformer
 SFRA Example

 Indications

 Tank temperature recorded at 480 F (230 C)

 Slight tank wall bulge
 Tank wall discoloration
 Strange noises while in service

 DGA Acetylene from 0 to >300

Hydrogen from 10s to >500
FFAs from low to high
 SFRA Example

Transformer Turns Ratio

Within 0.3% of nameplate and previous

results
 SFRA Example
H1-H2 H2-H3 H3-H1
DETC LTC X0-X2 X0-X3 X0-X1
Pos Pos 7/22/02 8/5/02 % 7/22/02 8/5/02 % 7/22/02 8/5/02 %
C 1R 8.809 8.811 -0.02% 8.809 8.808 0.01% 8.809 8.808 0.01%
B 1R 9.033 9.035 -0.02% 9.033 9.032 0.01% 9.033 9.032 0.01%
A 1R 9.258 9.260 -0.02% 9.258 9.257 0.01% 9.258 9.257 0.01%
D 1R 8.575 8.574 0.01% 8.573 8.572 0.01% 8.573 8.572 0.01%
E 1R 8.336 8.340 -0.05% 8.336 8.338 -0.03% 8.336 8.338 -0.03%
C N 8.861 N/P N/A 8.861 N/P N/A 8.864 N/P N/A
C 1L 8.919 8.911 0.09% 8.919 8.918 0.01% 8.919 8.918 0.01%
C 2L 8.976 8.964 0.13% 8.976 8.975 0.01% 8.976 8.975 0.01%
C 3L 9.033 9.018 0.17% 9.033 9.031 0.02% 9.033 9.031 0.02%
C 4L 9.090 9.075 0.17% 9.090 9.090 0.00% 9.090 9.090 0.00%
C 5L 9.149 9.133 0.17% 9.149 9.149 0.00% 9.149 9.148 0.01%
C 6L 9.208 9.190 0.20% 9.211 9.208 0.03% 9.208 9.208 0.00%
C 7L 9.268 9.250 0.19% 9.268 9.268 0.00% 9.268 9.268 0.00%
C 8L 9.329 9.310 0.20% 9.329 9.310 0.20% 9.329 9.310 0.20%
C 9L 9.391 9.370 0.22% 9.391 9.391 0.00% 9.391 9.391 0.00%
C 10L 9.460 9.433 0.29% 9.453 9.453 0.00% 9.460 9.453 0.07%
C 11L 9.516 9.495 0.22% 9.523 9.518 0.05% 9.516 9.518 -0.02%
C 12L 9.580 9.559 0.22% 9.588 9.582 0.06% 9.580 9.582 -0.02%
C 13L 9.645 9.623 0.23% 9.645 9.647 -0.02% 9.645 9.647 -0.02%
C 14L 9.711 9.688 0.24% 9.711 9.713 -0.02% 9.711 9.713 -0.02%
C 15L 9.785 9.745 0.41% 9.782 9.780 0.02% 9.785 9.781 0.04%
C 16L 9.846 9.821 0.25% 9.846 9.849 -0.03% 9.849 9.849 0.00%
 Power
Factor/Capacitance
CHL rose by a factor of ~3; slight
capacitance rise
Current (mA) Watts-Loss (W)
7/22/02 8/13/02 % 7/22/02 8/13/02 %
CH 9.946 9.974 0.28 0.218 0.254 16.51
CHL 23.540 23.650 0.47 0.436 1.239 184.17
CL 59.410 59.660 0.42 1.371 1.420 3.57

% PF (Corrected to 20C) Capacitance (pF)

7/22/02 8/13/02 % 7/22/02 8/13/02 %
CH 0.18 0.21 16.67 2638 2645 0.27
CHL 0.15 0.42 180.00 6245 6275 0.48
CL 0.18 0.19 5.56 15761 15825 0.41
 Excitation Currents

Excitation Currents

10
9
8 H1-H2/mA
mA

7 H2-H3/mA
6 H3-H1/mA
5
4
2L

4L

6L

8L

L
N

10

12

14

16
LTC Position
 Leakage
Reactance
Nameplate 9.39%

Measured 3 phase equivalent 13.19%

H3-H1/ H1-H2/ H2-H3/

Per Phase 596.60 174.00 173.30
Impedance 32.36% 9.15% 9.11%
 SFRA Example

Discoloration and bulge

Fault pressure Relief

valve (did not operate)
Low Voltage
High Voltage
High Voltage Short Circuit
Black
specs...
Copper exposed on lead
Factory Inspection
 Case Study

Autotransformer transportation
damage found using SFRA
 Transformer Before Shipment

With oil and actual bushings –> H – X Open Circuit test

 Transformer After Shipment

No oil and w/spark plug bushings –> H – X Open Circuit test

 Transformer After Shipment

H2 – X2 Open Circuit test before and after comparison

 Transformer After Shipment

No oil and w/spark plug bushings –> Tertiary Open Circuit

 Case Study # 1

As a result of the Swept Frequency Response

Tests a decision was made to perform an
internal inspection.

The following was observed:

 Internal Inspection

• Center winding clamping hardware loose

resulting in loss of pressure on the stack

• Y1 lead laying on top of core

• Loose boards were found inside transformer

Internal Inspection
Internal Inspection
Internal Inspection

Loose Clamping
Internal Inspection
Internal Inspection
 SFRA Case Studies:
Possible Core Variation

Presented by Doble Engineering Company

Low Voltage Open Circuit Traces

Unit A
Unit B
Unit C
High Voltage Open Circuit Traces

Unit A
Unit B
Unit C
 Before and after de-magnetizing

The suspect unit was de-magnetized at

the plant by energizing the LV winding
at 110% which is 15.2KV, 20 amps for
12 hours.

