Taxonomy and Embryology of Angio Sperm

Biyani's Think Tank
Concept based notes
Taxonomy and Embryology of

Angiosperm
B.Sc. Part-III
Dr Ruby
Deptt. of Scienge
Biyani Girls College, Jaipur

2
Published by :
Think Tanks
Biyani Group of Colleges
Concept & Copyright :
Biyani Shikshan Samiti
Sector-3, Vidhyadhar Nagar,
Jaipur-302 023 (Rajasthan)
Ph : 0141-2338371, 2338591-95 Fax : 0141-2338007
E-mail : acad@biyanicolleges.org
Website :www.gurukpo.com; www.biyanicolleges.org
Edition : 2012
While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any mistake or
omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that neither the
publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind arising to
anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.
Leaser Type Setted by :
Biyani College Printing Department
For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

Taxonomy and Ebbryology 3
Preface
I am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the students.
The book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in understanding the
fundamental concepts of the topics. The book is self-explanatory and adopts the “Teach
Yourself” style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The language of book is quite easy and
understandable based on scientific approach.
Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections, omission and
inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the readers for which the author
shall be obliged.
I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chairman & Dr. Sanjay Biyani, Director
(Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who are the backbones and main concept provider and also
have been constant source of motivation throughout this endeavour. They played an active role
in coordinating the various stages of this endeavour and spearheaded the publishing work.
I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational

institutions, other faculty members and students for improvement of the quality of the book. The
reader may feel free to send in their comments and suggestions to the under mentioned
address.
Author

4
Section-A
Taxonomy
Q.1 Classification of Angiosperm with special reference of Linnaeus, Bantham and
Hooker?
Ans. ANGIOSPERM CLASSIFICATION
The classification of angiosperms is still very controversial, and two schemes are
presented here – the first (B&H) as a means to LEARNING the families, the
second (APG) as a presentation of the rudiments of an agreed EVOL UTIONARY
TREE. Historically a number of schemes have been produced. Bentham &
Hooker's Genera Plantarum (1862-1883) – comprising 200 families and 7,569
genera – pre-dated the publication of Charles Darwin‘s Origin of Species, so this
is essentially a non-evol utionary scheme. However, the arrangement of families
was based on characters which provided a sequence fr om what they took as the
most primitive to the most derived families – the Scalae Naturae.
The classification was based on few, essential characters, and as a result is highly
predictive – examination of these characters will place an unknown specimen into
a particular category. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG): Systematic
research over the past 150 years has changed our view of plant classification,
especially in the last 10 years, when major advances in DNA sequencing have
provided a completely new ave nue of approach. Numerous classifications and
schemes have been published: Hutchinson (328 families), Cronquist (388),
Takhtajan (592) Dahlgren (477), Thorne (454) Brummitt (445), and Reveal (612),
each differ in the recognition of families and the overall scheme. As a result, fam
ilies, orders and sub-classes are not comparable between any of these systems.
Molecular studies are by no means final, and, contrary to what many reference
books and journals might imply, a modern synthesis is far from stabilised.
However, a consensus is now beginning to emerge. The combin ed work of many
scientists under an umbrella grouping known as the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group (APG) has produced the rudiments of an agreed evolutionary tree.
Bentham and Hooker
George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker - Two English taxonomists who were
closely associated with the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew, England have given a
detailed classification of plant kingdom, particularly the angiosperms.

Fig. - Taxonomists: Bentham and Hooker
They gave an outstanding system of classification of phanerogams in their Genera

Plantarum which was published in three volumes between the years 1862 to 1883.
It is a natural system of classification. However, it does not show the evolutionary
relationship between different groups of plants, in the strict sense. Nevertheless,
it is the most popular system of classification particularly for angiosperms. The
popularity comes from the face that very clear key characters have been listed for
each of the families. These key characters enable the students of taxonomy to
easily identify and assign any angiosperm plant to its family.
Bentham and Hooker have grouped advanced, seed bearing plants into a major
division called Phanerogamia. This division has been divided into three classes
namely:
1. Dicotyledonae
2. Gymnospermae and
3. Monocotyledoneae
1 Class :Dicotyledonae
This group includes angiosperms in which the seed bears two cotyledons and
leaves exhibit reticulate venation. It is divided into three subclasses - Polypetalae,
Gamopetalae and Metachlamydae.
Sub-class Polypetalae
The flowers contain distinct non-essential whorls calyx and corolla. In the corolla
petals are free. This sub-class includes 8 series Thalamiflorae, Disciflorae and
Calyciflorae.

6
Series Thalamiflorae: Many stamens in the androecium. Flower is

hypogynous.
Series Disciflorae: Hypogynous flowers with a cushion-like disc around or

below the ovary.
Series Calyciflorae: Flowers epigynous or perigynous. Thalamus is in the form

of a cup.
Sub-class Gamopetalae
Flowers with distinct calyx and corolla. In the corolla petals are fused. This sub-
class includes 3 series.
Series Inferae: Flowers with inferior ovary.
Series Heteromerae: Flowers with superior ovary. Number of carpels - more

than two.
Series Bicarpellatae: Flowers with superior ovary. Number of carpels - two.
Sub-class Monochlamydae
The flowers are with only one non-essential whorl (perianth) or absence of non-
essential whorls. It includes 8 series.
Curvembryae: Usually single ovule, embryo coiled around the endosperm.
Multiovulate Aquaticae: Aquatic plants with syncarpous ovary and many

ovules.
Multiovulate Terrestris: Terrestrial plants with syncarpous ovary and many

ovules.
Microembryae: Only one ovule, small, tiny embryo endospermic seed.
Daphnales: Only one carpel and single ovule.
Achlamydosporae: Ovary inferior, 1 to 3 ovules - unilocular.
Unisexuales: Flower unisexual, perianth usually absent.

Ordines Anomali: (Anomolous families) Plants with uncertain systematic

position but closer to unisexuales.
2 Class : Gymnospermae
This group includes the gymnosperms in which seeds are not enclosed in fruits.
This class is divided into three families Gnetaceae, Confiraceae and Cycadaceae.
Fig. - Angiosperm Classification
3 Class: Monocotyledonae
This group includes angiosperms in which the seed bears only one cotyledon. The
leaves exhibit parallel venation. It is divided into the following seven series.
Microspermae: Ovary is inferior, seeds are minute and non-endospermic.
Epigynae: Ovary inferior, seeds are large and endospermic.
Coronarieae: Ovary superior, perianth petalloid.
Calycinae: Ovary superior, perianth sepalloid.
Nudiflorae: Perianth reduced or absent. Seeds are endospermic.

8
Apocarpae: Carpels more than one, free, seeds are endospermic.
Glumaceae: Perianth reduced or absent, scaly bracts present.
Each of the series mentioned under dicotyledonae and monocotyledonae have

been further divided into orders and families. Bentham and Hooker classified the
angiosperms into 202 families. They were able to provide distinct diagnostic key
characters to each of these families. This is the reason for the popularity of
Bentham and Hooker's classification particularly amongst the taxonomists
Microspermae: Ovary is inferior, seeds are minute and non-endospermic.
Epigynae: Ovary inferior, seeds are large and endospermic.
Coronarieae: Ovary superior, perianth petalloid.
Calycinae: Ovary superior, perianth sepalloid.
Nudiflorae: Perianth reduced or absent. Seeds are endospermic.
Apocarpae: Carpels more than one, free, seeds are endospermic.
Glumaceae: Perianth reduced or absent, scaly bracts present.
Each of the series mentioned under dicotyledonae and monocotyledonae have

been further divided into orders and families. Bentham and Hooker classified the
angiosperms into 202 families. They were able to provide distinct diagnostic key
characters to each of these families. This is the reason for the popularity of
Bentham and Hooker's classification particularly amongst the taxonomists.
Q.2 Explain concept of Binominal Nomenclature and its advantage?

Ans. Binomial nomenclature (also called binominal nomenclature or binary
nomenclature) is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving
each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms,
although they can be based on words from other languages. Such a name is called
a binomial name (which may be shortened to just "binomial"), a binomenal or a
scientific name; more informally it is also called a Latin name.
The formal system of naming species of living things is called binomial
nomenclature (especially in botany, but also used by zoologists), binominal
nomenclature (since 1953 the technically correct form in zoology), or binary

nomenclature. This system of naming was invented byLinnaeus. The up-to-date

version of the rules of naming for animals and plants are laid out in the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature respectively.
The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs; the
second part identifies the species within the genus. For example, humans belong
to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The
introduction of this system of naming species is credited to Linnaeus, effectively
beginning with his work Species Plantarum in 1753.
The application of binomial nomenclature is now governed by various

internationally agreed codes of rules, of which the two most important are the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for animals and the
International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) for plants.
Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common
to these two codes, there are some differences, both in the terminology they use
and in their precise rules.
In modern usage, the first letter of the first part of the name, the genus, is always
capitalized in writing, while that of the second part is not, even when derived
from a proper noun such as the name of a person or place. Similarly, both parts
are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text. Thus the binomial
name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii.
The name "Linnaeus" tells the reader who it was that named the species; 1758 is
the date of the publication in which the original description can be found, in this
case the 10th edition of the book Systema Naturae. (Botanists are not required to
give the date).
Many scientific names describe some characteristic of the organism (alba=white;

rubra=red); many are derived from the name of the discoverer or the geographic
location of the organism. Genus and species names are always italicized when
printed; the names of other taxa (families, etc.) are not.
When a species (or several species of the same genus) is mentioned repeatedly,
the genus may be abbreviated after its first mention, as in Q. alba. Subspecies are
indicated by a trinomial; for example, the southern bald eagle is Haliaeetus
leucocephalus leucocephalus, as distinguished from the northern bald eagle, H.
leucocephalus washingtoniensis.

10
How To Write Plant Species Names (Binomial Nomenclature Or Scientific

Names)
1. As many of you know, common names may be the same for many
different plant species. For example, many of the species in the Opuntia
genus (contains several species) share Prickly Pear Cactus as their common
name. So how do we name all of the plants and what is a genus?
2. We use the binomial naming system (scientific name), as the name implies,
uses two words to name a particular species.
The first word we use to describe a plant is the generic name (genus). The
generic name must be capitalized when naming a species! It must also
describe the group of plants it's naming. For example, the palm genus
Trachycarpus means "Rough Fruit".
The second word we use is the specific epithet. The specific epithet must
be lower case! It does not have to describe the plant. For example, the
specific epithet for the species Trachycarpus fortunei was named after Robert
Fortune, the botanist who brought it from Asia to Europe.
To name a species we simply put the genus and specific name together
with the genus capitalized and specific epithet in lower case. Both words
must be emphasized (italic, underline) in the following format:
Genus specific epithet -> Trachycarpus fortunei
You may also see more names after species name.

One of the ranks lower than the specific epithet is the variety. A variety is
used describe a traits which are different among a population. The plant
populations of a variety are usually separated geographically but if they
are brought together, they will hybridize. The variety usually describes the
location or trait in which the variety located or describes. The variety is
abbreviated in the name as "var." and it is lower case and emphasized.
3. Another rank that is commonly confused with variety is a cultivar. A

cultivar is plant that that is either found in cultivation (not in the wild) or
bred my humans to have a specific trait. A cultivar is represented by single
quotations around the cultivar name after the specific epithet. Cultivar is
abbreviated as cv. and the description name is not emphasized.

