NDT 30P Penetrant Testing 090217 - Notes For Electronic Distribution

Penetrant testing
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Penetrant testing
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Contents
Contents
CONTENTS ...............................................................................................................................................................................................3
FOREWORD .............................................................................................................................................................................................4
1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING...........................................................................................................................................................5
2 PENETRANT TESTING – GENERAL PRINCIPLES ................................................................................................................................6
3 CAPILLARY ACTION AND PENETRABILITY ........................................................................................................................................8
4 PENETRANTS .................................................................................................................................................................................14
5 SENSITIVITY ...................................................................................................................................................................................18
6 FLUORESCENCE .............................................................................................................................................................................23
7 CLASSIFICATION OF PENETRANT MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS........................................................................................................26
8 PENETRANT TESTING PROCESS AND PARAMETERS ......................................................................................................................31
9 SELECTION OF A PENETRANT SYSTEM ..........................................................................................................................................54
10 INSPECTION ..............................................................................................................................................................................62
11 REFERENCE BLOCKS AND TEST PANELS ....................................................................................................................................73
12 PROCESS CONTROL CHECKS .....................................................................................................................................................78
13 DOCUMENTATION OF A PENETRANT TESTING PROCESS .........................................................................................................86
14 CORRECT ANSWERS..................................................................................................................................................................91
15 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................................................................92
16 GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...............................................................................................................................................................94
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Foreword
Foreword
This is a study guide for candidates who are seeking a qualification in Penetrant Testing (PT).
While preparing for exams it is advisable that the candidate focus on understanding testing principles and
mechanisms rather than merely memorising simple facts and formulae. Sections of this guide offer
review questions to help focus on the main topics, which are essential for understanding the subject; this
is considered vital core knowledge readers must possess. Correct answers are provided at the end of the
guide.
The level of scientific knowledge provided is that required for qualification to PT Level 2. Please review
referred publications if a deeper understanding is sought.
It is also recommended that candidates review the TWI publication ‘Product Technology’ which describes
the basics of material science, various manufacturing processes and the origin of related defects as well
as in-service induced defects. The basics of mechanical testing of materials as well as a brief history of
NDT is also included.
Technical content is based mainly on EN (European Standards) and ISO (International Organisation for
Standardisation) systems but in order to provide a comprehensive overview of technical aspects as used
currently in industry, the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), ASME (American Society for
Mechanical Engineers) or other specifications may be also referenced where it differs from EN ISO
standards. A system of SI units is considered to be standard in this textbook and the standard
conventions of their use are followed.
The best of luck with your exams.
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Non-destructive Testing
1 Non-destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing (NDT) covers a wide range of methods which may be used for evaluation of
material properties and/or detection of material discontinuities without causing damage. Industry
recognises two groups of methods – regular and advanced. While regular methods are based on well-
known physical principles, advanced methods are usually based on the latest research results and
progressive technology. Penetrant testing is one of regular NDT methods.
Regular NDT methods Advanced NDT methods

 Visual Testing (VT)  Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT)
 Penetrant Testing (PT)  Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Ultrasonic Testing
 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)  Infrared Thermographic Testing (TT)
 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)  Shearographic Testing (ST)
 Radiographic testing (RT)  Digital Radiography/Computed Radiography (CR/DR)
 Eddy Current Testing (ET)  Acoustic Emission (AE)
Any method may be subdivided into techniques differing by how the basic principle of the method is
used. In penetrant testing two basic techniques are recognised:
 Fluorescent technique.
 Colour contrast technique.
Another way to sort NDT methods is by surface and volumetric methods. Volumetric methods (e.g. RT or
UT) may detect discontinuities inside the test material; surface methods may detect only defects on or
near the surface. Typical examples of these methods are PT and MT.
Penetrant Testing requires a higher level of surface preparation/condition than Magnetic Particle Testing
which can only be used for testing ferromagnetic materials. PT may be applied to a wide variety of
materials but the overall process is more time consuming. On the other hand in many cases it may be
easily automated and is suitable for testing batches of smaller components.
The test item/component type (i.e. material, size, configuration, product form, surface condition, defects
to be detected) and its application will determine which of the two methods are more suitable for use.
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Penetrant Testing – General Principles
2 Penetrant Testing – General Principles
Penetrant testing (PT) is based on the phenomenon of capillary action1 which causes the elevation or
depression of a liquid surface when it is in contact with a solid surface (such as the sides of a tube)
thereby forming a so called meniscus (see Figure 2).
This effect can be most clearly seen when using very fine diameter tubes, known as capillary tubes. It is
dependent on the balance between the surface tension of the liquid (cohesive forces) and the wetting of
the sides of the tube (adhesive forces). If the adhesive forces exceed the cohesive forces, the liquid
surface will be concave and the liquid will rise up the tube. In practice, the finer the bore of the capillary
tube the greater the rise. If the cohesive forces exceed the adhesive forces, the surface will be convex
and the liquid will fall below the level of the surrounding liquid. Penetrant testing requires the former of
these two conditions to prevail.
2.1 Penetrant materials
Usually three different chemical substances are necessary to perform penetrant testing:
 Penetrant.
 Cleaning agent.
 Developer.
If penetrant is referred to, only penetrant liquid is considered, whereas, penetrant material includes
any of the above mentioned chemical substances.
2.2 Penetrant testing
Penetrant testing may be applied to a wide range of solid materials and can detect very fine surface
opening defects (cracks of about 0.5 µm width). If the discontinuity is closed then the penetrant cannot
enter and therefore the discontinuity cannot be detected.
The penetrant testing process consists of a sequence of steps which are all important. A mistake in any
step will probably result in an incorrect set of test results. The sequence is given below (see Figure 1):
1) Pre-cleaning.
2) Penetrant application.
3) Excess penetrant removal.
4) Developer application.
5) Inspection.
6) Post-cleaning.
1 Penetrant testing was formerly known as Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI), Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD) or Liquid Penetrant Inspection
(LPI). Although these names are not used by current standards and specifications, they are found in older documents.
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Penetrant Testing – General Principles
1) Pre-cleaning
Penetrant testing will only reveal discontinuities if they are open to
the surface and free from any contamination. Any material which
obstructs testing shall be removed.
After pre-cleaning the material shall be clean, dry and within

temperature limits.
See Section below on for further details.
2) Penetrant application
Liquid Penetrant is applied on a clean dry surface of the whole area
to be inspected. Dwell time (contact time) should be given to allow
the penetrant to enter the discontinuities.
See Section 8.2 on page 34 for further details.
3) Excess penetrant removal

The most delicate part of the process where excess penetrant is
removed from the surface whilst leaving penetrant entrapped in the
discontinuities.
4) Developer application
A thin and uniform layer of developer is applied to the test surface.
Developing time shall be sufficient to draw the penetrant out from
the discontinuity by reverse capillary action.
5) Inspection
When the development time has elapsed, any indication formed on
the surface around the defect may be observed and evaluated under
appropriate viewing conditions.
6) Post-cleaning
Post-cleaning may be required where the residue of penetrant
materials may affect a future operation (e.g. machining or surface
painting).
Figure 1: Testing sequence.
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Capillary Action and Penetrability
3 Capillary Action and Penetrability
Penetrability is a complex property related to capillary action. It is not as simple as the analogy with
capillary tubes suggests and is influenced by variables such as type of test object and surface condition
(e.g. roughness or surface contamination) as well as by the properties of the penetrant material and
ambient temperature. The equation below has been used to link these factors.
2 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ cos 𝜃
𝑃= (1)
𝐷
Where: 𝑃 = capillary pressure 𝑆 = surface tension of the liquid
 = contact angle 𝐷 = width of the crack
From equation (1) it can be seen that a high capillary pressure requires a high surface tension but it
should be noted that a material with a high surface tension is not necessarily a good penetrant, e.g.
water which has a high surface tension but is a poor penetrant due to its relatively high angle of contact
with most engineering component metals. For better understanding of all important influences on
capillary action is equation (1) sometimes modified as:
4 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ cos 𝜃
ℎ= (2)
𝜌∙𝑔∙𝑑
Where: ℎ = height of liquid level in capillary 𝑆 = surface tension of the liquid
 = contact angle 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = wetting ability
𝜌 = density of liquid 𝑔 = gravitational constant
𝑑 = diameter of capillary pipe
Figure 2: Elevation of penetrant in capillary pipe.
Equation (2) shows that the level of liquid ℎ in capillary pipe is in:
 Direct proportion to surface tension 𝑆 ………… (Higher tension = better penetration).
 Direct proportion to wetting ability cos 𝜃 ……… (Greater wetting ability = better penetration).
 Indirect proportion to liquid density 𝜌 ………… (Less dense liquid = better penetration).
 Indirect proportion to pipe diameter 𝑑 ……… (Smaller pipe = better penetration).
 Indirect proportion to gravitational constant 𝑔 (Less gravitation = better penetration).
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3.1 Surface tension (𝑺)
Each liquid tends to reduce its surface area to a minimum. This may be observed for example at zero
gravity condition (in space) where liquid droplets tend to become spherical (the geometrical object with
the biggest volume inside smallest surface area). The tendency to remain spherical is caused by surface
tension (𝑺).
In real conditions the liquid is affected by a gravitational force which attracts the droplets to the
underlying material. Logic may suggest the heavier the liquid the flatter the puddle, but in reality a
droplet of mercury (Hg; 𝜌 ≅ 13.5 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ) creates a more compact shape than water which is ca. 13.5
times lighter (H2O; 𝜌 ≅ 1 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ).
This is caused by the combined influence of surface tension 𝑆 and wetting ability cos 𝜃.
3.2 Contact angle ( )
Contact angle  represents the angle formed between the liquid/air interface and the liquid/solid
interface.
Figure 3: Contact angle.
A small contact angle (approximately 5 degrees) is significant for liquids which are easily spread over
surfaces (e.g. oil which usually creates a very thin layer and is hard to remove – is adhesive). Vice versa
a high contact angle (above 90 degrees) will result in separated droplets which cannot cover a surface
and are easy to remove.
Consider the three different cases below.
Figure 4: Contact angle, wetting ability and droplet shape.
Contact angle:
 Below 90 degrees – the liquid has wetting ability (e.g. oil).
 Approx. 90 degrees – liquid may be able to wet material, but with very low efficiency (e.g. water).
 Above 90 degrees – the liquid has no wetting ability (e.g. mercury).
This leads to the conclusion that a smaller contact angle means better wetting ability.
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With respect to equations (1) and (2) it is necessary to distinguish between contact angle 𝛉, required to
be small and wetting ability 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 required to be high so a mathematical function 𝑐𝑜𝑠 was introduced
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 1, and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° = 0).
3.3 Influence of surface conditions
Under general conditions water tends to create droplets with contact angle around 90 degrees. Havewer
when water is spilled on a surface impregnated by oil it starts to create droplets similar to mercury.
Figure 5: Water in contact with clean and oily metal.
This proves that contact angle is influenced by liquid properties as well as by the materials, in contact
with it.
3.4 Relation between contact angle and surface tension
Wetting ability tends to spread a liquid across the surface whereas surface tension works against this and
tends to build up liquid and reduce the covered area. American publications use a measure known as the
Static Penetration Parameter (𝑆𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆 ∙ cos 𝜃 ) which represent static forces.
Figure 6: Wetting ability (left) and surface tension (right) act against each other.
It is essential that the whole surface under test is covered by penetrant during the entire dwell time in
order that penetrant may enter the discontinuity. A very small contact angle (less than 3 degrees) may
be considered an advantage because it allows the creation of a very thin layer of penetrant. During the
dwell time penetrant is drawn in to the discontinuity.
The volume of penetrant inside the discontinuity determines the future size of the indication (which is a
key factor for the acceptance/rejection criteria). An insufficient amount of penetrant will result in a
smaller indication (see Figure 7) that may lead to an incorrect evaluation of the test result.
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Figure 7: Influence of amount of penetrant on surface to size of indications.
Therefore the thickness of the penetrant layer on the surface must be controlled. Wetting ability must be
sufficient so that penetrant covers the whole area of interest (i.e. the test or diagnostic area), while
surface tension shall be high enough to enable a penetrant layer of sufficient thickness to build up an
amount of penetrant that is available to enter the discontinuity.
 Good penetrant materials have contact angle of 5 to 10 degrees.
 The wetting ability to surface tension ratio shall be balanced (usually not expressed by the number).
3.5 Viscosity (𝜼)
Contact angle (wetting ability) and surface tension are usually mentioned together with viscosity.2 While
the first two (𝑆 and 𝜃 ) determine whether the penetrant enters the discontinuity or not; viscosity 𝜂
affects only the speed of the process. It takes much longer for highly viscous liquids (e.g. honey) to enter
a cavity but if sufficient dwell time is allowed, these liquids will fill cavities as well as low viscosity liquids.
Viscosity is strongly influenced by temperature (honey flows faster when it is warm) with temperature
affecting the process parameters of penetrant inspection. A viscous penetrant that has been dipped or
sprayed will drain more slowly from a specimen and cause excessive loss of penetrant due to drag-out in
the wash station, but is not so easy to remove during the excess penetrant removal – this may be an
advantage if high sensitivity is required.
The effect of viscosity may be observed only if liquid is in motion – it is the kinetic parameter. American
publications refer to the Kinetic Penetration Parameter (𝐾𝑃𝑃 ). It is expressed by equation (3):
𝑆 ∙ cos 𝜃
𝐾𝑃𝑃 = (3)
𝜂
Where: 𝐾𝑃𝑃 = Kinetic Penetration Parameter 𝑆 = surface tension of the liquid
 = contact angle 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = wetting ability
𝜂 = viscosity
2 Viscosity expresses an internal friction of liquid – the friction of molecules when liquid flows.
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3.6 Review questions (chapters 1 to 3)
1. Which parameter is the most important 6. The viscosity mainly affects:

for the correct function of penetrant?
a) Speed of penetration.
a) Wetting ability. b) Wetting ability.
b) Surface tension. c) Surface tension.
c) Viscosity. d) Penetrant temperature.
d) All are important and should be
balanced. 7. The contact angle for water is between:
2. If temperature increases, viscosity: a) 0 to 20 degrees.

b) 20 to 60 degrees.
a) Increases. c) 60 to 120 degrees.
b) Decreases. d) 120 to 150 degrees.
c) Doesn’t change.
d) Disappears. 8. Wetting ability is influenced mainly by:
a) The chemical composition of liquid.

3. Good penetrant has:
b) The temperature of liquid.
a) High contact angle and low wetting c) The materials in contact with the liquid.
ability. d) Both a) and c) has influence.
b) High contact angle and high wetting
ability. 9. Which step follows after application of
c) Low contact angle and low wetting developer?
ability.
a) Application of penetrant.
d) Low contact angle and high wetting
b) Pre-cleaning.
ability.
c) Inspection.
4. Which method is suitable for testing d) Excess developer removal.
aluminium plate?
10. Penetrant testing may detect:
a) PT.
a) Cracks.
b) MT.
b) Lack of fusion.
c) UT.
c) Porosity.
d) Both a) and c) may be suitable.
d) All, if open to the surface.
5. Penetrant will penetrate better if:
a) The contact angle is bigger.

b) The density of the penetrant is higher.
c) The wetting ability is higher.
d) None of the above.
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Illustrative photo: The capillary effect forces penetrant to enter a number of surface scratches. Penetrant type I,
sensitivity level 3 was used. The photograph was captured directly after droplets of penetrant
were applied on surface – without cleaning or developer (spread of penetrant was caused by
capillary effect).
Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
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Penetrants
4 Penetrants
Penetrant Testing systems and their properties are described in EN ISO 3452, Non-destructive testing
– Penetrant testing, Part 1 General Principles and Part 2 Testing of penetrant materials respectively.
Following properties of penetrants shall be considered:
 Wetting ability.  Ease of removal.
 Surface tension.  Chemical activity.
 Viscosity.  Solubility of dye.
 Volatility.  Electrical conductivity.
 Flash point.  Health hazard.
 Specific gravity.  Availability and cost.
 Tolerance to contaminants.
4.1 Penetrant Properties
Wetting ability
The ability to cover a surface is an important physical property that affects the penetrability and
bleed-back characteristics of penetrants. The contact angle and surface tension of a penetrant have an
influence on it. See Section 3.4 on page 10.
Surface tension
The elasticity of the surface of a liquid will tend to result in the smallest possible surface area. Surface
tension acts against wetting ability and together affects penetrant effectiveness. See Section 3.4
on page 10.
Viscosity
This relates to the thickness or body of a fluid and is a result of molecular or internal friction. It is an
important and easy-to-measure property which affects speed of penetrant process. See Section 3.5
on page 11.
Volatility
Many materials with good penetrant ability are unfortunately volatile, and would therefore evaporate too
quickly to be of practical use. The penetrant would dry from the test surface leaving it stained and
contaminated with precipitated dye. Low penetrant volatility is therefore desirable for practical reasons,
e.g. evaporation losses of penetrant stored in open tanks.
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Penetrants
Flash point
This is the temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off to form a combustible mixture with air.
Standards (e.g. EN ISO 3452) requires that the flash point temperature to be at least 60 °C (90 °C or
above is typical for modern materials).
Specific gravity
This is a number which expresses the ratio of penetrant density to density of distilled water at 40 °C.
Penetrants used in a tank system must have a specific gravity less than one to ensure that water will not
float on top of the penetrant and prevent the penetrant from covering the test object. It is normally not
an issue with oil-based penetrants.
Tolerance to contaminants
Penetrants kept in open tanks may become contaminated, even with the greatest care. Water
contamination is the main problem, especially for water-washable penetrants. Oil, grease and solvents,
as well as unwanted objects may also find their way into penetrant processing tanks.
Even when taking great care with cleaning, contaminants can remain in a test item discontinuity and
therefore penetrant materials must be formulated so as to minimise such problems. Reduction of
fluorescent brilliance by chromate residues in water-washable penetrants can be of particular concern.
Ease of removal
Having applied the penetrant, it is necessary to remove the excess from the surface to ensure an
acceptable level of background indications. More sensitive penetrants are also more difficult to remove.
Chemical activity
Penetrant materials must be inert and non-corrosive and be chemically compatible with the material
being tested. Some technical alloys are sensitive to the presence of halogens in which case knowledge of
the halogen content may be crucial.
Solubility of dye
All penetrants contain a dye in solution – fluorescent or visible colour (usually red). The penetrant must
hold sufficient dye at ambient, test temperature (or high temperature if relevant) and the dye must not
come out of solution if the temperature drops. Colour contrast penetrants tend to cause the most trouble
in this respect.
Electrical conductivity
Electrostatic spraying of penetrant in large automated processors is becoming increasingly popular,

including the use of electrostatic hand spray guns. Electrostatic spray systems require penetrants that
have high electrical resistance to avoid flashback to the operator.
Health hazard
Penetrant materials must comply with the most stringent health and safety requirements and particularly
those relating to toxicity, odour and skin irritation. Manufacturer - Safety Data Sheets (SDS) should be
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Penetrants
made available as they will provide appropriate safety and emergency action to be taken in event
accident or spillage (see Section 4.2 below).
Availability and cost
Difficult to obtain materials that can be costly are unlikely to be used even though they might have big
advantages in terms of desirable penetrant properties, e.g. capillarity. Similarly there is no commercial
sense in using very expensive components, making the final product uncompetitive in the open market.
4.2 Safety requirements and Safety data sheet
Penetrant materials are chemical products and their use may be associated with different kinds of risk.
The main areas to consider are impact of penetrant material use on health, on safety and on the
environment. These risks must be assessed prior to the use of penetrant materials, i.e. penetrant, excess
penetrant remover/emulsifier material and developer.
The Safety Data Sheet (SDS) is a document containing relevant information on which above mentioned
risks can be assessed. This document is issued by the manufacturer and must be available to all users of
chemical substances (requirement of safety regulations). It may be also known under former
abbreviation MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) or as COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health – abbreviation is used mainly in UK).
Safety data sheets typically provide information about:
 Identification of substance and company (substance trade name, details of supplier of SDS
including emergency contact, …).
 Physical and chemical properties (information about colour, odour, flash point, pH, density,…).
 Information about composition and ingredients (breakdown of chemical components important

from HSE point of view (e.g. Butoxyethanol) including concentration (e.g. 1 – 1.25 %).
 Stability and reactivity (description of conditions to avoid, possibility of hazardous reactions,

concentration to avoid, incompatible materials, risk of explosions, …).
 Identification of hazards related to use of substance (classification of mixture, identification of

applicable safety labels, identification of particular hazards as per EC directives, …).
 First aid measures (general advice followed by description of immediate actions and special
treatment needed).
 Firefighting measures (recommended exhausting media, special hazards concerned to fire event,
advice for firefighters).
 Accidental release measures (recommendation on emergency procedures, PPE, personal and

environmental precautions, recommendation for containment and clean-up).
 Handling and storage (precautions for safe handling, conditions for safe storage, …).
 Exposure controls, personal protection (details about exposure routes (e.g. inhalation),
engineering measures description (e.g. ventilation), personnel protective equipment (e.g. respiratory
protection), …)
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Penetrants
 Information of toxicological effects (description of typical doses of particular components which