There was very little change.

Suspect Unit, Low Voltage
Suspect Unit, High Voltage
 Conclusion

Upon further investigation it was

discovered that the core steels for all
units was of the same grade (M4),
however two of the transformers used
the steel from one manufacturer and the
third unit used the steel from a different
manufacturer.
This could have resulted in different
core characteristics (e.g., permeability).
SFRA Case Studies:
Magnetic Viscosity

Presented by Doble Engineering Company

 Effect of Magnetization
Low frequency variation may be severe

Magnetization affects the

core response
 Magnetic Viscosity

Drift can occur from demagnetized state to lowest energy

state depending on internal geometry (see Spring 2010 paper)
SFRA Case Studies:
Phase-to-Phase Find

Presented by Doble Engineering Company

 Case Study

• 120 MVA, 245kV/144kV autotransformer

• There was a fault and it was unclear if there
had been damage to the unit
• SFRA Testing was done to assess the
condition of the unit

• No historical data available

Nameplate data
SFRA HVOC results

Traces do not correlate

well in this area

Suggests some kind of

winding issue
 SFRA HVSC results

Looking for less than 0.2 db phase separation;

Zoom in to check

Some variation
in magnitude &
resonance
HVSC inductive roll-off region

0.13 db acceptable
 Course of action

Based on the SFRA results a recommendation was

made for internal inspection
It was discovered that the tertiary winding
connections had never been bolted together, and
theorized that the energy from the fault had pushed
the connection apart

– There had been arcing across that opening

The missing Link
Internal Connection - Delta Link
Delta Link not made up
 Conclusion

Although there wasn’t any previous

data, a phase to phase comparison
was enough to support the indication
of a problem

* This might have been caught at the

factory if SFRA testing had been
performed at that time
 SFRA Case Studies:
Field SFRA & LR Puzzle

Presented by Doble Engineering Company

 Puzzle outline

• Transformer details – nameplate

and history
• The failure – LV bushing in pieces
• Field test results – good, bad and
inconsistent
• Retest

• Decision?
 Transformer nameplate

• 230/72 kV Federal Pioneer

• 50/66.7/83.3 MVA Autotransformer
• Built 1994

• Transformer suffered animal intrusion and tripped out

after tertiary fault in late 1990’s
• No testing performed
• Unit successfully returned to service

• Unit had also seen “a number” of short circuit faults

 2006 Incident

• Unit tripped out in July with operation of:

– R and B phase elements
– Gas accumulation/surge
– Gas pressure relief

• Site inspection shows X3 gaskets compromised, oil leaking from flange;

conservator isolated to limit spill
• Inspection shows lower part of X3 bushing failed catastrophically
• Porcelain shards throughout upper portion of core/coils
• Arcing evident from lower part of X3 bushing to top of steel frame
Transformer nameplate
 Investigation

• ABB contacted regarding failure of 69kV 1200 A Type O+C

• ABB suspect a known defect

• Service advisories from August 1998 and April 1999

• ABB offer 3 replacement bushings

 Investigation

• Transformer carefully cleaned and flushed with hot oil

• X1 & X2 bushings removed, inspected, tested and re-installed

• Routine electrical tests performed:

– Bushing C1 & C2 & power factor measurements
– Winding power factor & capacitance
– HV single phase excitation
– DC winding resistance
– Turns ratio
– Leakage reactance
– SFRA
Transformer
 Investigation – Doble testing

• All as expected and all ‘Good’

Investigation – Doble tests on bushings

• All as expected and all ‘Good’

 Investigation – Bushing C2 tests

• Some results are ‘Investigate’ on HV C2’

Investigation – IEx & Surge Arresters

• Surge arresters all as per

nameplate
Investigation – LR results
Investigation – LR results
Investigation – SFRA results
Investigation – SFRA results
Investigation – SFRA results
Investigation – SFRA results

X3-X0

X1-X0 &
X2-X0
 Investigation – further results

• Leakage reactance repeated with heavier shorting

cables; results do not change much.

• SFRA performed – all phases are consistent

• Slight variation between phases not considered

unusual; may relate to animal incident

• SFRA and LR are inconsistent!!!

 Time passes…

• Much thought
 Time passes… more people needed

You can never have too many supervisors…

 Repeat SFRA tests & LR tests

• January following year…

• Repeat tests to review site

procedures and confirm all test
results

• ALL Results confirmed

• LR and SFRA still inconsistent

 Variations on a theme – clutching at
straws
• Doble’s Lachman IEEE paper suggests perform LR tests from
LV side

• Wouldn’t necessarily explain the anomaly (X2 and X3 being

different in LR)

• LR Results confirmed from LV side as being unbalanced

• LR Results reconfirmed unbalanced with three phase supply

and clip on CT’s (energize H measure T)
 Summary

• Situation is difficult

• LR indicates possible winding movement or anomaly

• SFRA does not indicate significant winding movement

• Other tests do not indicate a problem

• What next? Internal inspection again? Energize and hope?

 Action…

• It was an LV bushing failure…

• What could be anomalous about the tertiary?

• Clutching at straws…

• Everything else looks OK…

• Let’s check the nameplate again…

Transformer nameplate – desperation…
Denoument…
 Conclusion…

• CT shorting block not shorted on tertiary

• Affected high current LR

• Marginal affect on low current SFRA

• Everything is worth checking…

• Transformer successfully returned to service

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