Example:
Musa acuminata cv. 'Gros Michel'
4. -> older cultivar of the common edible banana which used to be found in
grocery stores
5. As many of you know, common names may be the same for many
different plant species. For example, many of the species in the Opuntia
genus (contains several species) share Prickly Pear Cactus as their common
name. So how do we name all of the plants and what is a genus?
We use the binomial naming system (scientific name), as the name implies,
uses two words to name a particular species.
The first word we use to describe a plant is the generic name (genus). The
generic name must be capitalized when naming a species! It must also
describe the group of plants it's naming. For example, the palm genus
Trachycarpus means "Rough Fruit".
The second word we use is the specific epithet. The specific epithet must
be lower case! It does not have to describe the plant. For example, the
specific epithet for the species Trachycarpus fortunei was named after Robert
Fortune, the botanist who brought it from Asia to Europe.
6. To name a species we simply put the genus and specific name together
with the genus capitalized and specific epithet in lower case. Both words
must be emphasized (italic, underline) in the following format:
Genus specific epithet -> Trachycarpus fortunei
You may also see more names after species name.
One of the ranks lower than the specific epithet is the variety. A variety is
used describe a traits which are different among a population. The plant
populations of a variety are usually separated geographically but if they
are brought together, they will hybridize. The variety usually describes the
location or trait in which the variety located or describes. The variety is
abbreviated in the name as "var." and it is lower case and emphasized.
Examples:
Opuntia galapageia var. profuse
-> This variety cactus blooms much heavier than other plants in its species

12
7. Sabal minor var. louisiana

-> This variety is located in the state of Louisiana, United States
Another rank that is commonly confused with variety is a cultivar. A

cultivar is plant that that is either found in cultivation (not in the wild) or
bred my humans to have a specific trait. A cultivar is represented by single
quotations around the cultivar name after the specific epithet. Cultivar is
abbreviated as cv. and the description name is not emphasized.
Example:
Musa acuminata cv. 'Gros Michel'
-> older cultivar of the common edible banana which used to be found in
grocery stores.
Advantages
The advantages of scientific over common names are that they are accepted by
speakers of all languages, that each name applies only to one species, and that
each species has only one name.
This avoids the confusion that often arises from the use of a common name to
designate different things in different places (), or from the existence of several
common names for a single species.
There are two international organizatielkons for the determination of the rules of
nomenclature and the recording of specific names, one for zoology and one for
botany.
According to the rules they have established, the first name to be published (from
the work of Linnaeus on) is the correct name of any organism unless it is
reclassified in such a way as to affect that name (for example, if it is moved from
one genus to another). In such a case definite rules of priority also apply.
Q.3 Define botanical garden ?Name the botanical gardens?

Ans. A botanical garden (or botanic garden) is a well-tended area displaying a wide
range of plants labelled with their botanical names. It may contain specialist plant
collections such as cacti and succulent plants, herb gardens, plants from particular
parts of the world, and so on; there may be greenhouses, shadehouses, again with
special collections such as tropical plants, alpine plants or other exotic plants.
Visitor services at a botanical garden might include tours, educational displays,
art exhibitions, book rooms, open-air theatrical and musical performances and
other entertainment.

Botanical gardens are often run by universities or other scientific research

organizations and often have associated herbaria and research programmes in
plant taxonomy or some other aspect of botanical science. In principle their role is
to maintain documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific
research, conservation, display and education, although this will depend on the
resources available and the special interests pursued at each .particular garden.
The origin of modern botanical gardens can be traced to European medieval

medicinal gardens known as physic gardens, the first of these being founded
during the Italian Renaissance in the 16th century.
Role and functions of botanical garden
availability of plants for scientific research

display of plant diversity in form and use
display of plants of particular regions (including local)
plants sometimes grown within their particular families
plants grown for their seed or rarity
major timber (American English: lumber) trees
plants of economic significance
glasshouse plants of different climates
all plants accurately labelled
records kept of plants and their performance
catalogues of holdings published periodically
research facilities utilising the living collections

studies in plant taxonomy
examples of different vegetation types
student education
a herbarium
selection and introduction of ornamental and other plants to commerce
studies of plant chemistry (phytochemistry)
report on the effects of plants on livestock
at least one collector maintained doing field work

14
Botanical Gardens of Delhi
Botanical Garden- Ooty - Ooty

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
List of botanical gardens in India
Government Botanical Gardens, Ootacamund, Nilgiris district, Tamil Nadu

Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI),
Trivandrum, Kerala (Biggest in India and conserves the largest no:of plant species
in Asia).
Vellayani Agricultural College , Trivandrum, Kerala
Agri Horticultural Society of India, Alipore, Kolkata
Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden, Shibpur, Kolkata
Lalbagh, Bangalore, Karnataka
IFGTB Botanical Garden - The Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding
(IFGTB), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
TNAU Botanical Garden, Agriculture University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Jammu and Kashmir Medicinal Plants Introduction Centre, Sonamarag, Kashmir
Jhansi Botanical Garden, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh
Saharanpur Botanical Garden, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Semmozhi Poonga, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

16
Lloyd's Botanical Garden, Darjeeling, West Bengal

Garden of Medicinal Plants, North Bengal University, West Bengal
Botanical Garden, Near Sarangpur, Chandigarh
Empress Garden, Pune
Q. What is Herbarium and what are their uses?

Ans Herbarium: It is a store house where dried and pressed specimens of plants are
placed on sheet in a systematic way of classification. They are basically used for
education and research purposes in different institutes. Polythene bags,
magazines, blotting papers, sheets, field notebook, glue, labels constitute the
equipment of herbarium. In order to collect the specimen, first area is selected
and then plant with intact parts is collected. This material is placed in polythene
bags. The collected specimens are spread over magazine sheets. Magazines are
now put inside the press which consists of boards and straps. Details should be
noted down in the field notebook. A specific number is given to specimen who
provides all relevant details. After a day sheets are changed and blotting papers
are required. They provide drying effect. Sheets are color specific and labels are
placed over them. Sheets are covered with tissue papers. Formalin solutions are
used to preserve the specimen.
Uses of Herbarium
Herbarium is used as an information guide for the local as well as distant area
flora.
They also help us to identify unknown and wild varieties of plants.
They also provide first hand information on morphological variations, seasonal
flowering and quick referral system for taxonomic studies.
The most important herbaria in India are Central National Herbarium, Kolkata
consisting of nearly 2 million herbarium specimens. Madras Herbarium in
Coimbatore & National Botanical Research Institute in Lucknow are other well
known herbaria.
Species are identified by Manuals (handy book with certain guidelines relating
to species in particular area), Flora (Informative book with respect to climate,
habitat of plants in a specified area), Monograph (thesis with information on
particular topic), Catalogue (list with specific numbers of species) and key.
Botanical gardens are large sized areas with almost every variety of plants.
Hanging Gardens of Babylon are quite popular.

Some of the world famous Botanical gardens are in India like Indian Botanical
Garden in Kolkata (largest botanical garden in Asia), Lloyd Botanical garden in
Darjeeling and National Botanical Garden in Lucknow
Q.4 Define concept of genus and species in plants?

Ans A species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic
rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding
and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate,
more precise or differing measures are often used, such as similarity of DNA,
morphology or ecological niche. Presence of specific locally adapted traits may
further subdivide species into "infraspecific taxa" such as subspecies (and in
botany other taxa are used, such as varieties, subvarieties, and formae).
Species that are believed to have the same ancestors are grouped together, and
this group is called a genus. A species will be placed in only one genus (although
taxonomic opinion might change). Similarity is best checked by the similarity of
their DNA,[dubious – discuss] but for practical reasons, other properties are used.
All species are given a two-part name, a "binomial name". The first part of a
binomial name is the generic name, the genus of the species. The second part is
either called the specific name (a term used only in zoology) or the specific epithet
(the term used in botany, which can also be used in zoology). For example, Boa
constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus. The first part of the name is
capitalized, and the second part has a lower case. The binomial name is written in
italics .A usable definition of the word "species" and reliable methods of
identifying particular species are essential for stating and testing biological
theories and for measuring biodiversity, though other taxonomic levels such as
families may be considered in broad-scale studies. Extinct species known only
from fossils are generally difficult to assign precise taxonomic rankings, which is
why higher taxonomic levels such as families are often used for fossil-based
studies

18
Multiple Choice Question
1. Engler and prantl‘s system of classification is a phyloene tic system based on the
assumption that the flowering plants where perianth is absent are
phylogenetically primitive.
2. Carolus Linnaeus is known as ‗father of modern botany.
3. The gynoecium is monocarpellary and placentation is marginal in members of
family papilionaceal.
4. Which of the following is the standard and most famous work of Bentham and
Hooker ?
A) Species Plantarum B) Genera Plantarum
C) Genera Plantus D) Systema Nature
5. When one specimen or other element is designated by the author as the

nomenclatural type it is known as.
A) Holotype B) Prototype
C) Neotype D) Syntyhpe
6. The word ‗taxonomy‘ was first used by :
A) A.P. decandolle B) Carl Linnaeus
C) John Ray D) J.D. Hooker
7. Systematic Botany deals with the
A) Identification of plants B) Inter-relationship
C) Nomenclature of Plants D) All of the above
8. species Plantarum was written by :
A) Carolus Linnaeus B) A.P. Decandolle
C) G. Bentham and J.D. Hooker D) A. Engler and Karl A.E. Prantl

9. The standard size of a herbarium sheet is :
A) 28.75 x 41.25 cm B) 25.15 x 40.25 cm.
C) 18.75 x 41.25 cm. D) 28.75 x 35.25 cm.

20
Section-B
Families
Q.1 Write silent features of angiospermic plants?
Ans. Features:
The sporophyte, which is the dominant plant in the life cycle, is differentiated
intoroots stem and leaves.
The highest degree of perfection of the vas cular system wit
t r u e v e s s e l s i n t h e xylem and companion cells in the phloem.
The organization of the microsporophylls [stamens] and
m e g a s p o r o s p h y l l s [carpels] into a structure called the flower, which is
typical only of the angiosperms.
The presence of four microsporangia [pollen sacs] per microsporophyll [stamen].
The ovules are always enclosed in an ovary, which is the
b a s a l r e g i o n o f t h e megasporophyll.
Production of two kinds of spores, microspores [pollen grains] and
megaspores.Angiosperms thus are heterosporous.
Presence if a single functional megaspore which is permanently retained within
the
nucellus or megasporangium.
Adaptation f flowers to insect pollination.
Pollination consists of the transference of pollen grains from anther to stigma.
Spore dimorphism having resulted in the production of
gametophytes, male and female.
Extreme reduction in size, duration of
e x i s t e n c e a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e gametophytes, which are
extremely parasitic.
The male gametophyte has reached the limits of reduction. It
consists only of the p o l l e n g r a i n a n d t h e p o l l e n t u b e c o n t a i n s
t h e t u b e n u c l e u s a n d t w o m a l e g a m e t e s o r nuclei.
The male cells (gametes) are non-ciliated.
The female gametophyte lacks any extensive development of vegetative tissues.
Itconsists of three egg apparatus calls, three antipodal cells and
twopolarnuclei in the centre of the embriosac
The non-motile male cells or nuclei are carried bodily to the
neighborhood of egg apparatus by the pollen tube.

Q.2 Describe life cycle of angiosperm ?
Ans. The word "angiosperm" comes from the Greek words for "vessel" and "seed" and
translates roughly as "enclosed seed". In part, angiosperms (the flowering plants,
phylumAnthophyta) are defined by the fact that their seeds are enclosed by an
ovule. The life cycle of an angiospermis defined by the formation of the seed and
its development to a full-grown plant which, in turn, produces seeds.
Angiosperms are vascular plants with flowers that produce seeds enclosed in an
ovule—a fact that is recognized as the angiospermy condition.
In general, angiosperms have a floral axis with four floral parts, two of which are
fertile. At the receptacle, or tip, of the axis there is an ovule-bearing leaf structure
known as the carpel. The ovule or ovules can be found inside the pistil. Three
portions compose the pistil: the ovary, the style, and the stigma, where the pollen
usually germinates
Flower: Reproductive parts

22
. Angiosperm Life Cycle
Reproductive Flower Parts
The mature ovule consists of the placenta, the integuments that are modified
leaves that cover the entrance to the embryo sac, the micropyle, and the chalaza.
These latter two parts of the ovule complement each other in their positions and
functions.
While the micropyle receives and guides the pollen tube, the chalaza relates to the
vascular supply of the ovule, nutrition, and support. The stamens, which are
often composed of the filament and sporangia sacs that make up the anther,

surround the pistil. Stamens carry the male gametes, and the pistil carries the
female gamete needed for sexual reproduction.
It is believed that the great diversity and adaptability of the angiosperms is

related to the presence of a unique reproductive cycle. This cycle consists of an
alternation of generations and the production of a pair of spores on two types of
sporophylls: microspores (which become male gametophytes) and megaspores
(which become female gametophytes).
Development of flowering plants
Different stages of Angiospermic plants (Diploid and Haploid )
Male GameteDevelopment
The angiosperm reproductive cycle begins with the process of microsporogenesis,
or microspore formation. The stamen consists of a filament and the anther, also
known as the microsporangium. Inmost of the cases, the anther consists of four
pollen sacs, or locules.