may be received if person is exposed to chemical, including determination method).
 Ecological information (persistence, degradability, bio accumulative potential, mobility in soil, …).
 Transport and disposal information (reference to applicable regulations).
4.3 Penetrant testing efficiency
One advantage of penetrant testing is that it detects discontinuities not visible by the naked eye. Under
laboratory conditions penetrant testing can detect micro-cracks of 0.3 µm width. Detection of cracks of
0.5 µm width is realistic also under industrial conditions. For comparison, an average human eye can see
a line of 50 µm width or spot of 100 µm diameter (if they are in contrast to the background).
Small discontinuities may be revealed because PT indications are significantly bigger than the source
discontinuity. The indications have additionally high contrast on background material. Detection is
dependent on the efficiency of the testing process.
Penetrant testing efficiency describes the ability of a penetrant to form an indication large enough to be
visually detected. The size of a formed indication is related to the volume of penetrant entrapped in the
discontinuity. Hence penetrant testing efficiency is also called flaw entrapment efficiency. Major factors
influencing flaw entrapment efficiency are the:
 Volume of the discontinuity.
 Length of the discontinuity.
 Contaminants present in the discontinuity.
 Processing type.
Additionally penetrant dye type has an influence on detectability of an indication.
Volume of discontinuity
The size of an indication is based on the volume of the discontinuity that the penetrant has entered. The
larger the volume of the discontinuity, the more penetrant it may hold and the more penetrant may be
present to form the indication.
Length of discontinuity
The length of a discontinuity whilst influencing the volume of penetrant present also has a strong
influence on the ability of the human eye to detect the indication. Longer indications are easier to be
revealed visually.
Contaminants
Penetrating fluids will generally enter fine and clean discontinuities more readily than contaminated ones.
Many in-service inspections encounter defects contaminated with oil, corrosion product etc., which can
reduce the volume available to the penetrant. If water is present it can adversely influence the contact
angle of the penetrant.
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Sensitivity
Highly acidic or alkaline contaminants may also cause fading of the dye present within the penetrant.
Heat and prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light can also cause penetrant dyes to lose their brilliance.
Processing
Processing may affect process efficiency in many ways. For example:
 An incorrectly selected technique may result in contamination of penetrant in the tank so dye
concentration can be affected (volatile constituents of a penetrant evaporates increasing the
concentration of the dye within the remaining penetrant).
 Operator mistakes - excessive removal of penetrant from a surface may result in over-washing –
removing a portion of penetrant from inside of the discontinuities.
 Incorrectly selected parameter – too low temperature of washing water may result in insufficient
removal of excess penetrant with this consequently reducing indication contrast due to an
excessive background surplus penetrant level.
5 Sensitivity
5.1 Sensitivity of penetrant system
By definition the term sensitivity of a penetrant system (or sensitivity of a penetrant testing process)
is the ability to detect a discontinuity. The Penetrant testing process is considered to be most effective
(or ‘sensitive’) if it is able to detect the smallest of discontinuities. The Penetrant system consists of
penetrant liquids (e.g. penetrant by itself, developer, …) and penetrant process parameters (e.g.
penetrant dwell time, ambient temperature etc.).
The sensitivity of a penetrant system depends on a number of testing conditions (e.g. viewing conditions)
and material properties of the penetrant system elements (e.g. wet or dry developer). In order to form
an indication the penetrant enters and remains in the discontinuity and is not washed out when excess
penetrant is removed.3 The penetrant liquid must maintain its quality properties (e.g. brilliance) with the
developer drawing out the penetrant from the discontinuity to form a visible indication.
Some of these properties may be easily measured (for example the brightness of a penetrant) but
excellent brightness on its own does not guarantee a high sensitivity as the penetrant might be easily
washed out of the discontinuity.
5.2 Sensitivity level of liquid penetrant system
Each element of the penetrant system will influence the overall penetrant system sensitivity. Therefore a
sensitivity level of a liquid penetrant system has been defined and is a classification of the relative
sensitivity of a liquid penetrant system that is processed according to a standardised procedure. If two
different combinations of penetrant liquids are used in accordance with the same procedure, the
3 This is a reason why penetrants which are not easily removable are considered to be more sensitive.
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Sensitivity
procedure by itself will influence the result in both cases equally. Therefore any observed difference
between two results must be caused by the sensitivity levels of the penetrant systems.
The penetrant is the most important element of the overall process. Therefore it is logical to determine its
sensitivity level separately (e.g. penetrant type I, sensitivity level 3). Other elements of the penetrant
system will also contribute to the final test sensitivity (e.g. developer type, water washable or post
emulsifiable, viewing conditions etc.)
The sensitivity of the developer and the cleaning agent may also be determined. In this case the
sensitivity level is not to a specific scale, but is a relative level that is determined and compared to a
reference level (e.g. non-aqueous developer is considered more sensitive than dry powder).
These described principles are known as a classification of penetrant materials and penetrant systems.
5.3 Penetrant dye
The efficiency of a penetrant test as well as the sensitivity level will be influenced by the:
 Type of penetrant used (i.e. fluorescent or colour contrast).
 Concentration of dye in the penetrant.
The most obvious influence of dye type is seen between colour contrast (normally red dye) and
fluorescent penetrants viewed using ultraviolet (UV) light, otherwise known as ‘black light’.
Dye colours are chosen to produce indications with the highest possible contrast to a background. From
this point of view the combination of red penetrant 4 on white background provided by developer is
normally considered as the most suitable. Due to the type of contrast it is known as a colour contrast
penetrant.
In the case of a fluorescent penetrant, it is the light emission caused by a UV light that produces bright
indications on a dark background and thereby enhances the contrast (see section 6 on page 23 for
details). The brightness contrast is produced by fluorescent penetrants.
Fluorescent penetrant offers a brightness contrast (light indication on dark background) similar to the
moon in a night sky, see Figure 8 below, while visible colour contrast penetrants offer contrast between
colours only (like a moon in a morning/day sky).
4 A blood like red colour is choosen for the purpose – the human brain tends to pay its highest attention to any sign of bleed out.
NDT30P 19 90217
Sensitivity
Figure 8: Star crack indicated using colour dye (left) and fluorescent penetrant (right) as an analogy
to the moon on day and night sky. Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
In both cases the brilliance and intensity of the dye colour will strongly influence the sensitivity.
NDT30P 20 90217
Sensitivity
5.4 Review questions (chapters 4 and 5)
11. The sensitive penetrant will be: 16. Volatility as a property may be related
to:
a) Able to penetrate small defects.
b) Hard to remove. a) Penetrant.
c) Red coloured. b) Cleaner.
d) Both a) and b) are correct. c) Developer.
d) All of the above.
12. Which penetrant property is important
when PT is performed on very hot 17. Penetrant must be chemically inert to:
objects?
a) Developer.
a) Electric resistance. b) The tested object.
b) Flashpoint. c) Process line, materials and tools.
c) Tolerance to contamination. d) All of the above.
d) Chemical activity.
18. Which of these is not part of the PT
13. Which of the following is usually not process?
mentioned by SDS (COSHH)?
a) Penetrant dwell time.
a) Chemical content. b) Batch testing.
b) First aid instructions. c) Post-cleaning.
c) Batch number. d) Inspection of indications.
d) Safety disposal information.
19. Good penetrants usually have a contact
14. Specific gravity is important in relation angle of:
to:
a) Less than 3 degrees
a) Flame ability. b) Between 3 to 5 degrees
b) Volatility. c) Between 5 to 10 degrees
c) Contamination by water. d) Above 10 degrees
d) Transportation.
20. Which material would probably be
15. Which of the following has no influence difficult to test using PT?
on sensitivity?
a) Glazed ceramic.
a) Type of penetrant. b) Gold.
b) Wetting ability. c) Forging.
c) Process parameters. d) Brick.
d) All have an influence.
NDT30P 21 90217
Sensitivity
Illustrative photo: Detail of indications of mud cracking of hard chromium plating. Penetrant system I C
(Fluorescent penetrant with sensitivity level 4 and solvent remover; without developer).
NDT30P 22 90217
Fluorescence
6 Fluorescence
Fluorescence is the ability of some materials to absorb photons (electromagnetic energy) of one
wavelength and re-emit some of this energy at another (usually longer) wavelength. Molecules within
fluorescent penetrants absorb energy of ultraviolet (UV) light. Absorbed energy causes excitation of
molecules, which are consequently de-excited back to their original energy level and excessive energy is
emitted in form of yellow-green visible light.5
6.1 Electromagnetic spectrum
The ultraviolet and visible lights are parts of an electromagnetic spectrum, which covers a wide range of
different kinds of radiation from X-ray to radio broadcasting waves. These differ by their wavelengths,
energy as well as by penetration ability.
Figure 9: Simplified electromagnetic spectrum – area of UV and visible light.
6.2 Visible light
Visible light has a wavelength of 380 to 780 nm.6 Within this are wavelengths related to specific colours.
Yellow-green coloured light emitted by fluorescent indication has a wavelength of about 550 nm.
A fluorescent material which emits different wavelengths (colours) also exists and is used in dual
penetrant (type III) gives orange indications), but the majority of the industry uses solely penetrants
with yellow-green emission because the human eye is most sensitive to this colour.
6.3 Ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet light is an electromagnetic radiation not visible to the human eye (therefore it is sometimes
called black light) but is still subject to the laws of optics i.e. it may be reflected, refracted or filtered.
UV light covers the wavelengths of approximately 100 nm to 380 nm. The UV light has shorter
wavelengths than visible light and thus also higher energy and penetration ability. The higher energy
5 In order to keep light emitting the excitation energy has to be applied. If the UV light is switched off the whole process stops. Some materials are able to
accumulate energy of impacting radiation and release it in future, this phenomenon is called phosphorescence. Both Fluorescnence and phosphorescendce
are kind of luminescence – the phenomena of light emission from a substance not resulting from heat.
6 The above listed wavelength values are generally accepted. Some technical publications may list slightly different values of wavelengths (e.g. the border
between visible and UV light as 400 nm). For the purpose of this textbook this level of accuracy is acceptable.
NDT30P 23 90217
Fluorescence
level means that there is a potential higher risk for human health. Therefore three different bands are
recognised within UV radiation wavelengths:
 UV-A (320 to 380 nm) – safe.
 UV-B (280 to 315 nm) – dangerous.
 UV-C (100 to 280 nm) – dangerous.
The UV-A light which peaks at 365 nm wavelength is the most commonly used in penetrant testing.
6.4 UV lamps
Current industrial practice uses mercury vapour arc lamps (the most common), UV strip lights and UV
LED sources. The LED sources may be battery powered this being an advantage when mains electricity is
not available.
In general UV light sources are emitting UV-A, UV-B and UV-C as well as visible light. While UV-B and
UV-C wavelengths represent a health risk, visible light reduces the contrast of fluorescent indications.
Special filters are mounted on UV source outputs to filter out the harmful emitted spectre (UV-B and
UV-C).7 Effective filtering of harmful radiation is essential. Filtering of visible light is an advantage but not
all the time effective. UV sources with filters usually emit UV-A light and a small fraction of visible light.
Figure 10: UV lamp emission and filtration.
Mercury vapour UV lamps needs some time to warm up (to reach full output intensity). Old fashioned
ones need up to 15 minutes while modern are usually ready within 5 minutes. Once switched on they
should be left on throughout the working shift. Switching off and on reduces lamp life so a thermal fuse is
usually installed and lamp cannot be switched on again until it cools down.
6.5 Safety precautions and operating instructions
Under normal working conditions there are no known long-term harmful effects from the use of UV-A
sources, providing that simple safety precautions and operating instructions are observed. The
precautions and instructions in these notes are general. The manufacturer’s data (e.g. product data
7 UK literature refers to filters by the name ‘Woods filters’, US textbooks use the term ‘Kopps filter’.
NDT30P 24 90217
Fluorescence
sheet) on a particular UV light source should be followed. General safety precautions when using a UV-A
light are:
 Before use check if the filter is in place and not damaged.
 Avoid contact with the lamp housing as it may be hot.
 Avoid looking directly at the light source.
Some people may experience temporary worsening of eyesight when looking directly at a UV-A light
source. The human eye contains a vitreous fluid which begins to fluoresce if exposed to UV-A light. This
may cause clouded vision but the effect is temporary.
Most workstations where UV-A light is installed are organised so that the UV-A source cannot be directly
viewed. When working with UV-A light for prolonged periods, protective glasses/goggles can protect the
eyes against direct or reflected UV-A. Such reflections may adversely affect inspector’s comfort and thus
the accuracy of the inspection results. The goggles are sometimes called contrast goggles (help to
increase contrast of indication).
UV Lamps must be periodically testing for compliance with national electrical ‘portable appliance testing’
standards and their disposal must be in accordance with the applicable national regulations. The Test
House/Laboratory should document the UV Lamp testing and disposal procedure.
6.6 Fluorescent dye
Penetrant dyes are selected that absorb energy in the 350 nm to 400 nm wavelength range and emit
light in the 475 nm to 575 nm range. The quality of fluorescent dyes is determined by how efficiently
they absorb UV-A light and convert this into longer wavelength visible light. The final result depends on:
 Intensity of the UV-A light at the surface of the component.
 Ability of the dye to absorb UV-A light.
 Concentration of the dye.
 Ability of the dye to produce visible light.
 Thickness of fluorescent dye film.
The inspector may influence the intensity of the UV-A light at the surface (by changing the distance of
the source), the dye concentration (by selection of penetrant) and the film thickness (by selection of
process parameters). With respect to the first of these factors, adequate viewing conditions are essential.
NDT30P 25 90217
Classification of Penetrant Materials and Systems
7 Classification of Penetrant Materials and Systems
For demanding applications a high quality means of testing is required, whilst other basic applications
may not require such a high level of sensitivity. In order to facilitate required level of standardisation in
PT, penetrant materials are usually classified.
Penetrants are classified into groups (e.g. fluorescent or colour contrast penetrants). Within each group
an additional sub-classification may be used depending on the test sensitivity specified.
Industry uses two main classification systems (which are more or less harmonised), in accordance with:
 EN ISO 3452-1. Non-destructive testing – Penetrant testing – Part 1 General principles
 ASTM E 1417. Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Testing
Table 1: Classification according to EN ISO 3452-1 and ASTM E 1417.
Penetrant type EN ISO ASTM
Type I Fluorescent  
Type II Colour contrast  
Type III Dual (combined colour contrast and fluorescent)  N/A
Method of excess penetrant remover EN ISO ASTM
Method A Water-washable  
Method B Post-emulsifiable (lipophilic)  
Method C Solvent-removable  
Method D Post-emulsifiable (hydrophilic)  
Method E Water and solvent-removable  N/A
Form of developer EN ISO ASTM
Form a Dry powder  
Form b Water-soluble  
Form c Water-suspendable  
Form d Solvent-based (non-aqueous) for penetrant type I  
Form e Solvent-based (non-aqueous) for penetrant type II  
Form f Special (specific) application  
 There is a convention to use capital letters for methods of penetrant removal (e.g. method A) and
small letters for developers (e.g. form a). Mixing between the two may cause confusion.
 Type III - Dual penetrant is according to ASTM not classified but is sometimes used if PT is
performed in accordance with ASTM standards.
 Method E is not specified by ASTM – it is an obsolete method difficult to control and so rarely used.
NDT30P 26 90217
 Developer forms d and form e are solvent based. Both differ in their ability to create white
background colour.8
 Form f – although specified by both systems it is rarely used (this developer was used for recording
of indications, which is nowadays done using digital cameras).
On the basis of the defined symbols may whole penetrant testing systems be specified, for example:
 I A d – 1: fluorescent, water washable penetrant (sensitivity level 1), solvent based developer.
 II C e: colour contrast solvent removable penetrant with solvent based developer.
Using these symbols in documentation is considered to be good industrial practice.
7.1 Penetrant sensitivity levels
Type I penetrants
EN ISO 3452-2 and ASTM E 1417 define the same levels of fluorescent penetrant sensitivity:
 Sensitivity ½ Very low sensitivity.
 Sensitivity 1 Low sensitivity.
 Sensitivity 2 Medium sensitivity.
 Sensitivity 3 High sensitivity.
 Sensitivity 4 Very high sensitivity.
Type II penetrants
According to ASTM E 1417 penetrants of type II have only one sensitivity level, which does not respond
to any of levels of type I penetrants.9
According to EN ISO 3452-2, penetrants of type II may be subdivided into:
 Sensitivity level 1 Normal sensitivity.
 Sensitivity level 2 High sensitivity.
Compared to fluorescent penetrants there is no match between sensitivity levels.
Type III penetrants
A sensitivity level is not specified for type III penetrants. These are generally considered to be the least
sensitive.
8 While for penetrant type II (colour contrast) it is essential to have saturated white background, for penetrant type I (fluorescent) this is not desirable (it
may cause fluorescence of the background and thus reduce sensitivity, therefore two different solvent based developers are available.
9 Penetrant type II is considered less sensitive than any penetrant from type I group.
NDT30P 27 90217
7.2 Classification of solvent removers
EN ISO 3452-2 and ASTM E 1417 define the same classification of solvent removers:
 Class 1: Halogenated.
 Class 2: Non-halogenated.
 Class 3: Specific application.
Maximum sulphur, sodium and halogen levels are often specified by the nuclear and aerospace industries
to avoid the possibility of embrittlement or cracking during service and caused by small quantities of
contaminant as failures can occur years after application of the penetrant.
Penetrants containing chlorides, chlorine or sulphur are frequently restricted from use on austenitic
steels, titanium and high nickel steels.
7.3 Classification of developer forms
Developer forms are usually not sub-classified within given forms.
7.4 Batch and type tests
Initial classification of penetrant material is done during a type test. The manufacturer supplies a sample
of prepared material to an accredited third party laboratory where it is subjected to a defined set of tests.
As an overall result of these tests a classification certificate is issued and classified material may be
supplied to market.
Penetrant materials are produced in batches with each heaving a unique batch number for traceability.
Part of the first batch is used for classification process, most is sold out but a part must be kept by the
manufacturer as a reference sample.
Classification of the material is normally based on the original batch and it is the duty of the
manufacturer to prove that any new batch has the same properties as the original. Some of these
properties may be measured but others are determined by comparison. Any new batch is linked to
classification of original material through this comparison. The process is called batch testing and it is
governed by the product manufacturer.
In general three levels of material testing exist:
 Type test: By accredited third party laboratory (used for classification of the first batch).
 Batch test: By manufacturer (used for classification of next batches).
 User tests: Various tests done by NDT laboratories which are using materials for inspection.
NDT30P 28 90217
7.5 Evidence of penetrant products classification
It is in the interests of the manufacturer to achieve the best possible classification for his product through
a suitable accredited third party laboratory. This service is offered by a number of national and
international laboratories, e.g. under the European Accreditation Network.
Once a material is classified, the manufacturer may use this information for marketing purposes. It is
common practice that on the manufacturers product sheet includes a statement referring to the products
conformity to various standards e.g. to EN ISO 3452-2.
The proof of such a statement is usually required in the case of testing critical component parts. This is
common practice in the aerospace industry where the highest level of test integrity is required
demonstrated by using a penetrant system product classified through an appropriately accredited
independent laboratory. The most respected laboratory in this field is associated to the US Department of
Defence. Materials classified by this laboratory were formerly listed by military standard MIL-I-25135,
superseded by Aeronautical Material Specification AMS 2644 today known as SAE AMS 2644. All three
standards are still referenced by many penetrant test procedures.
The list serves as proof of the classification of the materials. For example if the client requires a
penetrant of sensitivity level 3 and non-halogenated solvent remover to be used, a simple fact that the
materials used are listed in the appropriate section of SAE AMS 2644 is sufficient proof.
Due to the importance and popularity of this list it has been converted into an internet database – the
Qualified Product Database (QPD) to allow access for the wide professional public. The classification
key used by QPD/SAE AMS 2644 is the same as that defined by ASTM E 1417.
NDT30P 29 90217
7.6 Review questions (chapters 6 and 7)
21. Which of the following corresponds to 26. Which standard is NOT related to
I A d? classification of materials?
a) Fluorescent, water washable penetrant a) EN ISO 3452-1.

