Highway

&
Railway
Engineering
Dr. Siddharth S.M.P.
Assistant Professor
Thiagarajar College of Engineering
Lecture 15
• Magnitude Of Wheel Loads
• Shape Of Contact Area
• Vertical Stress
• Wheel Load Configuration
• Equivalent Single Wheel Load
• Wheel Load Repetitions

18CE620 | Highway & Railway Engg. | Dr. Siddharth S.M.P. 2

DESIGN TRAFFIC/ TRAFFIC LOADS
• The design traffic is a function of initial traffic of different classes of heavy
vehicles, their axle loads, growth rate, design period and lane distribution
factor.

• The study involved in the following factors:

• Magnitude of wheel loads
• Wheel load repetitions
• Equivalent Wheel Load Factors (EWLF)
• Cumulative Standard Axle (CSA) values
MAGNITUDE OF WHEEL LOADS
• If the magnitude of wheel load will be high, then the thickness of the
pavement should be high.
• So, while designing the pavement, it is necessary to consider various wheel
load factors, such as
❖ Maximum wheel load
❖ Contact pressure
❖ Wheel load configuration such as dual or multiple wheel load
assembly
❖ The repetition of these loads during the design life of pavement
• It is also essential to estimate the total traffic volume consisting of all the
categories of vehicles expected to flow on the road.
 MAGNITUDE OF WHEEL LOAD (IRC:
37-2001)
• For highways maximum legal axle load as specified by IRC is 8170kg
with a maximum equivalent single wheel load of 4085kg.
• The design load axle load of two axle heavy commercial vehicles by IRC
taken as 1020kg and the design wheel load on each dual wheel assembly
is taken as 5100kg.
• The maximum total legal load on the tandem axles of HCR is 19000kg and
thus the legal load on each axle is 9500kg.
 MAGNITUDE OF WHEEL LOADS
• Generally the wheel load is assumed to be distributed over a circular area. But by
measurement of the imprints of tyres with different load and inflation pressures.
• Three terms in use with reference to tyre pressure are:
❖ Tyre pressure
❖ Contact pressure
• Generally these terms should mean same thing.
• The contact pressure is found to be more than the tyre pressure when tyre pressure is
less than 7 kg/cm2
• The ratio of contact pressure to tyre pressure is called rigidity factor
Shape of Contact area
Contact Pressure:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑃
Contact Pressure, p = =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
• The concept of contact pressure is important for the analysis of
stresses and the stress distribution within the pavement.
• If the loaded are by wheel is assumed to be circular in shape, then
the load P = 𝐴𝑝 = 𝜋𝑎2𝑝
 Shape of Contact area-Rigid pavements
The contact area
0.3 L

0.4 L L

0.3 L

0.6 L

In FEM analysis of rigid pavement, equivalent rectangular area of 0.8172 L x

0.6 L is assumed
Vertical stress

P
Vertical stress
Vertical stress
 Wheel Load Configurations:

The wheel load configurations are important to know the way in which the loads of a
vehicle are applied on the pavement surface.
Axle Configurations
2 Axle Truck – 16t

3 Axle Truck – 24t

4Axle Semi Articulated – 34t

4 Axle Articulated – 34t

5Axle Truck – 40t

LCV
 Effect of Wheel Configuration

In flexible pavement design by layer theory,

only the wheels on one side are considered
Effect of Wheel Configuration

In rigid pavement design by plate theory, the

wheels on both sides are usually considered
(even when distance > 1.8 m)
 6
5.11
5
ESALs per Vehicle

3
1.85
2
1.35
1
0.0007 0.10
0
Car Delivery Truck Loaded 18-Wheeler Loaded 40' Bus Loaded 60'
Articulated Bus

Notice that cars are insignificant and thus

usually ignored in pavement design.
Equivalent single wheel load

• To carry maximum load with in the specified limit and to carry

greater load, dual wheel, or dual tandem assembly is often
used.
• Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel load
having the same contact pressure, which produces same value
of maximum stress, deflection, tensile stress or contact
pressure at the desired depth.
• The procedure of finding the ESWL for equal stress criteria is
provided below.
• This is a semi-rational method, known as Boyd and Foster
method, based on the following assumptions:
Equivalent single wheel load