24
Within each locule, the archesporial cell develops through mitosis and extends as
a row of cells throughout the entire length of the young anther. These mitotic cell
divisions generate the anther wall, which is made up of several cell layers, the
outermost of which transforms itself into the epidermis. The layer of cells
belowthe epidermis is known as the endothecium.
During anther development, the endothecial cells acquire thickenings whose

function is related to anther opening and pollen release. The innermost layer of
the anther wall is the tapetum,whose primary function correlates with the
nourishment of the young pollen and the deposition of the exine, a coating of the
pollen grain.
As development proceeds, the sporogenous cells located below the tapetum

transform into microsporocytes. These microsporocytes will undergo meiosis,
and tetrads (units of four) of microspores will form.
Shortly after their formation, the tetrads separate into individual microspores.
Each microspore is haploid, and often it will enlarge and separate from the tetrad,
becoming sculptured by the deposition of sporopollenin and other substances
that will turn into the ornamented surface of the pollen grain.
The second phase of pollen development is known asmicrogametogenesis.

Themicrospore is the first cell of the gametophytic generation, the cell that
generates themature pollen. The single-nucleus microspore develops into the
male gametophyte before the pollen is released.
This developmental process occurs through two or three unequalmitotic divisions

of the nucleus and subsequent cytokinesis (cell separation). The two daughter
nuclei and cells differ in size and in form.
The larger cell represents the tube cell and nucleus,while the smaller cell
represents the generative cell and nucleus. At maturity, the grain can be shred in
two or three nucleate conditions. When the anther opens, the mature male
gametophytes or pollen grains will be disseminated and ready for germination.

1. Gynobasic style is found in family Lamiaceae.

2. Verticillaster is the characteristic inflorescence of the members of family
Lamiaceae.
3. The inflorescence is a cyanthium in Euphorbia.
4. In members of poaceae, the basic unit of the inflorescence is spikelet.
5. In Triticum, the pericmth is highly modified structure, represented by two minute
structures known as lodicules.
6. All the cereals belong to the family Poaceae.
7. Name the weed belonging to the family Asteracesae which is a fourning problem
in almost all the states of India.
A.) Parthenium Hysterophorus B.) Ageratum Conyzoides
C.) Tagetes Patula D.) Xanthium stramonium
8. Vexillary aestivation is seen in the members of family
A.) Rosaceal B.) Cucurbitaceae
C.) Fabaceae D.) Poaceae
9. Androgynophore is seen in the members of family :
A.) Capporidaceae B.) Mimosaceae
C.) Papilionaceae D.) All of the above
10. The fruit is a cremocarp in the members of family :
A. Apiaceae B.) Rubiaceae
C. Asteraceae D.) Poaceae
11. An umbel inflorescence is the characteristic of the family :
A.) Apiaceae B.) Clusiaceae
C.) Asteraceae D.) Fabaceae
12. Members of Apocynaceas differ from asclepiadaceae in having

26
A.) Latex B.) Corona

C.) Translators D.) Bicarpellary Ovary
13. Production of flowers which never open is known as Cleistogamy.
14. The effect of pollen grains on the tissues of seed coat is called metaxenia

Section-C
Embryology & Development
Q.1 Define structure of anther and their development?
Ans. The stamen (plural stamina or stamens, from Latin stamen meaning "thread of the
warp") is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Stamens typically
consist of a stalk called the filament (from Latin filum, meaning "thread"), and an
anther (from Ancient Greek anthera, feminine of antheros "flowery," from anthos
"flower"), which contains microsporangia. Anthers are most commonly two-lobed
and are attached to the filament either at the base or in the middle portion. The
sterile tissue between the lobes is called the connective.
A typical anther contains four microsporangia. The microsporangia form sacs or

pockets (locules) in the anther. The two separate locules on each side of an anther
may fuse into a single locule. Each microsporangium is lined with a nutritive
tissue layer called the tapetum and initially contains diploid pollen mother cells.
These undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. The spores may remain attached
to each other in a tetrad or separate after meiosis. Each microspore then divides
mitotically to form an immature microgametophyte called a pollen grain.
The pollen is eventually released by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther,

generally by means of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath
family (Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry family (Berberidaceae). In some
plants, notably members of the Orchidaceae and the Asclepiadoideae, the pollen
remains in masses called pollinia, usually specialised in ways adapted to being
carried by particular pollinating agents such as birds or large insects. More
commonly, mature pollen grains separate and are dispensed in ways suitable for
wind or water transport, or for dusting onto pollinating insects, whether large or
small.
When ready, the pollen is carried by some external agent (wind, water or some
member of the animal kingdom) to the receptive surface of the carpel of the same
or another flower. This process is known as pollination. After successful
pollination, the pollen grain (immature microgametophyte) completes its
development by growing a pollen tube and undergoing mitosis to produce two
male gametes (sperm).

28
Stamens in context
The stamens in a flower are collectively called the androecium (from Greek andros
oikia: man's house). The androecium forms a whorl surrounding the gynoecium
(carpels) and inside the perianth (the petals and sepals together) if there is one.
(The one exception is a few members of the family Triuridaceae, particularly
Lacandonia schismatica, in which the gynoecium surrounds the androecium.)
Stamens can be free or fused in various ways. A column formed from the fusion
of multiple filaments is known as an androphore.
Developmental Stages of Anther

T.S. of Anther
Q.2 Diagrame of anther type on the basis of their dehiscence ?
Ans.
Anther Type

30
Examples of Anther types
Tapetum type
Microsporogenesis
Q.3 Describe the structure of ovule ?

Ans. Structure of the ovule
Ovule means "small egg". In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise
to and contains the female reproductive cells. It consists of three parts: The
integument(s) forming its outer layer(s), the nucellus (or megasporangium), and
the megaspore-derived female gametophyte (or megagametophyte) in its center.
The megagametophyte (also called embryo sac in flowering plants) produces an
egg cell (or several egg cells in some groups) for fertilization. After fertilization,
the ovule develops into a seed.
Each ovule is provided with two coats, an outer and an inner. These coats are
known as the integuments. In some ovules, however, there is only one

integument. Enclosed within these integument, and forming the bulk of the
ovule, there is a special kind of tissue called the nucellus. The nucellus is very rich
in reserve food materials. Lying embedded in the nucellus, is the most important
part of the ovule. This is a sac-like structure (or cell) known as the embryo sac.
The ovule is attached to the placenta by a small stalk called the funicle. The two
integuments do not cover the nucellus completely, but leave a minute opening at
the top. This is the micropyle and it leads to the nucellus. The integuments and
the nucellus are free from each other at all places except at the base where they
are completely fused. This place of fusion is known as the chalaza. The place
where the funicle enters the ovule is called the hilum
Structure of ovule
Ovule parts and development
The ovule appears to be a modified megasporangium with integuments
surrounding it. Ovules are initially composed of diploid maternal tissue, which
includes a megasporocyte (a cell that will undergo meiosis to produce
megaspores). Megaspores remain inside the ovule and divide by mitosis to
produce the haploid female gametophyte or megagametophyte, which also
remains inside the ovule. The remnants of the megasporangium tissue (the
nucellus) typically remain inside the ovule. Megagametophytes produce
archegonia (lost in some groups such as flowering plants), which produce egg

32
cells. After fertilization, the ovule contains a diploid zygote and then embryo of
the next sporophyte generation. In flowering plants, a second sperm nucleus
fuses with other nuclei in the megagametophyte forming a typically polyploid
(often triploid) endosperm tissue, which serves as nourishment for the young
sporophyte.
Integuments, chivai and chalaza
The origin of the second or outer integument has been an area of active
contention for some time. The cupules of some extinct taxa have been suggested
as the origin of the outer integument. A few angiosperms produce vascular tissue
in the outer integument, the orientation of which suggests that the outer surface is
morphologically abaxial. This suggests that Caytoniales or Glossopteridales
cupules may have An integument is a protective cell layer surrounding the
ovule. Gymnosperms typically have one integument (unitegmic) while
angiosperms typically have two (bitegmic). The evolutionary origin of the
integuments, especially the second integument typical of angiosperms remains
obscure. The inner integument (which is integral to the formation of ovules from
megasporangia) has been proposed to have formed from sterile branches
surrounding a terminal megasporangium.[1] Elkinsia, a preovulate taxon, has a
lobed structure fused to the lower third of the megasporangium, with the lobes
extending upwards in a ring around the megasporangium. This might, through
fusion between lobes and between the structure and the megasporangium, have
produced an integument.
produced the outer integument of angiosperms.
The integuments develop into the seed coat when the ovule matures after
fertilization.
The integuments do not enclose the nucellus completely but leave an opening at
its apex referred to as the micropyle. The micropyle opening allows pollen to
enter the ovule for fertilization. In gymnosperms (e.g., conifers), the pollen itself is
drawn into the ovule and the micropyle opening closes after pollination. In
angiosperms, only a pollen tube enters the micropyle. During germination, the
seedling's radicle emerges through the micropyle.
Located opposite from the micropyle is the chalaza where the nucellus is joined
to the integuments. Nutrients from the plant travel through the phloem of the
vascular system to the funiculus and outer integument and from there
apoplastically and symplastically through the chalaza to the nucellus inside the
ovule. In chalazogamous plants, the pollen tubes enter the ovule through the
chalaza instead of the micropyle opening.

Nucellus, megaspore and perisperm
The nucellus (plural: nucelli) is the central portion of the ovule inside the
integuments. It functions as a megasporangium. In immature ovules, the nucellus
contains a megasporocyte (megaspore mother cell), which undergoes
sporogenesis via meiosis. Three of the four haploid spores produced in meiosis
typically degenerate, leaving one surviving megaspore inside the nucellus, but in
some cases more survive. After fertilization, the nucellus may develop into the
perisperm that feeds the embryo. In some plants, the diploid tissue of the
nucellus can give rise to a seed through a mechanism of asexual reproduction
called nucellar embryony.
The ovule (female sex organ) consists of two opposite ends: the micropyle, where
the integuments come together, and a more distant end, where the ovular tissue is
more massive. This part is also known as the chalaza, and it lies directly opposed
to the micropyle.
The mature ovule is composed of three layers: the outer integument; the inner
integument; and, underneath the integuments, the nucellus. During ovular
development, one cell lying below the nucellar epidermis changes into a primary
archesporial; this will divide to form the primary parietal cell and primary
sporogenous cell.
Q.4. Explain types of ovules?

34
Ans. Depending when the relative position of micropyle at maturity following some
type of ovules has been recognized.
1- orthotrophoes ovules – when the body is upright with micro poly chalaza
and funide falling in straight line.
2- Anatropous ovules- due to unilatral growth of funicle whole body of the
ovules is in verted through 180' as a micro poly comes close to base of the
funicle.
3- Campylotropous ovules- this ovules has curved body its ceurateue is less
than of anatropus ovule.
4- Amphitropaus – the ovules have a pronocencid curved body, but embryo
sac with in the ovules and become horse shoe.
5- Hemi –anatropous
On the basis of integument-
Ovule are of two types-unitegmic and bitegmic
On the basis of position of micropyle-
Ovule are of following types

Q. 5 Explain development of female gametophyte?
ANS Development stages of female gametophyte

36
DIGAGRAME:STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
The primary sporogenous cell functions as the megaspore mother cell, which divides
meiotically, originating four haploid megaspores. In the majority of angiosperms, three
of the megaspores will degenerate, and only the chalazal one will develop into the
megagametophyte (embryo sac).