with dry powder developer. b) ASTM E 1417.
b) Fluorescent, post-emulsifiable penetrant c) SAE AMS 2644.
with solvent-based developer. d) EN ISO 9712.
c) Colour dye, water washable penetrant
with solvent-based developer. 27. UV-A is which of the following
d) Fluorescent, water washable penetrant wavelengths?
with solvent-based developer.

a) 787 nm.
22. Fluorescent, post-emulsifiable b) 576 nm.
penetrant with dry developer is: c) 365 nm.

d) 154 nm.
a) I A a
b) I B a 28. Fluorescent material emits a light with
c) IDa a wavelength of about:
d) Both b) and c) are correct

a) 320 nm.
23. Which penetrant is considered to be b) 365 nm.

c) 380 nm.
the most sensitive?
d) 555 nm.
a) Form a.
b) Type I. 29. What of the following is probably the
c) Form e. best natural penetrant?
d) Type III.
a) Water.
24. Which developer is classified as b) Mercury.

c) Oil.
form a?
d) Ether.
a) Dry powder developer.
b) Water suspendable. 30. Which developer is not used as a
c) Solvent-based. liquid?
d) Post-emulsifiable.
a) Form a.
25. Fluorescent penetrant with sensitivity b) Form b.

c) Form c.
level 2 has:
d) Form d.
a) Low sensitivity.
b) Medium sensitivity.
c) High sensitivity.
d) Very high sensitivity.
NDT30P 30 90217
Penetrant Testing Process and Parameters
8 Penetrant Testing Process and Parameters
8.1 Pre-cleaning and preparation
Penetrant testing may be effective only if the penetrant covers the whole surface to be tested.
Discontinuities must be open to the surface and clean so the penetrant may enter them and consequently
bleed-out to form indications.
Problems with wetting may be caused by a surface which is:
 Contaminated by lubricating oils.
 Wet (water on surface).
 Contaminated by residue after the water has evaporated.
 Highly polished.
Figure 11: Surface contaminated by lubrication that cannot be wetted by the penetrant.
Penetrant may be prevented from entering a discontinuity or bleeding-out because:
 The discontinuity was mechanically smeared (closed by e.g. blasting or chipping/peening).
 The discontinuity is covered or filled by scale, rust, oxides or other corrosion products.
 The discontinuity is covered or filled by paint and protective coatings.
 The discontinuity is covered by weld slag, flux or other residual material.
 The surface is coated or in the case of aluminium and its alloys, anodised.
 The discontinuity is blocked or filled by another material (e.g. water or any material remaining from
previous manufacturing or testing stages – including also old penetrant).
From this list it can be seen that the majority of problems are caused by surface contamination, so
standards require pre-cleaning to be carried out before the main test.
8.1.1 Cleaning methods
Pre-cleaning may be achieved by chemical or mechanical means, the method selected depending on the
contamination to be removed, required production rate, number of parts to be cleaned, their size, shape
NDT30P 31 90217
and material as well as the associated cost. Whichever cleaning agent is used, care should be taken to
ensure that it will not react with or attack the material being tested and will not close a discontinuity.
Chemical methods Mechanical methods

