POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Lesson 1 Understanding Politics and Political Science
Learning Objectives:
When you finish this lesson, you will be able to do the following:
1. Define Political Science and Politics as well as its key concepts.
2. Internalize the importance in the study of Political Science.
3. Discuss the approaches and fields in the study of Political Science
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Politics (from Greek politikos "of, for, or relating to citizens") as
a term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental
or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also
applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the
corporate, academic, and religious segments of society. It consists of
"social relations involving authority or power" and to the methods and
tactics used to formulate and apply policy.
Modern political discourse focuses on democracy and the
relationship between people and politics. It is thought of as the way we
"choose government officials and make decisions about public policy".
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Basic Concepts
Politics defined
Aristotle’s philosophy immensely influenced classical and
contemporary definition of politics. He once said, “men by nature are
political animals.” In The Politics, he defined politics as the study of the
affairs of the city-state (polis). Aristotle puts upon men the task of
acquiring and exercising power and influence with the purest of motives
and with respect for responsibility since men inevitably and naturally
possess them.
Bernard Crick, in his In Defense of Politics, defines politics as a
struggle for power among groups whose aim is to control the state. He
explained that politics is simply the activity by which differing interests
within a given unit of rule are conciliated by giving them a share in
power in proportion to their importance to the welfare and survival of
the community
Politics as conflict resolution
In Comparative Politics: A Global Introduction, Michael Sodaro
describes politics as the process by which communities pursue
collective goals and deal with their conflicts authoritatively by means of
government.
Politics as compromise
Former Senator Ernesto Maceda identifies politics as the study
of compromise. It is the art of deciding who gets what, when and how
as characterized by Harold Lasswell
Politics as a pursuit for the greater good
Aristotle termed the art of good government as politics. This
disposition is echoed by Former Senate President Jovito Salonga when
he said that politics is saying No to what is bad for the society.
 Key Concepts in Politics
Power
Refers to the ability or the right to do something; the ability to
exercise authority over others. The term implies a hierarchy of control
of stronger over weaker.
The word “power” comes from the Latin verb potere meaning
“to be able”. In its broader sense, power is being able, physically,
intellectually, or a combination of both, to achieve what one wants.
Power may be implicit or manifest. In implicit power, A wants B
to do something and B does it simply because he or she realizes that
A wants it done, and for whatever reasons wants to accommodate
those wishes. When power is manifest, on the other hand, it is directly
observable; A acts in an evident way to make B do what A wants. We
can define power then, as the ability to cause others to do what one
desire, using means ranging from influence to coercion.
Bases of Social Power
Expert Power – based on the perception that the leader possesses
some special knowledge or expertise;
Referent Power – based on the follower’s liking, admiring, or
identifying with the leader;
Reward Power – based on the leader’s capacity to mediate rewards
for the follower;
Legitimate Power – based on the follower’s perception that the leader
has the legitimate right or authority to exercise influence over him or
her; and
Coercive Power – based on the follower’s fear that non-compliance
with leader’s wishes will lead to punishment.
Sources of Power
If power is not intrinsic to the power-holder, it follows that it must
have outside sources said Gene Sharp of the center for International
Affairs, Harvard University, USA. In his internationally acclaimed book:
The Politics of Non-Violent Action – power and Struggle, Sharp
maintains that power appears to emerge from the interaction of all or
several of the following sources:
Authority – the extent and intensity of the ruler’s authority among the
subject is crucial factor affecting the ruler’s power. ”The right to
command and direct, to be heard or obeyed by others,” voluntarily
accepted by the people and therefore existing without the imposition of
sanctions is authority.
Human resources – a ruler’s power is affected by the number of
persons who obey him, cooperate with him, or provide him with special
assistance, as well as by the proposition of such persons in the general
population, and the extent and forms of their organizations.
Skills and knowledge – the ruler’s power is also affected by the skill,
knowledge and abilities of such person, and the relation of their skills,
knowledge and abilities to his need
Intangible factors – psychological and ideological factors, such as
habits and attitudes toward obedience and submission, and the
presence or absence of a common faith, ideology, or sense of mission,
all affect the power of the ruler in relation to the people.
Material resources – the degree to which the ruler controls property,
natural resources, financial resources, the economic system, means of
communication and transportation helps to determine the limits of his
power.
Sanctions - the final source of a ruler’s power is the type and extent of
sanctions at his disposal, both for use against his own subjects and in
conflicts with other rulers. John Austin said sanctions are an
enforcement of obedience used by rulers against their subject to
supplement voluntary acceptance of their authority and to increase the
degree of obedience to their commands.
Authority
a government power to make binding decisions and issue obligatory
commands. Such power must be perceived by citizens as rightful or
acceptable and therefore to be obeyed.