After the completion of the embryo sac stage, a series of cellular events occurs, ending
with the formation of the mature embryo sac, ready for fertilization by the male
gametes. The chalazal megaspore enlarges and undergoes three mitoses, giving rise to
eight haploid cells. The mature megagametophyte consists of two groups of four cells
locaed at both ends of the embryo sac
The result is three antipodals at the chalazal end: the egg apparatus (consisting of the
egg and two synergids at the micropylar end) and the polar nuclei. These two cells,
present at both ends, usually fuse before pollination, and during fertilization they form
the primary endosperm nucleus.
Q. 6 Define pollination and fertilization ?
Ans Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in the reproduction of

plants, thereby enabling fertilization and sexual reproduction. .thepollen must be
transferred from the anther to the stigma. Biotic agents (such as birds, insects, or

38
mammals) or abiotic agents (such as wind or water) can accomplish this transfer
process, known as pollination.
pollination is a phase in the alternation of generations: each pollen grain is a male

haploid plant, a gametophyte, adapted to being transported to the female
gametophyte, where it can achieve fertilization by producing the male gamete (or
gametes, in the process of double fertilization).
As such the Angiosperm successful pollen grain (gametophyte) containing the

male gametes (sperm) gets transported to the stigma, where it germinates and its
pollen tube grows down the style to the ovary. Its two gametes travel down the
tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held within
the carpel.
One nucleus fuses with the polar bodies to produce the endosperm tissues, and
the other with the ovum to produce the embryo[1][2] Hence the term: "double
fertilization".
The receptive part of the carpel is called a stigma in the flowers of angiosperms.
Pollination is a necessary step in the reproduction of flowering plants, resulting in
the production of offspring that are genetically diverse.
After landing on the stigma, pollen tubes will emerge through the grain apertures
if the environ- ment is high in humidity. Successful germination of the pollen in

the stigma requires nutrients. In most plants, growth of the pollen tube lasts
between twelve and forty-eight hours, frompollen germination to fertilization.
Pollen germination starts with pollen-tube initiation, elongation, and penetration

of the stigmatic tissue. During this period intense metabolic activity takes place, for the
tube must synthesize membrane material and cell wall for growth and expansion.
Simultaneously, at its tip the tube carries the vegetative cell nucleus, fol- lowed by the
germinative cell.
Type of pollination :‖
self-pollination and cross-pollination. In self-breeding species, the pollen comes

from the anther of the same flower
In cross-pollination (or out crossing) species, the pollen comes from the anthers
of a different flower or even a different plant of the same species. In these plants,
incompatibility in the stigma guarantees that only pollen from other flowers will
germinate.
Q7 What is fertilization? Explain double fertilization?
Ans When a pollen grain reaches the stigma, it germinates into a pollen tube.The
germ cell divides by mitosis forming 2 sperm cells. These, along with the tube
nucleus, migrate down the pollen tube as it grows through the style, the
micropyle, and into the ovule chamber and fuse with egg cell this prosses is
called fertilization. The union of one sperm with the egg is known as fertilization
The pollen tube with its contents makes up the mature male gametophyte
generation.
Once the sperm reach the micropyle , the growth of other tubes stops. In the
embryo sac (female gametophyte), four cells are located at themicropylar side.Of
those four, the first pair that the spermcells will encounter are the synergids.
One of these is always bigger than the other and carries the filiform apparatus, a
structure resembling hairs that degenerates after pollination and before
fertilization. The synergids act as chemical attractants to the pollen tube, which
penetrates the synergids via the filiform apparatus and then releases the two
sperm cells.
One of the sperm cells will fuse with the egg, producing the zygote; the other
40
sperm cell will fuse with the primary endosperm nucleus, generating the
endosperm. The remaining cells of the female gametophyte are the antipodals;
they usually degenerate after fertilization has taken place.
Double fertilization
The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and ruptures.
One sperm cell fuses with the egg forming the diploid zygote.
The other sperm cell fuses with the polar nuclei forming the endosperm nucleus.
Most angiosperms have two polar nuclei so the endosperm is triploid (3n).
The tube nucleus disintegrates
Q.8 Structure and development of microspore or microsporogenesis ?

Ans Pollen is a fine to coarse powder containing the microgametophytes of seed
plants, which produce the male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a
hard coat that protects the sperm cells during the process of their movement from
the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants or from the male cone to the female
cone of coniferous plants. When pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female
cone (i.e., when pollination has occurred), it germinates and produces a pollen
tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule (or female gametophyte). Individual
pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail.
The structure and formation of pollen

Pollen itself is not the male gamete.[1] Each pollen grain contains vegetative (non-
reproductive) cells (only a single cell in most flowering plants but several in other
seed plants) and a generative (reproductive) cell containing two nuclei: a tube
nucleus (that produces the pollen tube) and a generative nucleus (that divides to
form the two sperm cells). The group of cells is surrounded by a cellulose-rich cell
wall called the intine, and a resistant outer wall composed largely of
sporopollenin called the exine.
Pollen is produced in the 'microsporangium' (contained in the anther of an

angiosperm flower, male cone of a coniferous plant, or male cone of other seed

plants). Pollen grains come in a wide variety of shapes (most often spherical),
sizes, and surface markings characteristic of the species (see electron micrograph,
right). Pollen grains of pines, firs, and spruces are winged. The smallest pollen
grain, that of the forget-me-not (Myosotis spp.), is around 6 µm (0.006 mm) in
diameter. Wind-borne pollen grains can be as large as about 90-100 µm.[2] The
study of pollen is called palynology and is highly useful in paleoecology,
paleontology, archeology, and forensics.
In angiosperms, during flower development the anther is composed of a mass of

cells that appear undifferentiated, except for a partially differentiated dermis. As
the flower develops, four groups of sporogenous cells form within the anther.
The fertile sporogenous cells are surrounded by layers of sterile cells that grow
into the wall of the pollen sac. Some of the cells grow into nutritive cells that
supply nutrition for the microspores that form by meiotic division from the
sporogenous cells. In a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid
microspores are produced from each diploid sporogenous cell (microsporocyte),
after meiotic division. After the formation of the four microspores, which are
contained by callose walls, the development of the pollen grain walls begins. The
callose wall is broken down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen
grains grow in size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant
outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is what is
preserved in the fossil record.
The pollen wall protects the sperm nucleus while the pollen grain is moving from
the anther to the stigma; it protects the vital genetic material from drying out and
solar radiation. The pollen grain surface is covered with waxes and proteins,
which are held in place by structures called sculpture elements on the surface of
the grain. The outer pollen wall, which prevents the pollen grain from shrinking
and crushing the genetic material during desiccation, is composed of two layers.
These two layers are the tectum and the foot layer, which is just above the intine.
The tectum and foot layer are separated by a region called the columella, which is
composed of strengthening rods. The outer wall is constructed with a resistant
biopolymer called sporopollenin. The pollen tube passes through the wall by way
of structures called apertures.
Pollen apertures are any modification of the wall of the pollen grain. These
modifications include thinning, ridges and pores, they serve as an exit for the
pollen contents and allow shrinking and swelling of the grain caused by changes
in moisture content. The elongated apertues/ furrows in the pollen grain are

42
called colpi (singular: colpus) which along with pores, are a major criterion for the
identification of classes of pollen .[4]
Pollen grains may have furrows, the orientation of which (relative to the original
tetrad of microspores) classify the pollen as colpate or sulcate. The number of
furrows or pores helps classify the flowering plants, with eudicots having three
colpi (tricolpate), and other groups having one sulcus.
Except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen-grain has
a double wall, a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose (the endospore or intine)
and a tough outer cuticularized exospore or exine. The exine often bears spines or
warts, or is variously sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of
value for identifying genus, species, or even cultivar or individual. In some
flowering plants, germination of the pollen grain often begins before it leaves the
microsporangium, with the generative cell forming the two sperm cells
Microscopic view of cross section of an anther showing pollen sacs

Developing pollen: Microspore mother cells in pollen sacs divideby meiosis to

produce the four cells seen here in each cluster. They are known as tetrads.
Cells in each tetrad grow and separate while in pollen sacs to form mature
pollen grains seen here. Nuclei divide by mitosis to produce the male
gametophytes seen here inside each pollen grain.
Male gametophyte development in higher plants is a complex process that

requires the coordinated participation of various cell and tissue types and their

44
associated specific gene expression patterns. The male gametophytic life cycle can
be divided into a developmental phase leading to the formation of mature pollen
grains, and a functional or progamic phase, beginning with the impact of the
grains on the stigm a surface and ending at double fertilisation. Pollen ontogeny
is also an excellent model in which to dissect the cellular networks that control
cell growth, polarity, cellular differentiation and cell signaling. Here we present
an overview of important cellular processes in male gametophyte development
and recent advances in genetics and genomic approaches that are advancing the
field significantly.
Genetic approaches have identified a growing number of gametophytic mutants

affecting discrete steps during the developmental or progamic phases that are
now beginning to uncover some of the key molecular processes involved. With
recent technological advances pollen transcriptomic studies now provide the first
genome-wide view of male reproductive cell development in Arabidopsis These
studies reveal at least two successive global gene expression programs and the
identity of a large number of male gametophyte-specific genes and putative
transcriptional regulators. Transcriptome analysis has revealed a striking
overrepresentation of cell wall metabolism, cytoskeleton and signaling genes in
preparation for the progamic phase. This quantum leap in gene-centered
knowledge highlights the functional specialization of this pathway and offers
many new opportunities for the dissection of cell.
INTRODUCTION – MALE GAMETOPHYTE
Male gametophyte development in higher plants is a complex process that

requires the coordinated participation of various cell and tissue types and their
associated specific gene expression patterns. Both gametophytic (pollen) and
sporophytic (anther, tapetum) tissues participate in this process. The male
gametophytic life cycle can be divided into two distinct phases: (1) a
developmental phase, which takes places within the anther locules, and leads to
formation of mature pollen grains, and (2), the functional or progamic phase,
which begins with the impact of the grains on the stigma surface, continues with
pollen tube growth and ends at double fertilisation. Developmentally, it is a
simple and highly reduced system compared with the sporophyte and therefore
provides unique opportunities to study the developmental regulation of gene
expression and functional interactions between different cell types. With regard
to microsporogenesis, a large body of evidence shows that gametophytic gene
expression is both complex and extensive.
Moreover, a large fraction of such genes is also expressed in the sporophyte. This
phenomenon of ―haplo-diploid transcription‖ has important implications with
respect of the efficiency of gametophytic selection and its role in the evolutionary

success of flowering plants. Competition between male gametophytes for

fertilization of a limited number of egg cells is common, and pronounced
differences in pollen tube growth rate reflect genetic differences between
individual microgametophytes (Mulcahy 1979, Mulcahy et al. 1996).
Gametophytic selection provides a barrier against poorly functioning haploid
genomes, serving to reduce the influence of random events and to promote the
rigorous selection of superior haploid genotypes. These conditions argue for the
rapid evolution of gametophytic genes that encode specialized functions that
improve the fitness of the male gametophyte. On the contrary, gametophytic
selection can influence sporophytic fitness only if there is significant overlap
between genes expressed in both generations (Mulcahy 1979, Mulcahy et al.
1996). Recent transcriptomic studies of developing male gametophytes
conclusively demonstrate that the extent of haplo-diploid overlap is greater than
95% (Honys and Twell 2004, Twell et al. 2006) thereby providing enormous
potential for the gametophytic selection of genes affecting sporophytic traits.
Honysetal. Male
gametophyte develoular processes that contr.
POLLEN DEVELOPMENT
Pollen development begins in the young anther locules and consists of two major
phases -microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis. The primary sporogenous
layer gives rise to the diploid microsporocytes or meiocytes. Meiotic division
produces tetrads of four haploid microspores enclosed within a unique callosic (β
-1, 3-glucan) cell wall. Callose is degraded by the activity of an enzyme complex
(callase) secreted by the tapetum leading to the separation of tetrads into
individual microspores (Fig. 1). This demonstrates tight co-operation of
sporophytic and gametophytic tissues. Separation of tetrads into individual
microspores is under sporophytic control (Preuss et al. 1994) and in quartet3
mutants microspores remain attached in a tetrad as a result of a mutation in a
polygalacturonase, normally secreted from the tapetal cell layer (Rhee et al.
2003). Microspore growth and development proceed through a progressive cycle
of vacuole biogenesis, fusion and fission events (Owen and Makaroff 1995,
Yamamoto et al. 2003).The morphogenetic role of the vacuole in microspore
expansion is associated with extreme polarization of the microspore nucleus
against the microspore wall. Polarization of the microspore nucleus may provide
a signal for entry into the highly asymmetric cell division at pollen mitosis I
(PMI). Pollen mitosis I gives rise to two daughter cells with completely different
structures and cell fates (Twell et al.1998). The large vegetative cell has dispersed
nuclear chromatin and constitutes the bulk of the pollen cytoplasm. In contrast,