 Cold solvent degreasing.  Brushing.
 Hot solvent degreasing.  Blasting/Peening.
 Vapour degreasing.
 Solvent materials with emulsifiers and detergents.
 Alkaline cleaning.
 Acid pickling.
 Steam cleaning.
 Paint stripping.
8.1.2 Chemical methods of pre-cleaning
It is preferable to use a chemical process to remove contaminants as there is no risk of mechanical

modification of the surface. The following are among the most common.
Cold solvent degreasing
The most common method of pre-cleaning to be used, especially on site. Solvent is usually sprayed
directly onto the area to be tested,10 then swabbed or wiped off using lint free cloths. This method is not
good at removing contaminants from potential defects and can only clean contamination suspendable in
solvent.
Hot solvent degreasing
Probably the most common way to process parts to be batch tested in-house. The parts are boiled in a
solvent, usually 1,1,1-trichloroethane, with the solvent being prevented from evaporating by condensing
tubes arranged above the solvent tank. Often an ultrasonic transducer under the tank is fitted to vibrate
the parts being cleaned thus aiding removal of surface ingress from solids and liquid contaminants. The
liquid becomes dirty and corrosive with time, so adequate filtration as well as regular checks on water
content and acidity is essential.
Vapour degreasing
The part to be cleaned is placed above a tank of boiling solvent, usually 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The
solvent condenses on to the part and removes liquid contaminants. Vapour degreasers are usually used
in conjunction with hot solvent cleaners, as a second stage. The method works well on liquid
10 Direct spraying of solvent onto the area of interest is acceptable only during pre- and post-test cleaning. It must never be used when excess penetrant is
removed during testing.
NDT30P 32 90217
contaminants but does not dislodge solids. The solvent action continues until the temperature of the part
reaches the temperature of the vapour so the specimen is hot when removed.
Solvent materials with emulsifiers and detergents
Cleaning agents consists of a mixture of white spirit or kerosene and emulsifying agents. When brushed
or sprayed on to grease and oil coated parts, the cleaner thins the contaminants. After a period of time
the dilute residues can be washed off with water. However, water contamination is a problem and
thorough drying must be undertaken. Detergent cleaners are becoming more common; they are usually
diluted with water and can be used hot or cold. The difference between emulsifiers and detergents will be
discussed in the penetrant removal section (see Sections 8.3 and 8.5 on page 37 and 40).
Alkaline cleaning
Alkaline degreasing may be used hot or cold and has an advantage over solvent methods as it will
remove soaps and salts. Very thorough washing is necessary after cleaning to remove residues. This
method is most widely used on aluminium alloys.
Acid pickling
Acid pickling or alkali de-rusting solutions may be used to remove rust and scale. After using these
chemicals, it is usually necessary to apply a further cleaning method to ensure discontinuities are also
cleaned. Neutralising, washing and drying may then have to be carried out.
Steam cleaning
This process often works well when large areas have to be cleaned but as with any process involving
water, care must be taken to ensure the part is dry before penetrant application.
Paint stripping
There are a number of proprietary paint removers available, all of which are caustic. Residue often kills
the fluorescent material in a penetrant and neutralising procedures are necessary after the paint has
been removed.
Water washing and drying
Many chemical cleaners may negatively affect penetrant properties and may also leave a residue on the
surface after drying. Washing with water may be required after the main cleaning process to completely
remove any chemicals.
Water (or any other chemical) may block a discontinuity so drying is usually done as the last step in the
cleaning process. To avoid solidification of minerals after the water is dried off, demineralised water
(‘demi’ water) may be required.
Sometimes when a part is moved from a cold place to an area with a higher ambient temperature, air
humidity may condense on the part’s surface, as well as in a discontinuity. This is typical for overnight
transport of parts to a laboratory during the winter. Therefore a sufficient time must be allowed for
balancing temperatures prior to testing.
NDT30P 33 90217
The prepared part must be:
 Clean.
 Dry.
 Within specified temperature range.
8.1.3 Mechanical methods of pre-cleaning
Mechanical methods (typically brushing and blasting) usually only remove contaminants from the surface
but are unable to clean out a discontinuity or flaw.
Brushing
Brushing can be extended to any scrubbing action. Usually a wire brush is used to remove dry scale,
flakes of paint, etc. A brush with soft bristles is recommended but often will not lift stubborn dirt, so a
harsh bristle brush needs to be used introducing the risk of peening the lips of possible defects and
preventing the penetrant from entering.
Some specifications differentiate between brushing and power-brushing. In such cases the latter is
considered to be more dangerous and may smear the discontinuity.
Blasting
Surface preparation by blasting is a subject in its own right. Grit or sand blasting is the most common
methods of mechanical removal of debris from a surface. However, exotic solid removers such as walnut
shells, plum stones and glass shots are sometimes used. A liquid may also be the remover; water under
very high pressure is often the most efficient pre-cleaner.
Many standards indicate the danger of peening and smearing the surface by blasting. Therefore blasting
(e.g. sand-blasting, grit blasting, etc.) is in some cases forbidden, or accepted only if followed by
mandatory chemical etching.
8.2 Application of penetrant
The penetrant must remain in place covering the whole inspection diagnostic area, and be sufficiently
liquid for long enough to have sufficient time to enter and fill possible discontinuities. This is often
referred to as Penetrant Dwell Time or Contact Time. The most common method of penetrant application
is by:
 Spraying.
 Electrostatic spraying.
 Immersion.
 Brushing.
8.2.1 Application by spraying
Penetrant is usually applied by spraying when spot or local area inspections are to be performed.
NDT30P 34 90217
Aerosol spray
Aerosol spray is the most common method of application of colour contrast penetrant for local area
inspection on construction sites. It is expensive compared with other methods of application. However, as
the aerosol is sealed there is no possibility of contamination of the penetrant while still in the can. It is a
total loss system and all excess penetrant is wasted.
Spraying with compressed air equipment
Compressed air spraying using paint spray equipment is an alternative to aerosol sprays. It is still a
popular method throughout industry for applying penetrant, particularly when inspecting parts too large
to go into a tank or where an uneconomic amount of penetrant would have to be kept in a large tank.
After spraying, drained material may be re-used.
Electrostatic spraying
Electrostatic spraying is widely used to apply penetrants especially in automatic processors. It applies
very thin coats of penetrant with minimal run-off. The penetrant is expended but experience has shown
this process to be economical. The penetrant is used directly out of the shipping container with no
draining losses, contamination or deterioration from sitting for long periods in a tank.
The basic principle of electrostatic spraying is that the spray gun applies a negative electrical charge to
the penetrant as it is sprayed, with the test object retaining ground potential. The electrostatic attraction
between the two opposite polarities (or polarity and ground) causes the penetrant to be strongly
attracted to the part.
The method is very good on large, plain, simple shapes but does not work well on intricate, complex
shapes nor does it penetrate holes in items such as castings. This may be used as an advantage if turbine
blades that have fine cooling holes are to be tested.
The Penetrant should have the following characteristics to be suitable for electrostatic spraying:
 Low viscosity so that the liquid can be readily divided into very small components (i.e. atomised) and
attracted to the part.
 Must readily accept and hold the electrical charge placed on the liquid particles.
 Sufficient electrical resistance to avoid short circuits or electric flashbacks.
8.2.2 Application by brushing
Brushing is a simple alternative to spraying. It is a good method for a small local area, especially in
hard-to-reach places or windy conditions. A small amount of penetrant can be applied only where it is
needed, eliminating overspray cleaning.
8.2.3 Application by immersion
The traditional way of applying penetrant in mass production is to immerse the batch of parts in a tank of
liquid penetrant. Once the whole area of interest is covered (wetting is complete), the item may be
removed and drained either over the tank or a separate drain station so that the maximum amount of
NDT30P 35 90217
penetrant is recovered and re-used. Most standards stipulate that the maximum immersion time is half of
the total dwell time.
8.2.4 Use of thixotropic penetrants
Thixotropic liquids increase in viscosity until they gel under stable conditions but when brushed become
mobile (their viscosity reduces when shear stress is applied). Their usefulness is that they can be applied
by moving a brush overhead, where spraying is difficult and might create contamination of the
surrounding area.
8.2.5 Penetrant application parameters
The crucial factors when applying penetrant are not the method of application but rather the component
temperature and the dwell time for which the penetrant remains on the component.
Temperature
Temperature affects the viscosity of penetrant (speed of penetration). Too high viscosity leads to
insufficient penetration, too low results in excessive removal of penetrant (penetrant easily flows out of
the discontinuity so may easily be over-washed. Additionally very high temperature may exceed the flash
point of the penetrant material.
Acceptable temperature ranges are:
 10 – 50 °C according to EN ISO 3452-1.
 4 – 52 °C according to ASTM E 1417.
 5 – 50 °C according to ASME V/6.
For temperatures outside these ranges, penetrant product families specially approved for this purpose
should be used according to standards and procedures.
Dwell time (Contact time)
The penetrant dwell time (contact time) starts when the penetrant wets the surface and finishes when
cleaning starts. Dwell time is essential for reaching a required sensitivity.
If the penetrant is applied by immersion then the dwell time consists of submersion and drain time. Most
standards require that the maximum immersion time is half of the total dwell time.
According to recognised standards the penetrant dwell time (penetration time) is:
 5 – 60 minutes (10 – 50 °C) according to EN ISO 3452-1.
 > 10 minutes (10 – 52 °C) according to ASTM E 1417.
 > 20 minutes (4 – 10 °C) according to ASTM E 1417.
 > 5 minutes (10 – 50 °C) according to ASME V/6.
 > 10 minutes (5 – 10 °C) according to ASME V/6.
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Both ASTM and ASME specify additional rules for minimum as well as maximum dwell times. Additionally
the penetrant manufacturer may specify a minimum and maximum limit for dwell time based on the
temperature, but in most cases these limits meet standard requirements.
The actual time for the given application should be selected within the above limits. Selection depends
mainly on application temperature, material being tested and defects being sought.
If very fine defects are sought (e.g. micro- or corrosion cracking) the penetrant time may be measured in
hours. The penetrant must not be allowed to dry during penetration time under any circumstances. For
standard application (e.g. weld inspection) a dwell time of 5 or 10 minutes is usually sufficient.
The penetration process may be supported by increased temperature (immersion of heated parts) or by
vibrations. Such techniques are not covered by standards so are subject to agreement between the
contracting parties.
8.3 Removal of excess penetrant
After the penetrant has been in contact with the test surface for the required period, excess material
must be removed from the surface.
This is a vital stage because the surface must not be cleaned excessively to avoid the penetrant being
washed out of defects. However, without the proper removal of excess penetrant a strong background
colour remains, and this reduces the contrast between potential defects and the test surface.
The ideal situation is to completely remove excess penetrant from the surface while at the same time
keeping all of the penetrant entrapped in discontinuities. In reality two other situations may happen: On
one hand insufficient washing may result in excessive background colouration and on the other hand
over-washing (when penetrant is removed also from discontinuities) may reduce the significance and size
of indications.
Figure 12: Insufficient washing (left); ideal washing (middle) and over-washing (right).
An excessive background colouration reduces indication contrast, but it is at least obvious that the
washing process failed (while over-washing is hard to even recognize). The best practice is to perform
excess penetrant removal in such manner so as to obtain minimal background as evidence that the
material was not over-washed.
Figure 13: Pale pink background proves that the surface was not over-washed. Reproduced courtesy of
Michal Skerik.
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8.4 Emulsifiers
The penetrant removal method influences the choice of penetrant. Penetrants fall into two basic types
with regard to their method of removal using emulsifiers:
 Water-washable penetrants.11
 Post-emulsifiable penetrants.
Emulsifiers play an important role in the removal of excess penetrant. It is important to have a basic
understanding of emulsifier constituents and their use. If two different liquids are mixed together, they
may create an emulsion or a suspension:
 Emulsion: A mixture of liquids which are stable and that do not separate again (good example is
water and fat, in milk).
 Suspension: Mixture of liquids which are immiscible – if they are mixed together they will naturally
separate again (water and oil is typical example). This is also why it is hard to wash out oil using
water without any detergent. Most penetrants consist of red or fluorescent dye distributed in a liquid
based with a hydrocarbon (oil) base. If oil has to be washed out or any excess removed then at least
some detergent or solvent must be used to aid the process.
In case of penetrant testing it is the emulsifier which helps to create an emulsion of oil and water that
helps to wash the penetrant and remove the excess.
There are two basic groups of emulsifiers:
 Lipophilic (oil-based).
 Hydrophilic (water-based).
While lipophilic emulsifiers can be mixed with penetrant to create an emulsion which may be washed
using water, hydrophilic emulsifiers are essentially surface-active agents.
Function of emulsifier
A function of emulsifier may be explained using the simplified model (see Figure 14) with two different
kinds of blocks. Oil molecules may represents one kind of blocks, which may be mutually interconnected
and also connected to solid material (as excess of penetrant is attached to tested part).
Since water is the most plentiful and cheapest solvent available it is required to be used as a cleaning
agent. Unfortunately water molecules behave like different (non-compatible) blocks. Water and oil blocks
or chains cannot be directly interconnected; water cannot remove oil from the test surface unless an
emulsifier is used (see Figure 15 below).
Figure 14: Oil and water blocks cannot be interconnected.
11 Oil based penetrant can be removed by water only if it is mixed with emulsifier. This is why the emulsifiers are essential for penetrant removal.
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These different blocks may be left together but will never create a homogenous mixture. In order to
connect them it is necessary to use a third kind of block, i.e. an, emulsifier, which may serve as an
adapter that helps water and oil to create an emulsion.
Figure 15: Emulsifier helps oil and water create an emulsion.
Using lipophilic emulsifier
Lipophilic emulsifier is oil based and is therefore easily mixed with other oil-based substances.12
In post-emulsification an emulsifier is applied separately after the dwell time has elapsed on material
covered by an excess of penetrant which shall be removed.
Just after application the boundary between the layers of penetrant and emulsifier is clearly defined. In
time the emulsifier penetrates the layer of penetrant because both lipophilic emulsifier and penetrant are
based on oil substances and are able to create an emulsion.13 (see Figure 16 below)
Timing is extremely critical when using a lipophilic emulsifier. If the emulsification process isn’t stopped
by applying the water rinse at the correct time there is a danger that the emulsifier will diffuse deeply in
to the discontinuity, which would make that penetrant washable and unintentionally removable from the
defect also.
a) b) c) d)
Figure 16: Lipophilic emulsifier: a) excess penetrant to be removed; b) applied emulsifier;