This is a semi-rational method, known as Boyd and Foster

method, based on the following assumptions:
•equalancy concept is based on equal stress;
•contact area is circular;
•influence angle is 45 ; and
•soil medium is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic half space.
Equivalent single wheel load
Equivalent single wheel load
• The ESWL is given by:

where P is the wheel load, S is the center to center distance between the two
wheels, d is the clear distance between two wheels, and z is the desired depth.
Equivalent single wheel load
Example 7.1
Calculate ESWL of a dual wheel
assembly carrying 2044kg each
for trial pavement thickness
values of 150,200 and 250 mm.
Centre to centre spacing
between the two tyres = 270mm
and clear gap between the walls
of the tyres = 110mm.
Solution
Here, P = 2044kg; 2P = 4088kg ;
d = 110mm; S = 270mm
Points X and Y are plotted on a
log-log graph between ESWL
and pavement thickness (See Fig
7.6)
• Point X has coordinates (P, d/2) = (2044,55) plotted on the log scale.
• Point Y has coordinates (2P, 2S) = (4088,540) also plotted on the log scale.
• The points X and Y are joined by a straight line.
On the X-axis, points corresponding to pavement thickness of
150,200 and 250mm are marked and vertical lines are drawn from these
points to intersect the line XY. Horizontal lines are now drawn from these
points on line XY to meet the Y-axis, to obtain the ESWL values at the
desired depths/pavement thickness values. The ESWL values thus obtained
are,
Pavement ESWL,kg
thickness,mm

150 2760
200 3000
250 3230
Equal Vertical Stress Criterion
From Boussinesq’s Theory PS

or Z
A
σzs Maximum vertical
stress at A
Sd

Pd Pd

Sd/2 Z

1 2 3
σzd Maximum of vertical
stresses at 1, 2 and 3
Equal Vertical Deflection Criterion
Foster and Ahlvin (1958) PS

and
Z
A
ws Maximum vertical
deflection at A
Sd

Pd Pd

Sd/2 Z

1 2 3
wd Maximum of vertical
deflections at 1, 2 and 3
Equal Vertical Deflection Criterion
Huang (1968)
ESWL based on interface
deflection of two layered
systems
 Other Criteria

• Equal Tensile Strain

• Equal Contact Pressure
• Equivalent Contact Radius
 WHEEL LOAD REPETITIONS
Effect of Repeated Application of Wheel Loads:
• The effect of load repetitions during the design life of flexible
pavement are to be taken in to account.
• Higher number of load repetitions during the design life of the
pavement will require higher thickness of flexible pavement.
• The deformation of pavement of subgrade due to single
application of wheel load may be small.
• But due to repeated application of the heavy loads, there
would be increased magnitude of both plastic and elastic
deformations.
 WHEEL LOAD REPETITIONS

Effect of Number of Repetitions of Different Magnitudes of

Loads:
• Traffic composition in India is of mixed type and it is essential to
evaluate the effects of number of repetitions of different
magnitudes of loads.
• It essential to convert the various wheel loads to one single
standard wheel load for the structural design of flexible
pavement.
• For this purpose, it is required to carry out the traffic surveys.
• From this objective, the concept EWLF (Equivalent Wheel Load
Factors) has been developed.
 EQUIVALENT WHEEL LOAD FACTORS
If the pavement structure fails with