46
the smaller generative cell has condensed nuclear chromatin and contains
relatively few organelles and stored metabolites. Whereas the vegetative cell exits
the cell cycle at G1 phase, the generative cell remains division-competent and
completes pollen mitosis II (PMII) to form the two sperm cells. Asymmetric
cytokinesis following PMI possesses two special features in that: (1) no
preprophase band of microtubules marks the future division plane, and (2) a
unique curved cell plate is formed to enclose the generative nucleus. Two general
models have been proposed to account for differential cell fate arising from
asymmetric division at PMI (Eady et al. 1995). Both assume that vegetative
cell gene expression is the default pathway resulting from the accumulation of
gametophytic factors, and provide alternative mechanisms to explain how
vegetative c ell-specific genes are repressed in the generative cell. In essence
gametophytic determinants may be simply excluded from the generative cell
pole, or polarized hypothetical generative cell repressors may block vegetative
cell-specific gene expression. It is possible that a com bination of both
mechanisms operate to specify and effectively seal generative cell fate through
asymmetric cell division.
After pollen mitosis I, the generative cell migrates inward resulting in a ‗cell
within a cell‘ structure, enabling gamete transport within the pollen tube.
Generative cell migration follows degradation of the callose wall that separates
the vegetative and generative cells. This presumably involves targeted secretion
of β (1-3)-glucanases. Subsequently, the generative cell forms an elongated or
spindle-like shape that is maintained by a cortical cage of bundled microtubules.

The generative cell un dergoes further mitotic division at pollen mitosis II (PMII)
to produce the two sperm cells. In tricellular pollen this division occurs within the
anther, whereas in bicellular pollen it occurs within the growing pollen tube.
Although the majority of flowering plants produce bicellular pollen, many
important food crop plants such as rice, wheat and maize produce short-lived,
tricellular pollen grains (Figs. 1, 2 ). Pollen mitosis II takes place within a
membrane-bound compartment of the vegetative cell cytoplasm and a physical
association is established between the gametes and the vegetative nucleus known
as the male germ unit (MGU). The MGU exists in both bicellular and tricellular
pollen systems and is thought to be important for the coordinated delivery of the
gametes and sperm cell fusion events (Dumas et al. 1998). In Arabidopsis the
MGU is first assembled in tricellular pollen (Lalanne and Twell 2002). During
pollen maturation the vegetative cell accumulates carbohydrate and/or lipid
reserves required for the demands of plasma membrane and pollen tube wall
synthesis (Pac ini 1996). The substantial accumulation of RNA and
proteins during the final phases of pollen maturation (re viewed in Twell 2002) is
functionally required for rapid pollen tube growth after pollination. Pollen grains
are usually strongly dehydrated when finally released from the anthers. During
this maturation phase, the accumulation of sugars and proline or glycine-betaine
are thought to act as osmoprotectants to protect vital membranes and proteins
(Schwacke
et al. 1999).
Cell wall
The specialized activities and biological role of the pollen grain are reflected in
the unique composition of the pollen wall. The pollen wall and its coatings isolate
and protect the male gametophyte and its precious cargo, and mediate the
complex communication with the stigma surface (Scott et al. 2004).
The pollen wall consists of inner intine and outer exine layers. Its synthesis begins
in the microspores newly formed within the tetrad, when the pectocellulosic
intine and the primexine are laid down. The primexine serves as a matrix for
deposition of sporopollenin precursors and their polymerisation. Sporopollenin is
one of the most resistant biopolymers known and is a complex containing fatty
acids and phenylpropanoids. Although the pathways involved in sporopollenin
formation remain unknown its synthesis involves tight cooperation between
microspore cytoplasm and tapetal cells. The exine is not evenly distributed over
the pollen grain surface and regions with reduced thickness or that lack
sporopollenin can form apertures that are used as sites for pollen tube emergence.
The number and size of apertures and exine patterning are also under strict

48
sporophytic control. The formation of pollen coatings is completed at later stages

of microgametogenesis during which remnants of degenerating tapetal cells are
deposited onto the pollen grain surface. The pollen coat is involved in pollen-
pistil signalling, self incompatibility, pollen hydration, adhesivity, color and
odour. The yellow or purple colours of mature pollen grain results from the
presence of both carotenoid and phenylpropanoid compounds. These features as
well as the elaborate patterning of sporopollenin are highly variable among
different plant species. In animal-pollinated species pollen is often decorated with
elaborate structures that facilitate vector adhesion, whereas in wind pollinated
species pollen lacks such sculpturing (Fig. 3).
Q9 What is Tapetum? give its type?
Ans.
Tapetum is a neutritive large of micro space. It nutralize the space present in

side the pollen chamber .It present in 2 forms.

seceretory tapetum or glandular tapetum- They remain intact and continuously

secreate food nutrition to developing microspore.
Amoeboid tapetum / pereplasmodial tapetum-
They destroyed and provide food .Inner wall are absent in ameboid tapetum
cells.
On basis of origion tapetam is of 2 types-
P- Tapetum – tapetam formed by parietal wall.
C- Tapetum – tapetum formed by connictive tissue cell.
Function of tapetum
1- They secreate callose enzyme. it decompose cellulose which is necessary for

separation of spores from tetrad.
2- Sereation of libisch bodies – it is made up or by particles of lipid modules

which supply food from pollen kit to the pollen grain
3- Pollen kit substance-
Enveloper and pollen grain
Lipid modules- ubisch bodies
Sporo pollenin - protein and lypo protein –tapetum
Tapetum cell DNA consists is maximum cause there cell are
Multi nucliated
Endomitosis- cause of free nuclear division in a cell
Poly tene- in formation of more than 2 tetrad in a chromosomes.
Restituation nuclei – formation of more than one nucleus in a nuclous this is

called Pestritution nuclei.

50
Q10 Give development maleGametophyte?
Ans. - Formation of generative and vegetative cells.
The First division of pollen grain result in two unequal cell- a larger vegetable
cell and a smaller generative cell. Generative cell is attached to intine of the
pollen wall but letter become free and lies in cytoplasm of vegetative cell the
pollen grain. When from the tatred are ceninucliate. Thus is no
synchronization in the first division in the pollen grains of an another locale but
the difference in timing in different pollen grain are not the protoplast of pollen
shows two marpid changes before its division.
1- It nuclues migrates from the centre to periphery the centre to periphery

the mirg ration occuse in definate diriction determine the position of the
generative cell.
2- Many vacuoles appear in b/w the nucleus and pollen wall on the side
when vegetative cells to be formed.
3- To the daughter nuclei formed in a Pollen the one laying towards the
pollen wall is generative nucleus and the other function as the vegetative
nucleus. Then covered wall is formed b/w 2 nuclei. Which cuts off the
generative nucleus in a small cell. It become free from the pollen wall. This
cell gets surrounded by the cytoplasm of the vegetable cell. The shape of
tentative cell may become ellpsoidal fusiform. The cytoplam of vegetable
cell contain ribosome RER plastedi. RNA and protein are also present in
safficient amounts, the wall of genrative cell is irugular these is no
conniction b/w vegetable cell.
The made gametes are formed by mitric division of The genuatire cell.
This division usually occeue before the pollen shed from another. It into
pollen tube. pollen are shed at two called condition, this viable for longer
period. Then mitotic division of generative cells results in the formation of
two non mobile male gamete. Each male gamete consists of a large nucleus
by a then sheath of cytoplasm.

1. When a style arises from the base of the ovary it is known as –

A) Plumose B) Linear
C.) Gynobasic D) Terminal
2. Fertirized egg is called :
A) Zygote B) Ovule
C) Embryo D) Seed
3. The condition in which anothers & stigma of a flavers present on the same plant
is called :
A) Autogamy B) Homogamy
C) Herkogamy D) Geitonogamy
4. When pollen tube enters the ovule through micropyle, the process is called :
A) Porogamy C) Mesogamy
C) Chalazogamy D) Aporogamy
5. Development of megaspore within ovule is known as :
A) Parthenogenesis C) Megasporogenesis
C) Megagametogenesis D) Embryogenesis
6. A microspore is a first cell of
A) Male sparophyte B) Female sporophyte
C) Male gametophyte D) Female gametophyte
7. The triploid nucleus formed as result of double fertilization or triple fusion,
functions as the primary endosperm nucleus.
8. The mature anther wall is made of the four layers, viz. dpidermis, middle layers
and tapetum

52
Section-D
Seed Embryology
Q. 1 Define Structure of Seed and Fruit Formation ?
Ans.
Seeds After double fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed, which consists of
a plumule, made up of
o two embryonic leaves, which will become the first true leaves of the
seedling, and
o a terminal (apical) bud. The terminal bud contains the meristem at which
later growth of the stem takes place.
One or two cotyledons which store food that will be used by the germinating
seedling.
o Angiosperms that produce seeds with two cotyledons are called dicots.
Examples: beans, squashes, Arabidopsis
o Angiosperms whose seeds contain only a single cotyledon are monocots.
Examples: corn and other grasses.
The hypocotyl and radicle, which will grow into the part of the stem below the
first node ("hypocotyl" = below the cotyledons) and primary root respectively.
The development of each of the parts of the plant embryo depends on gradients
of the plant hormone, auxin.

In addition to the embryo plant (derived from the zygote), each seed is covered
with protective seed coats derived from the walls of the ovule
dispersal of the species to new locations (aided in angiosperms by the fruit)

survival of the species during unfavorable climatic periods (e.g., winter).
"Annual" plants (e.g., beans, cereal grains, many weeds) can survive freezing only
as seeds. When the parents die in the fall, the seeds remain alive — though
dormant— over the winter. When conditions are once more favorable,
germination occurs and a new generation of plants develops.
The food in the cotyledons is derived from the endosperm which, in turn,
received it from the parent sporophyte. In many angiosperms (e.g., beans), when
the seeds are mature, the endosperm has been totally consumed and its food
transferred to the cotyledons. In others (some dicots and all monocots), the
endosperm persists in the mature seed.
The seed is thus a dormant embryo sporophyte with stored food and protective
coats. Its two functions are
Q2- Explain embryo development in dicot ?