c) progress of emulsification time; d) removal of emulsified penetrant.
12 In water-washable penetrant it is a lipophilic emulsifier that is mixed with penetrant and makes it water-washable, making lipophilic emulsifier much
more commonly used than hydrophilic.
13 This natural ability of self-mixing is partially related to Brownian motion.
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Using hydrophilic emulsifier
Hydrophilic emulsifier is water diluted with the typical concentration of emulsifier being 20 % (80 %
water, 20 % emulsifier), but may vary according to manufacturer’s recommendation. It is usually in the
range of 10 % to 30 % with higher concentration of emulsifier leading to a faster effect.
Hydrophilic emulsifier contains a significant amount of water, and therefore it cannot be mixed with
penetrant like lipophilic emulsifier. Emulsifier applied to the penetrant acts as a surface-active agent, able
to break down the surface tension of any penetrant in contact with a test surface so a water rinse can lift
or scrub the penetrant from that surface although only the surface layer of penetrant is affected.
Therefore a process using hydrophilic emulsifier consists of more steps (see Figure 17 below):
 Pre-rinse: The dynamic effect of water will remove most of the penetrant so leaving the surface
covered only by a thin layer of residual penetrant which cannot be removed by water due to the
above mentioned reasons.14
 Emulsification: The residual penetrant layer is thin enough that it can be emulsified in a single step.
 Post-rinse: Water will remove emulsified penetrant.
a) b) c) d)
Figure 17: Hydrophilic emulsifier: a) excess penetrant to be removed; b) pre-rinse;

c) emulsification time; d) post-rinse (removal of emulsified penetrant).
8.5 Methods of removal
European and International Standards states the following methods of excess penetrant removal:
 Method A Water-washable method.
 Method B Post-emulsifiable method (lipophilic).
 Method C Solvent removable method.
 Method D Post-emulsifiable method (hydrophilic).
 Method E Water and solvent removable method.
8.5.1 Water rinse (method A)
Water is commonly used to remove water-removable penetrants. Water-washable penetrant material