Legitimacy
denotes a general belief that the state’s powers to make and enforce
rules are justified and proper. Legitimacy is a moral or ethical concept
which involves perceptions of what is right.
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political Science defined as the study of the state and
government. The word “political” comes from the Greek word polis
which means a “city-state”, the only form of government known to the
ancient Greeks. The word ciencia, meanwhile, means knowledge of
study.
Political Science began as early as the 14th century B.C., when
Aristotle (384-322 BC) wrote Politics, the first systematic work on
political affairs. The book written about 335-332 B.C., won for him the
title of “Father of Political Science.”
As a branch of modern learning, political science has
undergone three chronological and overlapping stages of development.
These stages in the study of political science are as follows:
• Religious stage
• Metaphysical stage
• Modern stage
Religious Stage – the government with its leaders and laws was
considered as divine or divinely-spirited. This stage began during the
prehistoric era and continued as long as the divine right of kings was
supported (18th century)
Metaphysical Stage – during this stage, the state was considered as
a human institution, but it was almost worshipped as a perfect
institution. This stage began with the ancient Greeks. Aristotle and
Plato thought that the state was the means to develop the highest
potential of the individual. Indeed, Aristotle claimed that “man is by
nature a political animal,” and the state was established for the greatest
good of the greatest number of citizens.
Modern stage – finally in this stage, the state was still considered as a
human institution but it was deemed capable of being improved by
rulers and subjects according to certain principles and laws. This stage
was ushered in by Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), a renaissance
writer of The Prince, a handbook for rulers in the art of government.
Thus Machiavelli is often credited as the “Father of Modern Politics.”
Political Science first attained recognition as a separate field of
study in 1856. The significant innovation was done upon the request of
Prof. Francis Lieber, a German-born American scholar who wrote
Manual of Political Ethics (1838), the first systematic treatise in political
science published in the united States. Thus it was the Americans who
first made the study of politics as a separate course of study.
Importance in Studying Political Science:
First, we are part of the government. The moment we were born up to
the day we die our records formed part of our state’s public documents.
Second, the study of political science enables us to know more about
our rights and duties as citizens, the structure and functions of the
different branches of government, and our relations with other states.
Third, the study of political science broadens man’s cultural
background by knowing the function of the state, law, diplomacy, public
finance, and etc.
Finally, political science provides the needed background for those
who intend to enter the profession of law, Foreign Service, public
administration, business, education and journalism. The activities of
these professions are intimately lin ked with the affairs of government.
 Approaches in the Study of Political Science
Robert J. Jackson, in A Comparative Introduction to Political Science,
enumerates the following approaches in studying politics:
Traditional/Historical Approach
Studying politics concentrates on an essentially legal/formal
description of government. It contemplates the use of history,
chronology and development of government structures and institutions
as basis of study.
Scientific/Behavioral Approach
Muses on how individuals behave within political institutions and
how behavior influences policy-making. This approach concerns mainly
on the scientific method through the use of methodology, variables and
hypotheses in theorizing political phenomena.
General Theory Approach
Contemplates the identification of all critical structures and
processes of society, explaining their interrelationships with politics,
and predict a wide array of governmental outcomes. It regards the study
of politics as a commitment to explore and attempt to understand a
given segment of empirical reality.
Systems Approach
Espouses David Easton’s comprehensive systems model
depicted by the interaction between the societal environment and an
abstract political system which processes and converts demands and
supports into outputs, producing an overall stability. The approach
entails the search for cyclical processes that govern political structures.
Structural-Functional Approach
The essence of this approach is that it specifies the activities of a viable
political system and explains how these functions must be performed
to maintain the stability of the political system.
Political Economy Approach
It focuses with the relationship between government and
economics. It highlights the role of government concerning regulation,
support or intervention in economic and social affairs.
Fields of Modern Political Science
Political Theory/Political Philosophy – are terms which are often
used interchangeably. Scholars in this field are concerned with
questions about value judgements and the history ang development of
the ideas of great political thinkers.
Political Philosophy is sometimes called
value or normative theory because it is
concerned primarily with values, norms, and
morality. It attempts to examine the
connections among facts, values, and
judgements.
Theory is an important part of all political
science fields because it is used in the
explanation and prediction of political
phenomena.
Governments – make up an entire branch of political science. The
structure and functions of federal, provincial or state and local
governments, usually within the context of a single country are
examined in this field.
Public Administration – is concerned more with how policies are
formulated and implemented within the large bureaucratic
infrastructure of government.
Public Policy – analyzes and evaluates policies in areas such as
defense, health, education and resource development.
International Relations – focus on the foreign policies of countries,
international organizations, and international law in order to learn more
about the interactions among states.
– is a very wide field with many subdivisions. To a large extent it is
the study of the macro-politics of states. It is primarily concerned with
comparing the politics and government of different states.