Ans.- In most of the dicotyledons the apical cell of the two called proembryo dividis
longitudinally or transveusaly and the basal cell may remain undivided or may
further devide trans versly in the basics of the cellular configuration of the
embryo at the four called stagi and the part played by each of these in the
organegic development. these are different type of embryo in dicots but we
consider curifor and onagrad type of embryo the first division of zygote is by a

54
trans verse wall and as a result an apical cell and a basal cell are differentiated.
The basal cell of the two called embryo lies close to micro poly when as the
apical cell lies on the innre side the basal cell dividis by a transverse wall and
apical the two terminal cells formed by longitudinal division of the apical cell
divide by a longitudinal wall at right angle of the first and thus a quadrant is
formed each cell of quadrant divided by trans ever wall giving to octant stage.
Embryo Formation
The fertilised egg undergoes a regular sequence of divisions to form the embryo.
The oospore divides to form a suspensor or basal cell and a terminal embryo cell.
The basal cell is towards the micropyle and the terminal cell is towards the chalaza. The
basal cell divides repeatedly to produce a row of 4 to 8 cells. This constitutes the
suspensor. The terminal cell divides in various planes to form a cluster of cells called the
proembryo. The suspensor pushes the proembryo in to the endosperm, to enable the
developing embryo to obtain nourishment.
(A - H). Stages in the development of dicot embryo in Capsella bursa-pastorisThe pro

embryo cell divides to form the plumule, radicle and two cotyledons in the dicots. In
monocots only one cotyledon develops.
As the embryo and endosperm mature, the integuments of the ovule becomes
hard to form the seed coat, which protects the seed.

Growth of an embryo in a non-endospermous dicotyledon seed, such as

shepherds purse (Capsella bursapastoris)
Q.3 Describe characters of family euphorbiaceae and its Economic importance?
Ans Euphobiaceae: Euphorb Family
This family consists of a wide array of different plants. There are approximately
300 genera and 7,500 species. Some of these plants are mistaken for cacti because
the family has members that have adapted succulent, photosynthetic stems,
highly reduced leaves and spines. Very different however from cacti, is the
presence of milky sap and the unique structure of the flowers. Many Euphorbs
like Jathropa are extremely toxic.
Systematics: Euphorbs are all unisexual flowers. They range from 1) normally
developing flowers to reduced flowers (maybe even just naked pistils) to 3) a
highly reduced cyatheum. Cyatheums look like normal flowers but instead are
many flowers combined into one structure that looks like a normal flower. The
family has milky sap. There are peltate hairs. There are 3 carpels, 3 locules and 3
style branch

56
Euphorbiaceae, the Spurge family are a large family of flowering plants with 300
genera and around 7,500 species. Most are herbs, but some, especially in the
tropics, are also shrubs or trees. Some are succulent and resemble cacti.
This family occurs mainly in the tropics, with the majority of the species in the
Indo-Malayan region and tropical America a good second. There is a large variety
in tropical Africa, but it is not as abundant or varied as in these two other tropical
regions. However, Euphorbia also has many species in non-tropical areas such as
the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, South Africa, and southern USA.
The leaves are alternate, seldom opposite, with stipules. They are mainly simple,
but where compound, are always palmate, never pinnate. Stipules may be
reduced to hairs, glands, or spines, or in succulent species are sometimes absent.
The radially symmetrical flowers are unisexual, with the male and the female
flowers usually occurring on the same plant. As can be expected from such a
large family, there is a wide variety in the structure of the flowers. They can be
monoecious or dioecious. The stamens (the male organs) can number from 1 to 10
(or even more). The female flowers are hypogynous, that is, with a superior
ovary.
The genera in tribe Euphorbieae, subtribe Euphorbiinae (Euphorbia and close

relatives) show a highly specialized form of pseudanthium ("false flower" made
up of several true flowers) called a cyathium. This is usually a small cup-like
involucre consisting of fused together bracts and peripheral nectary glands,
surrounding a ring of male flowers, each a single stamen. In the middle of the
cyathium stands a female flower: a single pistil with branched stigmas. This
whole arrangement resembles a single flower.
The fruit is usually a schizocarp, sometimes a drupe. A typical schizocarp is the

regma, a capsular fruit with three or more cells, each of which splits open at
maturity into separate parts and then breaks away explosively, scattering the
small seeds.
The family contains a large variety of phytotoxins (toxic substances produced by

plants), mainly diterpene esters, alkaloids, glycosides, and ricin-type toxins.
A milky sap or latex is a characteristic of the subfamilies Euphorbioideae and

Crotonoideae. This milky sap is poisonous in the Euphorbioideae, but innocuous
in the Crotonoideae[citation needed]. White mangrove (Excoecaria agallocha), or Blind-
Your-Eye Mangrove sap causes blistering on contact and temporary blindness if
it contacts the eyes. Other common names are Milky Mangrove, Buta Buta
(Malay), Gewa (Bangladesh). The sap of spurge was used as a laxative.

Recent molecular studies have shown that the enigmatic family Rafflesiaceae,
which was only recently recognized to belong to order Malpighiales, is derived
from within Euphorbiaceae (Davis et al. 2007
BotanicalName:Chamaesycehirta
Family:EUPHORBIACEAE
commonly known as: asthma plant, common spurge, sneeze weed • Bengali: barokarni,
barokherni • Hindi: bara dudhi, duddhi, lal-dudhi

58
Ricinus communis
Euphorbia burmanii
A neat rounded, shrubby succulent shrub up to 500mm. The stems are green and
cylindrical with no visible leaves. Flowers are yellow-green. Lovely all year
owing to its unusual texture and attractive growth habit.
Q.4 Describe characters of family Apocynaceae and it and its Economic

importance?
Ans Milkweed Family
This is a large The Apocynaceae or dogbane family is a family of flowering

plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, and lianas.[1] Members of the family are
native to Europen, Asian, African, Australian and American tropics or subtropics,
with some temperate members. Many species are tall trees found in tropical
rainforests, but some grow in tropical dry, xeric environments. There are also
perennial herbs from temperate zones. Many of these plants havemilky sap; and
many species are poisonous if ingested. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as
Adenium however, have either clear and milky, latex sap, and others, such as
Pachypodium, always have clear sap
Characteristics of Family
The dogbane family consists of trees, shrubs, herbs, or lianas with milky sap.

The leaves are simple, usually opposite and decussate, or whorled; lacking
stipules. Flowers are usually showy, actinomorphic, aggregated in cymose or
racemose inflorescences (rarely fasciculate or solitary).
They are perfect (bisexual), with a synsepalous, 5-lobed calyx that is united into a
tube at the base.
Inflorescences are terminal or axillary. Five petals are united into a tube with 4-5
epipetalous stamens.
The style is expanded at the apex into a massive clavuncle just below the stigma.
The ovary is usually superior,bicarpellary,apocarpous with a common fused style
and stigma.
The sap of most plants is a milky latex, which is often of economic importance for
medicinial use, or for the production of rubber. This sap is often toxic.
The Apocynaceae are trees, shrubs or sometimes herbs, usually with milky sap
comprising about 200 genera and 2,000 species.
The leaves are simple, usually opposite and decussate, or whorled; stipules are
usually absent. The flowers are bisexual and actinomorphic or sometimes weakly
zygomorphic.
The calyx is synsepalous and usually 5-lobed.
The corolla is sympetalous and usually 5-lobed.
The stamens are distinct, as many as corolla lobes and alternate with them, and
adnate to the corolla tube (or perigynous zone).
The anthers are introrse and commonly adherent to the surface of the stigma.
The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of 2 carpels that may be
distinct at the level of the superior or rarely partly inferior ovary but which are
united by a single style.
ovary typically has few to numerous ovules on marginal placentae; when
connate, the placentation is axile or intruded parietal.
A nectary consisting of 5 glands or an annular ring is usually found at the base of
the ovary.
The fruit is commonly a follicle, capsule, or berry.
The seeds usually are flat and winged or have a tuft of hairs at one end.
The fruit is a drupe, a berry, a capsule or a follicle
Most parts of many members of this Plant Family are POISONOUS

60
Catharanthus pusillus
Key Characters
Flower: Complete, Perfect .

Floral Symmetry: Radial.
Perianth: +, Differentiated.
Calyx (K): 5, Coalescent, Hypogynous.
Corolla (C): 5, Coalescent, arising from Perigynous Zone (PZ).
Androecium (A): 5, Distinct, adnate to Perigynous Zone or to massive
Stigma.
Ovary: Superior to sometimes partly Inferior.
Placentation: Axile or Parietal.
Infloresence: Various.
Fruit: Follicles, Berry, or Drupe.
Phyllotaxy: Opposite and Decussate or Whorled or rarely Alternate.

Leaves: Simple.
Stipules: reduced or absent.
Other distinctive features: Carpels generally distinct at level of ovary or even up
to the single stigma; Sap Milky; Stamens commonly weakly coherent around
generally enlarged Stigma or completely adnate to a massive Stigma; Pollen often
in paired coherent masses (Pollinia); Corolla appendages or Corona (Crown)
often present
Members of this Family usually have:
Simple leaves
Milky sap
Five part calyx
Clusters of flowers
Five large petals joined at the base
Five stamens
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Vegetative Characters
perennial herbs, lianas, shrubs, and sometimes small trees

often fleshy or woody tubers
leaves simple, entire, opposite or whorled
stipules lacking or minute
sympetalous corolla of 5 lobes
colleters at petiole base along with other projections on the perianth
tissues have laticifers, sap usually milky
nectar accumulates in outgrowths of the stamen-hoods and horns
Reproductive Characters
flowers actinomorphic, perfect, hypogynous to slightly perigynous, and showy

fruit a 2 or 1 (by abortion) follicle(s), seeds ovate to oblong with an apical tuft of
silky hair
superior to slightly inferior ovaries (2 distinct)
placentation parietal
gynostegium of 5 stamen, 1 stigma but either one connate or two distinct
styles
flowers rotate, funnelform or salverform

62
inflorescence determinate, sometimes appearing indeterminate,

occasionally reduced to a singly flower-terminal or axillary
Flowers ~ There is a calyx with five parts, either separate or joined to form a tube. The
flowers are in clusters and are often large and showy. They usually have five petals
joined into a tube at the base. There are five stamens joined together.
Seeds ~ The seeds capsule has two parts and may be either inside the flower or
not. Seeds are very variable, and may be small with a hairy tuft (Nerium) or large
and woody (Allamanda
Economic Importance/Fun Facts
most taxa poisonous, many medicinal

Catharanthus produces a compound used as an antileukemia drug
many ornamentals - bluestar, milkweed, butterfly weed, natal plum,
frangipani, periwinkle
Apocynaceae are known for poisoning livestock


1. The gynoecium is monocarpellary and placentation is marginal in members of
family papilionaceae.
2. When embryo develops from some cell of the embryo sac other than the egg, the
process is known as :
A) Apospory B) Apogamy
C) Parthenocary D) Parthenogenesis
1. Caruncle is a :
A)Nucellar Outgrawth B) Inkgumentary outgrowth
C) Endosperm Haustoria C) Embryosae Outgrowth
2. A monospric type of embryosac which does not have any antipodals
A) Oenothera type B) Polygonum type
B) Peperomia type D) Allium type
3. Development of female gamete into a new individual without fertilization is
called :
A) Androgenesis B) Sporogenesis
C) Parthenocary D) Parthenogenesis
4. Name the scientist who first saw the process of fertilization in angiosperms :
A) Edward Strasburger B) S.G. Nawaschin
C) Gwenda Davis D) M.S. Caves
5. The embryosac formed in the nucellus , is the female gametophyte.
6. The body of orthotropouso vule is upright with micropyle, chalaza and funicle
falling in a straight line.
7. The arrangement of ovules in the ovary is called.
8. Allium type of embryo sac is bi sporic and develops from the chalazal dyad.
9. The egg apparatus of peperomia type is characterized by a single synergid
10. Drusa type of embryo sac is characterized by large number of antipodals.
***
64
Key Terms
Actinomorphic radially symmetrical -- used of organisms, organs, or parts capable of

division into essentially symmetrical; halves by any longitudinal palne
passing through the axis; compare zygomorphic
Adnate grown together, used especially of unlike parts
Alkaloid any of a very large group of organic bases containing nitrogen and usu.
oxyygen that occur esp. in seed plants for the most part in the form of salts
with acids (as citric, oxalic, or sulfuric acid), most of the bases being
colorless and well crystal lized, bitter tasting, complex in structure with at
least one nitrogen atom in a ring (as a pyrole, quinoline, or indole ring),
and optically and biologically active, many of the bases or their salts being
used as drugs (as morphine and codeine)
Alternate arranged first on one side and then on the other at different levels or points
along an axial line
Ament an indeterminate spicate inflorescence bearing scaly bracts and apetalous
unisexual flowers (as in the willow)
Anther the part of the stamen in seed plants that consists of microsporangia,
develops and contains pollen, and though sometimes sessile, is usually
borne on a stalk
Anthocarp a fruit with some portion of the flower besides the pericarp persisting, as in
a pome with the fleshy perianth tube surrounding the pericarp (h)
Apex the pointed end : tip
Apical meristem located at the apex of a root or shoot and responsible for increase
meristem in length of the organ
Areole a small pit or cavity (as that from which spines arise in cacti)
Auricle an ear-shaped appendage (as at the base of the leaf blade of many grasses)
Apocarpous having the carpels of the gynoecium separate
Awn one of the slender bristles that terminate the glume s or bracts of the
spikelet in barley, oats, some varieties of wheat, and other grasses
Axil the distal usu. upper angle or point of divergence between a branch or leaf
and the axis from which it arises
Axile belonging to or situated in the axis