contains its own emulsifier and can be therefore removable by water but there is a big disadvantage with
this method. Water may cause the penetrant and emulsifier to be washed out of defects (especially if
they are wide and shallow). Therefore great care needs to be exercised. Water-washable penetrants are
14 Pre-rinse cannot be used prior to the application of lipophilic emulsifier, because it leaves the surface wet and water droplets avoid contact of lipophilic
emulsifier with penetrant.
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most commonly used on rough parts such as castings or forgings as a rough surface is simply a series of
wide shallow crevices.
By lowering the amount of emulsifier in the liquid the risk of washing out is reduced. As wash ability
decreases more defects can be found as sensitivity goes up, but super-sensitive water removable
penetrants will only wash from smooth surfaces.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Suitable for use on rough surfaces.  Susceptible to over-washing.
 Suitable for batch inspection.  Least sensitive method.
 Cheaper than other methods.  Water source is necessary.
The water should be used as a fairly coarse, high-volume, droplet spray from a distance of about 300 mm
with a pressure as low as possible and a regulated temperature. Washing parameters are specified as:
 Temperature: 10 °C – 38 °C (ASTM E 1417) or 10 °C – 50 °C (EN ISO 3452-1).
 Pressure: < 275 kPa (ASTM E 1417) but Not specified according to EN ISO 3452-1.
After washing the water is contaminated by penetrant and before re-using must be filtered. To reduce the
amount of water it is sometimes recommended to use a hydro-air nozzle, which mixes air with the water
and thus helps reduce amount of water necessary for washing. If this is used, special process parameters
may apply. The wash time should be just enough to slightly under-wash the part. This shall be confirmed
visually. Fluorescent penetrants are washed under UV-A light. EN ISO 3452-1 specifies the viewing
conditions as:
 UV-A light: ≥ 100 W/cm2.
 Visible light: ≤ 100 lx.
Water immersion (method A)
As an alternative to water rinse an immersion into a water bath may be used. Water is usually agitated
by air bubbles and a washing station consists of more baths in a cascade. This method is less sensitive
than water rinse and therefore is used mainly for low-end, less critical applications.
8.5.2 Post-emulsifiable process
This method enables wide shallow discontinuities to be detected because washing after emulsifier
application can remove only the surplus of penetrant which was emulsified. This method is used if high
sensitivity is required but the emulsifier contact time is critical.
 Greater control over penetrant removal.  Not suited to rough surfaces.
 Ability to locate wide shallow defects.  Expensive and time consuming.
 Testing parameters are critical.
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Emulsifiers are usually applied by immersion. Brushing is banned as it would make it difficult to control
the diffusion rate of the emulsifier into the penetrant).
Lipophilic emulsifier (method B)
Lipophilic emulsifiers are applied by immersion and used in two steps:
 Application (and emulsification time).
 Water washing.
Lipophilic emulsifiers must NOT be applied by spray or brush and NOT agitated while on the surface of
the component as it applies the emulsifier unevenly and mixes it with the penetrant, making control of
the emulsification time impossible.
The actual dwell time needed for processing a specific part is determined by the shape of the part, the
material and other parameters related to quality of surface finish. Therefore for each part a specific time
shall be determined by experiment and shall be the minimum necessary to produce an acceptable
background on the component consistent with the defect detectability required from the test.
In industrial practice emulsification time is normally measured in seconds (e.g. 25 s; 45 s or 110 s). Long
emulsification times (exceeding 3 minutes) signify that penetrant testing process is not effective. This
may be caused by some particular parameter of process (e.g. insufficient drain time allocated within
penetrant dwell time when penetrant is applied by immersion) or because whole concept of process was
selected incorrectly (e.g. Method B is not suitable for parts with complicated surface shape geometry –
for example threads). To avoid such situation some specifications require a maximum dwell time (e.g.
ASTM E 1417 recommends maximum time of 3 minutes (for Type I penetrants) and 30 seconds (for type
II penetrants).
If a number of specimens are tested in a batch at the same time, then all must have exactly the same
emulsification and wash time or results will vary. Washing with water must start immediately after the
emulsification dwell time finishes under the conditions specified for method A.
Lipophilic emulsifiers are used neat and are often viscous, resulting in high drag-out and making them
expensive to use. When large amounts are flushed down a drain, pollution control measures may have to
be taken. Lipophilic emulsifiers are thus generally used as part of a water washable penetrant rather than
as a separate remover.
Hydrophilic emulsifier (method D)
Hydrophilic removers are water tolerant. This enables parts to be given a pre-wash with a spray to
remove most of the excess penetrant. This leaves only a thin film of penetrant on the surface to be
emulsified. Hydrophilic emulsifiers are used in three steps:
 Pre-rinse with water.
 Application (and dwell time).
 Water washing.
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The water pre-rinse shall be applied for the minimum time required to achieve removal of the bulk of the
surface penetrant. The rinse parameters specified for method A shall apply.
Hydrophilic emulsifier can be applied by immersion, foaming or spray. For immersion applications, the
emulsifier or part may be gently agitated.
The concentration of the emulsifier may be varied to allow greater control of washing. The concentration
alters the activity of the emulsifier and the rate at which it correspondingly acts. The concentration of the
emulsifier determines the sensitivity of the method.
Manufacturers of penetrant material usually determine the concentration of emulsifier for which the
material was classified. If not, sensitivity tests with specimens of the type to be inspected should be
carried out to determine the optimum concentration. During testing the emulsifier concentration shall be
no higher than specified by the penetrant system supplier and shall not exceed that for which the system
was qualified.
Typical concentrations are:
 ≈ 20 % for immersion applications.
 ≤ 5 % for spray applications.
Low concentration levels around 5 % provide the best sensitivity but can be expected to leave more
background than a 20 % concentration on rough surfaces.
Dwell time is not as critical as it is with lipophilic emulsifier as hydrophilic emulsifier is surface active
only. Dwell time shall be the minimum required for adequate surface penetrant removal and must be
determined by experiment. Similar to lipophilic emulsifier some specifications recommends that when
hydrophilic emulsifier is used, the maximum emulsification time shall be limited (e.g. ASTM E 1417
recommends not to exceed 2 minutes if lipophilic emulsifier is applied by immersion).
Washing with water starts after emulsification dwell time finishes with the same conditions as for
method A.
Spray-scrubber penetrant removal (method D)
Hydrophilic emulsifiers can be mixed directly with rinse water so excess penetrant removal may be
undertaken in single step. As the emulsifier releases the penetrant from the surface by detergent action,
the water spray scrubs the released penetrant away.
The water and emulsifier are mixed in a spray nozzle similar to these used for paint application. The
concentration of emulsifier is usually less than 0.2 % so emulsification progresses slowly allowing greater
control of the penetrant removal process.
The spray remover scrubs layer after layer of excess surface penetrant from the part, continually
introducing fresh detergent/water solution. Spray time depends on surface roughness, penetrant
viscosity, penetrant sensitivity level, size and complexity of the part and water temperature. If it is
performed properly the method offers very high sensitivity level.
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The entire process of rinsing shall be performed manually and controlled under appropriate viewing
conditions.
8.5.3 Solvent removal (method C)
The following procedure is considered to be the best practice:
 Firstly use a dry cloth (rag) to mop up surplus penetrant.
 Then wipe a lint-free cloth or soft paper towel moistened with liquid solvent over the test area.
Repeat this step until till surface appears to be clean.
 Finally use a dry clean lint free cloth to test if the surface is really clean.
When removing colour contrast penetrant wiping should stop when the cloth is lightly tinged with dye to
ensure that the specimen is not over-cleaned. When excess fluorescent penetrant is to be removed the
process should be conducted under UV-A light to ensure the background is reduced to an acceptable
level.
Irrespective of the type of penetrant to be removed neat high-pressure solvent must never be
sprayed directly at an area of inspection interest as it could enter the surface discontinuity and
wash out the entrapped penetrant.
 Portability.  Not suited to batch inspections.
 No water supply required.  Manual process (time-consuming).
 More expensive than water-washable.
 Potentially hazardous chemicals.
8.5.4 Water and solvent (method E)
Historically there were more techniques combining water and solvent for excess penetrant removal. The
method involved quickly immersing the test item into a tank containing aliphatic kerosene and then
emulsifier was applied to the tank containing the test item, but there was always the risk of over-
washing. Therefore these methods are not generally used and standards do not usually include them.
Method E, referenced in EN ISO 3452-1 is an exception.
Suggested procedure is to:
 Remove excess penetrant by water.
 Clean the surface with a lint-free cloth lightly moistened with solvent.
This procedure is suitable for water washable penetrants only.
8.5.5 Comparison of sensitivity of removal methods
Method A is the most common method of excess penetrant removal – water is relatively inexpensive and
widely available. Therefore Method A is normally used as a reference level for comparison with other
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removal methods. This method must be performed carefully due to the relatively high risk of overwashing
any surface discontinuities.
Compared to method A a hydrophilic emulsifier (method D) can offer a significantly higher sensitivity. If
an emulsifier is used, the chance for overwashing during the excess penetrant removal process is
significantly reduced - especially if low concentration emulsifier is used.
The method C (solvent remover) may provide very high sensitivity as well, if performed correctly. One of
the reasons is that if solvent is used for cleaning it partially dissolves any penetrant entrapped in a
discontinuity and thus will support a more effective bleed out.
8.6 Drying
The developer is applied after excess penetrant removal. Developer is a strong absorber of the penetrant
from the discontinuity and thus helps to form the discontinuity indication. However the developer has to
be completely dry if it is to be effective in enabling penetrant bleed out.
Drying of solvent removers
Solvents naturally evaporate at room temperature. Former procedures stipulated sufficient time for
solvent evaporation: usually about 3 minutes at room temperature. As a slight amount of solvent
supports a bleed-out of penetrant, this is now not required and developing may start as soon as it is
practical.
Drying of water
Water rinse is the last step if methods A, B and D are used leaving the surface covered with water
droplets and then it depends which developer is to be applied.
Developers form b (water soluble) and c (water suspendable) are water-based so do not need to be
applied to a dry surface.
Developers form a (dry powder), d and e (solvent-based) as well as special purpose developer must be
applied to a dry surface. In these cases drying must take place before developer application.
Drying must be done so that all water is dried out while any penetrant in discontinuities does not (if this
happens the whole PT process must be started from pre-cleaning again). Drying may also help expand
the penetrant in any discontinuities and reduce its viscosity to provide better self-development.
Common drying methods are:
 Wiping with a dry clean lint-free cloth.
 Evaporation at ambient temperature after a hot water dip.
 Evaporation at elevated temperature.
 Forced air circulation.
It is common practice to use the combination – dryer with forced hot air circulation.
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Components should not be placed in the drying oven with water pools or pooled aqueous
solutions/suspensions present. These may be removed by low pressure compressed air in which case
special rules for air pressure, air cleanness and nozzle distance may apply.
Drying time should be only that necessary to adequately dry the test part/component and over-drying
must be avoided. A maximum drying time depends on application and in some cases may have to be
longer. Components must be removed from the oven immediately after drying.
Recommended oven air temperatures for drying are:
 71 °C (according to ASTM E 1417).
 70 °C (according to EN ISO 3452-1).
Additionally (according to EN ISO 3452-1) a part surface temperature shall not exceed 50 °C.
Forced circulation of air in the oven helps to avoid a temperature build-up and supports even drying of
the components throughout the oven.
8.7 Development
One advantage of penetrant testing is finding a discontinuity not visible to the naked eye. This is possible
because during the PT process indications are formed around surface opening discontinuities/flaws and
defects.
Capillary action helps the penetrant enter a discontinuity and this effect is increased if the discontinuity
opening dimension is reduced (refer equation (2)). The same capillary effect is in many cases strong
enough to inhibit penetrant to bleed out spontaneously.
So called self-development (when penetrant is bleeding out from discontinuities by itself) is usually
related to increased temperature (in the dryer). This reduces viscosity whilst leading to expansion of the
penetrant volume. Under such conditions penetrant may leave the discontinuity if there is insufficient
space for expansion. But if small discontinuities are sought (as is the case with most of PT applications),
the amount of self-bleed out penetrant is insufficient to produce an indication. Under these circumstances
a developer shall be used to support forming of an indication.
Capillary action
Developer function is based on capillary action. Developer particles form on the surface in a uniform net
of fine channels (capillary pipes – smaller than discontinuity). If these channels are in contact with
entrapped penetrant, capillary attraction of the developer overcomes the opposing attraction of the
discontinuity allowing penetrant to be drawn out from the discontinuity and absorbed by developer. This
action also spreads the penetrant laterally on the surface (see Figure 18 below).
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Figure 18: Penetrant absorbed by developer.
Wet developer drying
In order to achieve a uniform layer of developer on the surface, the main developer substance is usually
distributed in a liquid carrier. This liquid shall be dried after the developer is applied on the surface
because the capillary action of the developer only works if the capillary pipes are empty (i.e. the
developer is dry). In order to do so, water-based developers (forms b and c) and solvent based-
developers (forms d and e) shall be dried after application.
Developing dwell time starts after the developer is dried.
Contrast enhancement
With colour dye penetrants, the visibility of an indication is dependent on the contrast between the
penetrant dye and a background colour. A rusty background material may give insufficient contrast with
red penetrant for example. This is a reason why the developer used for type II colour contrast penetrants
must create a white contrast background.
Thickness of developer layer
Some forms of developer (e.g. water-based) do not allow thickness of the layer to be regulated. With the
solvent based developers (spray) the thickness may be partly controlled. For colour contrast penetrants a
minimum thickness is necessary in order to achieve a white background, whereas for fluorescent
penetrants (where a white background is not desired) the thickness can be much less.
Excessive thickness may result in reduced sensitivity – smaller indications may be covered by developer.
Figure 19: Excessive thickness of the developer layer may cover indications.
Solvent effect
Solvents in solvent-suspended (form d, non-aqueous wet) developers are able to dissolve the penetrant,
reduce its viscosity and also expand its volume. This supports the self-development effect. The penetrant
will flow back to the surface and into the developer to form an indication by capillary action. Developer
should be sprayed from a distance such that the particles are just damp when they strike the test
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surface. The remaining solvent on the particles bridges the gap between the developer particles and the
penetrant in the discontinuity and causes the effect mentioned above.
This is especially important with fine tight defects where the developer particles are not necessarily in
contact with the penetrant. The solvent must not dilute the penetrant nor significantly reduce the
brightness of a fluorescent penetrant.
Figure 20: Excessive amount of solvent reducing the brightness of fluorescent penetrant and resulting in characteristic
pale blue colour. Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
Light scattering effect
When fluorescent penetrant is used, a light scattering effect may contribute to increased sensitivity. The
brightness of fluorescent indications is in direct proportion to the amount of UV-A light absorbed by the
fluorescent dye. The UV-A light which strikes the surface may be reflected back (specular or mirror
reflection) or scattered by developer (diffuse or scatter reflection). Some scattered light might reach the
fluorescent dye instead of being reflected back, thus supporting the fluorescence effect.
Summary of developer effects
The main actions of developer are:
 Drawing out sufficient penetrant from the discontinuity to form an indication.
 Expanding the width of the indication to make it visible.
 Providing a contrast background where necessary.
8.7.1 Dry powder developer (form a)
Dry powder developers shall be applied to dry surface, after application additional drying is not
necessary. Developing time starts directly after application. Recommended development times are:
 10 – 30 minutes (according to EN ISO 3452-1).
 10 minutes – 4 hours (according to ASTM E 1417).
Dry powder developers can be applied by dipping the part in developer, fogging the part with a flock gun,
in a dust storm chamber, or by electrostatic spray.
Dust storm cabinet (fluidized bed)
The most common method involves the test component(s) being sealed in a cabinet, which may be
warmed to keep the powder dry. At the start of cycle the powder is agitated for about 20 seconds by a
propeller, and then allowed to settle (typically for about 20 minutes). After the developer has settled
down, the chamber may be opened (opening the sealed dust storm chamber before the developer settles
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results in contamination of the workplace by very fine dust which could lead to respiratory problems).
Upon removal, the excess powder build-up should be either gently shaken off or blown off the component
item(s) with a very light air stream.
Electrostatic and flock gun spray
Both methods rely on electrically charged particles of powder being attracted to the penetrant exuding
from a discontinuity. Spraying is more appropriate for automatic processes and large plane surfaces.
Extraction at the developer station is essential.
Insufflator
The powder is puffed on the surface by a gas flow from a rubber or plastic container. It is wasteful if
applied carelessly and extraction is advised. This method is only suitable for local areas or small parts.
Pros and cons of dry powder developer (regardless the manner of application) may be summarised:
 Easy to handle.  Difficult to see if improperly applied.
 No hazardous vapours.  Extractor is needed.
 Easy to remove.  Does not offer high degree of colour contrast.
Dry powder developer is unable to create a thick layer, so cannot form a white background. Therefore it
is not be used with colour contrast penetrant.
It is considered to be one of the least sensitive developers, but regardless of this fact it is commonly used
in the aerospace industry.
8.7.2 Water soluble and water suspendable (forms b and c)
Water soluble developer is a mixture of water and another liquid. The solution is stable and does not
need to be mixed.
Water suspendable developer is a mixture of water and solid developer particles that tend to settle.
Therefore this developer needs to be regularly agitated.
Both kinds of developer may be applied to dry or wet (water) surfaces. Both developers are usually
applied by immersion but spraying may be also acceptable.
Due to fact that water suspendable developer consists mainly of water, it is not recommended for use
with water-washable penetrants. For the same reason immersion time shall be as short as applicable
(usually measured in units of seconds) with a quick dry necessary after application. Developing time
starts after the developer dries out. Recommended times are:
 10 minutes – 2 hours (according to ASTM E 1417).
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 No vapour.  Difficult to see if improperly applied.
 Cheaper than non-aqueous developer.  Low sensitivity.
8.7.3 Solvent-based developers (forms d and e)
Solvent-suspendable developers should be applied to a dry surface. After application, drying occurs due
to the natural evaporation of a volatile solvent. Development time starts when the developer has dried.
Recommended development times are:
 10 minutes – 1 hour (according to ASTM E 1417).
Solvent-based developers are applied by spraying (aerosols or paint-type sprayers). The developer must
be thoroughly agitated, as there is a tendency for the particles to agglomerate and form sediment. It
must be sprayed from a distance exceeding 300 mm, so that it falls on the area of interest in an almost
dry thin even coat. If used with colour contrast penetrant, the developer coat should almost obscure the
background surface. When applied as part of a fluorescent system the coating should be only just
discernible in daylight conditions.
 High sensitivity.  Hazardous solvents.
 Useable with fluorescent or colour contrast.  Need to be correctly applied.
 Portable.  Higher cost.
Solvent-based developers are considered to be very sensitive if applied properly.
8.7.4 Developers for specific applications (form f)
Although the primary purpose of this kind of developer is recording the indication, it can be used for
inspection purposes as well.15
Plastic film developers (peel-able) are supplied in an aerosol spray can because of their high volatility.
Developers used with visible penetrants are pigmented to provide a white background; those used with
fluorescent penetrants are clear. Two spray coats are usually applied for developing, if the developer is to
be stripped off for recording at least three additional coats of clear lacquer should be applied over the
area to be stripped.
8.8 Post-cleaning
It is often unnecessary to clean residues from the test material; however, in some cases, such as when
the surface has to be painted, it is vital to remove penetrant and developer residues.
15 Nowadays these developers are replaced by digital cameras.
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The same rules as for pre-cleaning are applied for post-test cleaning except when parts will be in contact
with liquid oxygen (LOX) or explosive material. For these and similar cases, special safety precautions
and procedures must be followed.
8.9 Protection
When penetrant inspection is completed, the test surface is invariably vulnerable to outside
contamination. Test items can often be of high value so protection, even just with light de-watering oil, is
a wise precaution. The appropriate protective treatment must be compatible with the material.
Although post-test cleaning may not be necessary, it is considered to be best practice.
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8.10 Review questions (chapter 8)
31. Which cleaning technique may possibly 36. Which listed time is the most critical if
smear the discontinuity? exceeded?
a) Etching. a) Penetrant dwell time.
b) Grit blasting. b) Emulsification time.
c) Vapour degreasing. c) Developer dwell time.
d) All of the above. d) All are of the same importance.
32. Penetrant may be applied: 37. Which is correct about penetrant dwell
time?
a) By brush.
b) Hot (up to 70°C). a) Shall be the same as developer time.
c) Only on a wet surface. b) Under low temperature it shall be longer.
d) All are correct. c) One minute is sufficient for welds.