N1 number of repetitions of P1 kg load and

• The concept is developed by American
‘Association of State Highways
similarly if N2 number of repetitions of Officials’ (AASHO).
• Mc1eod had given a procedure for
P2 kg load can also cause failure of the evolving equivalent load factors for
designing flexible pavements.
• AASHO conducted a survey and then
same pavement structure, then P1N1 and derived AASHO Road Test equations,
were widely accepted for the
P2N2 are considered equivalent. determination of Equivalent Wheel
Load Factors.
Typical outcome results of these studies are
represented in following table:
Wheel Repetitions to Failure, Equivalent to Equivalent
Load, Number 2268 kg Wheel Load
Kg factor (EWLF)
2268 1,05,000 1.0 1
2722 50,000 2.0 2
3175 22,500 4.7 4
3629 13,000 8.2 8
4082 6,500 16.3 16
4536 3,300 32.0 32
4990 1,700 62.0 64
5443 1,000 105.0 128
EQUIVALENT WHEEL LOAD FACTOR
• Generally accepted approach for the conversion of axle loads of different magnitudes in terms
of a standard axle is by Fourth Power Law.
Equivalent Wheel Load Factor = (given wheel load/standard wheel load)4
= ( given axle load/standard axle load)4
i.e. EWLF = (P1/P)4
• McLeod assumes that the pavement thickness which are designed for a given wheel load would
support one million repetitions of such load during the life of pavement. For one load
application, the pavement thickness so required is only one fourth the pavement thickness
designed for 10,00,000 load repetitions.
Example 7.2
Determine the Equivalent Wheel Load Factor or VDF value of the following
two axle loads in terms of the standard axle load of 8.16t
(a) LCV with rear axle load of 2.0t
(b) HCV with rear axle load of 15.5t.
Solution
EWLF1 or VDF1 = (P1/P)4 , where P1 = given axle load in tonnes and
P = standard axle load of 8.16t
(a) EWLF1 or VDF1 of LCV = (2.0/8.16)4 = 0.0036
(b) EWLF2 or VDF2 of HCV = (15.5/8.16)4 = 13.02
Example 7.3
The traffic studies and axle load distribution studies carried out during project preparation indicated that there are (i)
5600 commercial vehicles per day with rear axle loads in the range of 2500 to 3500kg and growth rate of 6.5% p.a.
and (ii) 1900 heavy commercial vehicles with rear axle loads in the range 11,000 to 13,000 kg and growth rate of 4.5%.
The road pavement is expected to be constructed in a period of 3.0 years after this study and the flexible pavement
structure is to be designed for a life of 15 years. Determine value of CSA for design.
Solution
Vehicle class(i):

N1 = 5600 , Growth rate r1 = 6.5%, Growth period ,(m+n) = 3 + 15 = 18 years, Average load P1 = 3000kg,

VDF,F1 = (3000/8160)4 = (3000/8160)4 = 0.0036

365 {5600 𝑥 0.018 1+0.065 18 −1}
Using Eq.7.5, CSA1 = = 1.19msa
0.065

Vehicle class (ii):

N2 = 1900, Growth rate r2 = 0.045, Growth period = 18 years, Average load P2 = 12000kg, VDF, F2 = (12000/8160)4 =
4.677,

For heavy vehicles, using Eq 7.5, CSA2 = 87.07 msa

Design value of CSA = CSA1 + CSA2 = 1.19 + 87.07 = 88.26, say 88 msa
Example 7.4
A circular load of radius 15cm with uniform contact pressure of 7.0 kg/cm2
is applied on the surface of a homogeneous elastic mass. Determine the
vertical stress under the centre of the load at a depth of 45cm from the
surface.
Solution
Using formula
Pressure p = 7.0kg/cm2, radius a = 15cm, depth of layer z = 45cm
Using Eq. 7.7,
𝑧3
Vertical stress σz = p[ 1 - 2 2 3/2 ]
(𝑎 + 𝑧 )
= 7[1-(91,125/2,250)1.5 ] = 7 x 0.1462
= 1.023 kg/cm2
Using vertical stress distribution
chart
z/a = 45/15 = 3
r/a = 0, as the centre of the load is
considered
From the chart (Fig 7.8),
corresponding to (z/a) = 3 on the
Y- axis, using the curve, (r/a) = 0,
the value of stress in percent of
surface pressure p = 7.0 kg/cm2
(on X-axis) = 15% (approx.)
Therefore vertical stress, σz = 0.15
x 7.0 = 1.05 kg/cm2
Example 7.5
A flexible pavement of thickness 48 cm is laid over a subgrade. A circular
load of radius 16cm with uniform contact pressure, 6.5 kg/cm2 is applied.
Assuming homogeneous elastic single layer, determine the deflection of
the pavement surface under the centre of the load. Assume the elastic
modulus of the subgrade as well as pavement layer to be 900kg/cm2
Solution
Using Formula
Pressure,p = 6.5kg/cm2; radius, a = 16cm; Pavement thickness, z = 48 cm
Elastic modulus, Es = 900 kg/cm2
3𝑝𝑎2
Using Eq. 7.8, deflection, Δ = = 0.0573cm
2𝐸 𝑎2 + 𝑧 2
Using Deflection Factor Chart (refer
Fig. 7.9)
(z/a) = (48/16) = 3
p = 6.5kg/cm2
Using chart (Fig 7.9), corresponding
to (z/a) = 3 on the Y-axis, using curve
(r/a) = 0,
Deflection Factor, F = 0.48 (approx.)
Deflection, Δ = (p.a.F)/Es
= (6.5 x 16 x 0.48)/900
= 0.055 cm