Axile
ovules attached to the central axis of an ovary with two or more ovules (h)
placentation
Axis the stem of a plant : the longitudinal support on which organs are arranged
often including also the root, esp. a taproot : the hypothetical central line
of any body or organ
Basal proceeding from the base of a stem, from a rootlike stem, or from a stem
that does not rise above the ground
Berry any simple fruit that has a fleshy pericarp (as the currant, grape,
gooseberry, cranberry, tomato, or banana)
Biconvex convex on both sides
Bilabiate having two lips
Bipinnate twice pinnate
Bisexual possessing characters typical of both sexes
Blade a leaf of a plant esp : a leaf of an herb or more narrowly of a grass c(1) :
the expanded portion of a leaf or a plant organ resembling a leaf --
distinguished from petiole (2) : the broad terminal part of certain petals --
distinguished from claw
Boreal of, relating to, or constituting a terrestrial biogeographic division
comprising the northern and mountainous parts of the northern hemisphere
in which mean temperature during the six hottest weeks does not exceed
64.4o F. and being equiva lent to the Holarctic region exclusive of the
Sonoran and Transition zones and corresponding Old World areas
Buffered in the case of Nymphaeaceae: plants are protected from extreme
fluctuations in temperature by the slower rate of change in the body of
water (nb)
Bulb a mass of overlappiing membranous or fleshy leaves on a short stem base
enclosing one or more buds that may develp under suitable conditions into
new plants and constituting the resting stage of many plants (as lily, onion,
hyacinth, tulip) distingui shed from corm, rhizome, tuber
Calyx the outer set of floral leaves making up the external part of the flower and
consisting of separate or fused sepals ttha are usu. green and foliaceous but
often colored like the corolla -- see corolla
Capitulate collected into small capitula (see below)
Capitulum a simple racemose inflorescence in which the primary axis is shortened
and dilated forming a rounded or flattened cluster of sessile flowers (as in
the buttonbush and in all composite plants) -- called also head

66
Capsule in seed plants: a dry dehiscent usu. many-seeded fruit composed of two or
more carpels and releasing seed at maturity through pores or by breaking
into valves--compare pod
Chromosome one of the more or less rodlike chromatin-containing basophilic bodies
constituting the genome and chiefly detectable in the mitotic or meiotic
nucleus that are regarded as the seat of the genes, consist of one or more
intimately associated chromatid s functionintg as a unit, and are relatively
constant in number in the cells of any one kind of plant or animal
Circinate characterized by hor having the form of a flat coil of which the apex is the
center -- used esp. of arrangements of plant parts in vernation and of
developing fern fronds
Circumscissile dehiscing by a transverse fissure around the circumference -- compare
loculicidal
Claw the slender, prolonged basal portion of certain petals (as in the pink) --
compare blade
Clawed having claws (see above)
Column the united monadelphous stamens in mallows b : the united androecium
and gynoecium in orchids
Compound composed of or produced by the union of several elements, ingredients,
parts, or things b : involving combination
Concave arched in : curving in
Cone a mass of ovule-bearaing or pollen-bearing scales or bracts in trees of the
pine family and in cycads arranged usu. on a somewhat elongated axis : a
carpellate or staminate strobilus; esp : the carpellate strobilus of pine and
related trees < b>b : any of several flower or fruit clusters suggesting a
cone (as of the hop or certain magnolias)
Corm modified underground stem base bearing membranous or scaly leaves and
buds and acting as a vegetative reproductive structure in certain
monocotyledonous plants (as gladiolus and crocus) -- distinguished from
bulb; compare < a href="#tuber">tuber
Corolla the inner set of floral leaves that immediately surround the sporophylls,
consist of separate or fused petals, and are often highly colored in contrast
to the calyx but sometimes inconspicuous or even absent
Corona an appendage or series of united appendages borne on the inner side of the
corolla in certain flowers (as in the daffodil, jonquil, and milkweed) and
often resembling an additional whorl of the perianth
Cotyledon the first leaf or one of the first pair or whorl of leaves developed by the
embryo in seed plants and in ferns and related plants that functions

primarily to make stored food in the endosperm available to the

developing young plant but in some cases acts as a storage or
photosynthetic organ
Creeping tending to spread over the ground or other substrate
Cross-shaped . . . two intersecting lines or bars usu. of equal or approximately equal
length and crossing at or about their midpoints
Crumpled wrinkled, creased, or bent out of shape by or as if by pressing, folding, or
crushing
Culm the jointed stem of a grass usu. hollow except at the often swollen nodes
and usu. herbaceous except in the bamboos and other arborescent grasses;
also : one of the solid stems of sedges, rushes, and similar
monocotyledonous plants
Cyathium an inflorescence consisting of a cuplike involucre with the flowers arising
from its base (as in the poinsettia). more...
Deciduous falling off or shed at the end of the growing period
Decussate arranged in pairs each at right angles to the next pair above and below --
compare brachiate
Dehiscence a bursting open: as a (1) : the bursting open of a capsule, pod, or silique at
maturity either between the carpels, through the middle of the carpels, or
in some other manner -- compare circumscissile,
;loculicidal, septicidal, septifragal (2) : the opening of an anther for the
discharge of pollen (as by longitudinal slits or pores)
Dehiscent characterized by dehiscence
Desert a region in which the vegetation is so scanty as to be incapable of
supporting any considerable population (as a region perpetually cold or
covered with snow or ice or a region located in the interior of a continent
and characterized by scanty rainfa ll esp. of less than 10 inches annually)
Determinate growth in which the axis being limited by the devlopment of the terminal
flower bud or other reproductive structure does not continue to elongate
indefinitely (as in a cymose inflorescence and in certain mosses)
Diadelphous of stamens: united by the filaments into two fascicles
Dimorphic having two forms
Dioecious having staminate and pistillate flowers borne on different individuals
Disciform of round or oval shape
Disk the central portion of the flower head of a typical composite composed of
closely packed tubular flowers

68
Disk floret one of the tubular flowers in the disk of a composite plant
Dissected deeply divided into many narrow segments (h)
Dissepiment a separating tissue : PARTITION : SEPTUM
Distinct separate, not attached to like parts (h)
Drupe a one-seeded indehiscent fruit having a hard bony endocarp, a usu. fleshy
mesocarp, and a thin epicarp like a skin (as in the cherry, plum, and peach)
or dry and almost leathery (as in the almond)
Drupelet one of the individual parts of an aggregate fruit (as the raspberry)
Endemic restricted to or native to a particular area or region : INDIGENOUS -- used
of kinds of organisms; compare exotic
Endosperm
Entire having the margin continuous or not broken by divisions, teeth, or
serrations
Ephedrine a white crystalline alkaloid . . . extacted esp. from mahuang or made
synthetically and used often in the form of a xalt (as a sulfate) chiefly in
relieving hay fever, asthma, and nasal congestion
Epidermal of, relating to, or arising from the epidermis [which is] a layer of primary
tissue in higher plants that is commonly one cell thick, often cutinized on
its outer surface, and continuous in young plants except over the stomata,
that provides protecti on to underlying parts against mechanical injury and
desiccation, and that is largely replaced (as by periderm or exodermis) in
older plants except on leaves and herbaceous stems
Epiphyte a plant that grows upon another plant (as a tree) nonparasitically or
sometimes upon some other object (as a building or telegraph wire),
derives its moisture and nutrients from the air and rain and sometimes
from debris accumulating around it . . .
Episepalous growing on or adnate to the sepals
Equitant overlapping each other transversely at the base (as in an iris)
Estipulate without stipules
Ethereal oil essential oil : any of a large class of volatile odoriferous oils of vegetable
origin that impart to plants odor and often other chatacteristic properties,
that are obtained from various parts of the plants (as flowers, leaves, or
bark) by steam dist illation, expression, or extraction, that are usu.
mixtures of compounds (as terpenoids, aldehydes, or esters), and that are
used often in the form of essences in perfumes, flavoring materials, and
pharmaceutical preparations : volatile oil; distinguished from fatty oil and
fixed oil

Fleshy
receptacle
Floret a single flower of a multiple -flowered inflorescence; esp b one of the
small individual flowers that make up the head of a comjposite plant --
compare DISK FLOWER, RAY FLOWER
Follicle a dry dehiscent one-celled, many-seeded, and monocarpellary fruit (as that
of the peony, larkspur, or milkweed) differing from a pod or legume in
opening along only one (as the inner or ventral) suture
Free not united or combined with something else; distinct, separate
Fritillary a plant of the genus Fritillaria
Fruit the reproductive body of a seed plant consisting of one or more seeds and
usu. various protective and supporting structures
Fused mingled, blended, integrated
Glochid glochidium : a barbed hair or spine (as on the massulae of a water fern or
on some cacti)
Glume one of the two empty bracts at the base of the spikelet in grasses
Green having the color of growing fresh grass or of the emerald
Heterosporous characterized by the production of asexual spores of more than one kind
Homosporous characterized by the production by various plants (as the club mosses and
horsetails) of asexual spores of only one kind
Host a living animal or plant affording subsistence or lodgment to a parasite
Husk the outer covering of a kernel or seed esp. when dry and membranous
Hygroscopic sensitive to moisture b : induced by moisture
Inferior of a part of a plant a : situated below another organ: (1) of a calyx : free
from the ovary (2) of an ovary : adnate to the calyx or other floral
envelope
Latex a milky usu. white fluid of variable compostition that is usu. made up of
various gum resins, fats, or waxes and often a complex mixture of other
substances frequently including poisonous compounds, this is found in or
produced by cells of plants esp of the Asclepiadaceae but also of the
Apocynaceae, Sapotaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Papaveraceaea, Moraceae,
and Compositae, and that yields rubber, gutta-percha, chicle, and balata as
its chief commercial products
Locule (loculus) one of the cells of the compound ovary of a plant (2) : the cavity
of a pollen sac

70
Mericarp one of the two carpels that resemble achenes and form the schizocarp of an
umbelliferous plant
Mesic of a habitat : having or characterized by a moderate amount of moisture :
neither hydric not xeric; of a plant or flora : mesophytic
Midvein midrib : the central vein of a leaf
Milky sap
Monadelphous united by the filaments into one group usu. forming a tube around the
gynoecium
Monocarpic bearing fruit but once and dying--used esp. of annual and biennial
flowering plants; compare century plant
Monocarpous having a single ovary
Monoecious having pistillate and staminate flowers on the same plant
Monophyletic developed from a single common parent form
Monopodial having or involving offshoots from a main axis
Motile exhibing or capable of movement
Mycorrhiza the symbiotic association of the mycelium of a fungus (as various
basidiomycetes and ascomycetes) with the roots of a seed plant (as various
conifers, beeches, heaths, and orchids) in which the hyphae form an
interwoven mass investing the root tips or penetrate the parenchyma of the
root
Neuter having no generative organs
Node the often swollen or otherwise modified point on a stem or similar
structure at which a leaf or leaves are inserted
Nucleus an element of the protoplasm of most plant and animal cells that is
regarded as an essential agent in their metabolism, growth, and
reproduction and in the transmission of hereditary characters and that
typically consists of a more or less rounded ma ss of nucleoplasm made up
of a hyaline ground substance in which is suspended a network rich in
nucleoproteins from which the mitotic chromosomes and one or more
nucleoli condense, the whole being enclosed by a nuclear membrane
Nut a dry indehiscent one-seeded fruit (as an acorn, hazelnut, or chestnut) with
a woody pericarp developing from an inferior syncarpous ovary
Nutlet a small nut-like fruit (as of many plants of the family Boraginaceae)
Ocrea a tubular sheath around the base of the petiole consisting of a single stipule
in the red clover or a pair of coherent stipules in the buckwheat family
(Polygoniaceae)

Opposite situated in pairs on an axis each being separated from the other by half the
circumference of the axis (2) of floral parts : SUPERPOSED (3) situated
side by side
Ovary the enlarged rounded usu. basal portion of the pistil or gynoecium of an
agiospermous plant that bears the ovules and consists of a single carpel or
of several united carpels
Ovule a rounded outgrowth of the ovary in seed plants that develops into a seed
usu. only after fertilization and that consists of an embryo sac borne
centrally within a nucellus, the latter surrounded by one or more
integuments
Panicle a compound racemose inflorescence that is usu. a raceme in which the
secondary branches are themselves racemose (as the inflorescence of
yuccas) but sometimes merges into the cymose type (as in the horse
chestnut)
Pappus the appendage or tuft of appendages crowning the ovary or fruit in various
seed plants (as composites), being adapted for dispersal of the fruit by
wind or other agencies, and consisting of all or part fo the perianth
modified into bristles. scales, awns, or short teeth b : the group of bristles
formed around the fruit by the calyx of members of the Dipsacaceae,
Valerianaceae, and Calyceraceae
Pepo an indehiscent fleshy 1-celled or falsely three-celled many-seeded berry
usu. with a hard rind (as a pumpkin, squash, melon, and cucumber) that is
the characteristic fruit of the famiy Curcurbitaceae
Perennial continuing or lasting for several years--used specif. of a plant (as
delphinium) that dies back seasonally and produces new growth from a
perennating part
with both male and female reproductive organs (stamens and pistils);
Perfect
bisexual (h)
Perianth the external envelope of a flower : floral leaves esp. when not
differentiated into calyx and corolla
Perigynium the saclike bract that subtends the pistillate flower of sedges of the genus
Carex and that in fruit becomes a flask-shaped envelope investing the
achene
Petaloid resembling a flower petal in form, appearance, or texture
Petiole a slender stem that supports the blade of a foliage leaf and that is usu.
cylindrical but sometimes flattened or even winged
Phyllary one of the involucral bracts subtending the flower head of a composite
plant

72
Phyllode a flat expanded petiole that replaces the blade of a foliage leaf, fulfills the
same functions, and is analogous to but not homologous with a cladophyll
Pinked with a saw-toothed edge
Pinna a leaflet or primary division of a pinnate leaf or frond
Pinnate resembling a feather esp. in having similar parts arranged on opposite sides
of an axis like the barbs on the rachis of a feather -- used esp. of compound
leaves
Plumose feathery, plumelike
Pollen a mass of microspores in a seed plant appearing usu. as a fine dust made
up of minute granular microspores typically formed in fours by reduction
of a pollen mother cell with each grain consisting of a single cell that has a
characteristicall sculptured outer wall and gives rise on germination to a
pollen tube through which its male generative element passes to the ovule
for fertilization of the egg
Pollinium (pl. Pollinia) the coherent mass of pollen grains that characterizes
members of the Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae and often has a stalk
bearing an adhesive disk that clings to visiting insects and facilitates
withdrawal of the whole pollinium from its receptacle
Polyphyletic derived (as by convergence) from more than one ancestral line
Pome a fleshy accessory fruit (as of an apple) consisting of a central core with
usu. five seeds enclosed within a bony or papery capsule made up of fused
carpels and of an outer thickened fleshy layer made up of the much
enlarged receptacle
Pore a minute opening esp. in an animal or plant by which matter passes
through a membrane
Prickle a sharp pointed emergence arising from the epidermis or bark of a plant
Procumbent being or having stems that trail along the ground without putting forth
roots
Prophyll a plant structure resembling a leaf (as a bracteole) or consisting of a
modified or rudimentary leaf (as a foliar primordium)
Pulp the soft succulent part of fruit
Pulvinus a cushionlike enlargement of the base of a petiole or petiolule consiting of
a mass of large thin-walled cells surrounding a vascular strand and
functioning in turgor movements of leaves or leaflets by reversible volume
changes in the cells
Rotate having the parts flat and spreading or radiating like the spokes of a wheel
Rust or rust disease : any of numerous destructive diseases of plants produced

by fungi of the order Uredinales and characterized by reddish brown

pustular lesions on stems, leaves, or other plant parts
Saccate having the form of a sac or pouch
Samara a dry indehiscent usu. one-seeded winged fruit (as of an ash or elm tree)
Sap the fluid part of a plant; specif : a watery solution of gases (as carbon
dioxide), salts and other materials from the soil, and organic products of
metabolism that circulate through the vascular system, carries raw
materials to the periphera l chlorophyll-bearing cells, translocates the
products of metabolism to other parts of the plant for use or storage and is
a major commercial source of sugar in sugarcane, various palms, and the
sugar maple
Saprophyte a plant living on dead or decaying organic matter
Scale one of the modified leaves serving in most seed plants to protect a bud
before expansion . . . b : a thin membranous, chaffy or woody bract . . . d :
the small appendage at the base of the petal in some plants of the family
Caryophyllaceae e : one of the disklike trichomes making up the
characteristic silvery or scurfy pubescence of the foliage in some plants (as
Russian olive)
Seed the fertilized and ripened ovule of a seed plant comprising a miniature
plant usu. accompanied by a supply of food (as endospernm or perisperm),
enclosed in a protective seed coat, often accompanied by auxiliary
structures (as an aril or caruncle), a nd capable under suitable conditions of
independent development into a plant similar to the one that produced it --
see ENDOCARP
Seed coat the outer protective covering of a seed that is developed from one or more
integuments often in combination with other adherent parts of the ovary
(as in a caryopsis)
Sepal one of the modified leaves comprising a calyx -- compare PETAL
Sepaloid resembling or having the nature of a sepal
Septicidal dehiscent longitudinally at or along a septum -- compare
LOCULICIDAL>
Sorus (pl. sori) a cluster of reproductive bodies or spores on a lower plant: as a : a clump
of sporangia on a fertile frond of a fern
Spadix a fleshy or succulent spike that is usu. subtended by or enclosed in a
leaflike spathe and is the inflorescence characteristic of the arums and
palms
Spathe a sheathing bract or pair of bracts subtending or enclosing an inflorescence
on the same axis exhibiting much variation in form and coloring, and

74
occurring typically in plants whose inflorescence is a spadix or in modified

form in many monocotyledonous plants (as the irises)
Spike an elongated indeterminate inflorescence similar to a raceme but having
the flowers sessile on the main axis (as in common plantain)
Succulent having fleshy and juicy tissues
Superior a : situated above another organ: (1) of a calyx : attached to and apparently
arising from the ovary (2 of an ovary : free from the calyx or other floral
envelope
Tepal any of the modified leaves making up a perianth
Thyrse an inflorescence as in the lilac and horse chestmut in which the main axis
is racemose and the secondary and later axes are cymose
Thyrsoid having somewhat the form of a thyrse
Umbel a racemose inflorescence that is characteristic esp. of the family
Umbelliferae and has the flower stalks in a cluster arising from a common
point at the apex of the main stalk and reaching approximately the same
height and sometimes branching again to form secondary clusters
Velamen (pl. the thick whitish or greenish multiseriate corky epidermis covering the
velamina) aerial roots of an epiphytic orchid and consisting of compactly arranged
nonliving cells capapble of absorbing water from the atmosphere
Vernation the arrangement of foliage leaves within the bud
Verticil a circle or whorl of similar body parts (as flowers about a point on an axis .
..)
Zygomorphic bilaterally symetrical specif : capable of division into esentially
symmetrical halves by only one longitudinal plane passing through the
axis -- compare actinomorphic

Bibliography
Plant Taxonomy
1. www.iapt_taxon.org
2. www.botanik.univie.ac.at
Plant embryology
11. www.wiley.com
12. www.binoz.uj.edu.pl

Taxonomy and Embryology of Angio Sperm

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Taxonomy and Embryology of Angio Sperm

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biyani's Think Tank

Concept based notes

Taxonomy and Embryology of

Biyani Girls College, Jaipur

Biyani Group of Colleges

Concept & Copyright :

Biyani Shikshan Samiti

Sector-3, Vidhyadhar Nagar,

Jaipur-302 023 (Rajasthan)

Ph : 0141-2338371, 2338591-95 Fax : 0141-2338007

Website :www.gurukpo.com; www.biyanicolleges.org

Leaser Type Setted by :

Biyani College Printing Department

For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational

For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

Ans. ANGIOSPERM CLASSIFICATION

Bentham and Hooker

For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

Fig. - Taxonomists: Bentham and Hooker

They gave an outstanding system of classification of phanerogams in their Genera

For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

Series Thalamiflorae: Many stamens in the androecium. Flower is

Series Disciflorae: Hypogynous flowers with a cushion-like disc around or

Series Calyciflorae: Flowers epigynous or perigynous. Thalamus is in the form

Series Inferae: Flowers with inferior ovary.

Series Heteromerae: Flowers with superior ovary. Number of carpels - more

Series Bicarpellatae: Flowers with superior ovary. Number of carpels - two.

Curvembryae: Usually single ovule, embryo coiled around the endosperm.

Multiovulate Aquaticae: Aquatic plants with syncarpous ovary and many

Multiovulate Terrestris: Terrestrial plants with syncarpous ovary and many

Microembryae: Only one ovule, small, tiny embryo endospermic seed.

Daphnales: Only one carpel and single ovule.

Achlamydosporae: Ovary inferior, 1 to 3 ovules - unilocular.

Unisexuales: Flower unisexual, perianth usually absent.

For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

Ordines Anomali: (Anomolous families) Plants with uncertain systematic

Fig. - Angiosperm Classification

Microspermae: Ovary is inferior, seeds are minute and non-endospermic.

Epigynae: Ovary inferior, seeds are large and endospermic.

Coronarieae: Ovary superior, perianth petalloid.

Calycinae: Ovary superior, perianth sepalloid.

Nudiflorae: Perianth reduced or absent. Seeds are endospermic.

For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

Apocarpae: Carpels more than one, free, seeds are endospermic.

Glumaceae: Perianth reduced or absent, scaly bracts present.

Each of the series mentioned under dicotyledonae and monocotyledonae have

Microspermae: Ovary is inferior, seeds are minute and non-endospermic.

Epigynae: Ovary inferior, seeds are large and endospermic.

Coronarieae: Ovary superior, perianth petalloid.

Calycinae: Ovary superior, perianth sepalloid.

Nudiflorae: Perianth reduced or absent. Seeds are endospermic.

Apocarpae: Carpels more than one, free, seeds are endospermic.

Glumaceae: Perianth reduced or absent, scaly bracts present.

Each of the series mentioned under dicotyledonae and monocotyledonae have

Q.2 Explain concept of Binominal Nomenclature and its advantage?

For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

nomenclature. This system of naming was invented byLinnaeus. The up-to-date

The application of binomial nomenclature is now governed by various

Many scientific names describe some characteristic of the organism (alba=white;

For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

How To Write Plant Species Names (Binomial Nomenclature Or Scientific

Genus specific epithet -> Trachycarpus fortunei

You may also see more names after species name.