d) A longer time reduces sensitivity.
33. Which of the following is the most
sensitive method of excess penetrant 38. Which of the following systems is
removal? supposed to be most sensitive?
a) By water. a) II A a.
b) By solvent. b) I B e.
c) By brush. c) I C d.
d) By water and solvent. d) I D a.
34. Hydrophilic emulsifier: 39. Developer ‘form b’:
a) Contain usually 20 % of water. a) Is a dry powder
b) Cannot be applied by brush. b) Cannot be used with red penetrant
c) Is used for pre-cleaning. c) Can be applied on dry surface
d) Is called method B. d) All of the above is correct.
35. In process ‘I A a’ drying takes a place: 40. When penetrant system ‘I A a’ is used
the UV-A light shall be:
a) Before application of developer.
b) After application of developer. a) At station where penetrant is applied.
c) Both a) and b). b) At station where penetrant is washed.
d) It is not necessary. c) At the inspection station.

d) Both b) and c).
NDT30P 52 90217
Illustrative photo: Corrosion cracking of pipe segment. Penetrant system used I C (fluorescent penetrant
(sensitivity level 4), solvent remover, without developer).
NDT30P 53 90217
Selection of a Penetrant System
9 Selection of a Penetrant System
The testing process sequence consists of:
 Preparation and pre-cleaning.
 Application of penetrant.
 Penetrant contact time (dwell time).
 Excess penetrant removal.
 Application of developer.
 Inspection.
 Recording.
 Post-cleaning.
Each step can be completed using a variety of materials under different process parameters. Personnel
qualified as PT Level 2 are qualified to be able to decide which technique is suitable for the considered
application and to determine the optimal process parameters. To make such a decision the following
factors shall be considered as a minimum:
 Size and type of defects to be detected.
 Geometry and intricacy of part to be tested.
 Surface condition.
It is difficult to list all the rules for penetrant system selection – for further information the relevant
standards and specifications may be referred to (see References – Section 15 on page 92). However the
most important general rules are outlined below for a better understanding of the selection procedure.
9.1 Size and type of defect
Wide shallow defects (comparing the depth with the width of the opening to the surface) are most likely
to be detected by post-emulsifiable penetrants. Likewise it has been mentioned that fine defects are best
located by fluorescent methods due to the higher sensitivity of the eye to fluorescent rather than colour
contrast indications. When seeking very fine wide shallow defects, a fluorescent post-emulsifiable system
would be recommended.
9.2 Geometry and intricacy
Highly intricate, complex shape components containing a large number of changes in section and those
with threaded areas present problems for the removal of excess penetrant. Post-emulsifiable penetrants,
whilst more sensitive than water-washable, would probably leave excessive background colouration on
such samples, thereby hindering the detection of defects.
9.3 Surface condition
The appropriate pre-cleaning should be selected based on the expected type and level of contamination.
If corrosion residuum is expected, mechanical pre-cleaning is probably a good option whereas big batch
NDT30P 54 90217
of small complicated components contaminated by lubricant can be best cleaned using vapour
degreasing.
Rough surfaces are difficult to fully clean when tested with post-emulsifiable penetrants and components
such as sand castings (in the ‘as cast’ condition) are best tested by a water-washable system.
Testing of welds (in the ‘as welded’ condition) traditionally uses colour dye penetrant in combination with
solvent remover and solvent-based developer (portability is a priority).
Fluorescent penetrants are also less well suited to testing rough components than the colour contrast
(visible) techniques due to the problem of adequately monitoring penetrant removal.
9.4 Other factors to be considered
Component material
Penetrant materials may lead to damage of the part due to incompatibility with the material under test. It
is the manufacturer’s responsibility to specify which chemicals should be avoided.
Size and position of the item to be tested
On-site welds are unlikely to be tested using fluorescent, post-emulsifiable penetrants due to the viewing
conditions that would be required and the complexity of applying the technological process.
Equipment availability
Test methods using fluorescent water-washable or post-emulsifiable penetrants generally involve using
penetrant lines and are therefore more suited to factory production type use than on-site testing.
Cost
Water-washable penetrant methods are much cheaper than those using solvent-removable and
post-emulsifiable penetrants due to the ready availability of the main cleaning fluid.
Number of components to be tested
Fluorescence-based methods are recommended for batch inspection due to the higher sensitivity of the
eye to fluorescent indications over visible colour contrasts. This offers greater sensitivity and reliability of
the process.
9.5 Standard requirements
Some general rules are based on manufacturer’s recommendation and/or standard requirements:
 All penetrant materials must be from the same family (their combination should be recommended in
written by the manufacturer).
 The penetrant materials from different manufacturers must not be combined or mixed unless
specified otherwise by all involved manufacturers.
 Developer form a (dry powder) must not be combined with colour contrast (Type II) dye penetrant
(as it does not give sufficient background colour).
NDT30P 55 90217
 Developer form c (water-suspendable) must not be used with water-washable penetrant (as there is
high risk of over washing).
 Any part tested with type I penetrant must not be re-tested with type II penetrant and vice versa
(mixing different types of penetrants leads to reduced sensitivity).16
 The final inspection of aerospace components normally uses fluorescent penetrant (higher
sensitivity).
Figure 21: Evidence of PSM 5 panel indication wash-out as a result of banned process ‘I A c’. Heavy background spots
are a result of workplace contamination by aerosol penetrant of type I and (another evidence of poor practice).
Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik
From the above criteria it is clear that some combinations of penetrant materials are preferred while
others may not be recommended.
9.6 Examples of penetrant system selection
Below are a few examples, showing which test system would be selected and the reason based upon
criteria listed above.
Example 1: Inspection of a large number of threaded components

Task: Batch inspection of components with complex geometry and threads.
Technique: Fluorescent water-washable penetrant with dry powder developer (I A a).
Reason: Fluorescent techniques are suitable for serial production inspection. Post-emulsifiable
penetrant would be difficult to remove from threads (without over-washing or leaving
non-relevant indication). Water-washable penetrant more suited than solvents to batch
inspection. Dry developer is suitable for batch inspection with low demands on sensitivity.
16 It is almost impossible to remove all residual penetrant from a discontinuity. Minimal residuum will remain in a discontinuity even after very
thorough cleaning. Because imperfection smaller than the acceptance criteria may be left in material, there is a high chance that parts tested
by PT will keep some amount of penetrant. If such a component is serviced in higher working temperature there is a possibility that some
chemical components will enter material due to diffusion. If there is any chance that these chemicals are harmful to material under test, then
such a penetrant should NOT be used. This is also why solvents are classified as halogenated, non-halogenated etc.
NDT30P 56 90217
Figure 22: Example 1 – possible configuration of FPI line using process I A a.
Example 2: Inspection of turbine blades for fatigue cracks

Task: Medium size batch of components tested to highest sensitivity standards.
Technique: Fluorescent post-emulsifiable penetrant with non-aqueous developer (I B d).
Reason: Fluorescent penetrant is more sensitive than colour contrast systems. Post-emulsifiable
penetrant is more sensitive than water-washable, solvent remover is in this case not
economical. Non-aqueous developers are the most sensitive.
Figure 23: Example 2 – possible configuration of FPI line using process I B d.
Example 3: Inspection of heavy duty forgings for automotive industry

Task: Serial production (3000 pcs per shift) of simply shaped medium sized (2 kg) aluminium
forgings to be inspected. Acceptance criteria are not as strict as in aerospace industry,
but emphasis is on repeatability of test results.
Technique: Fluorescent water washable penetrant with aqueous (water soluble) developer (I A b).
NDT30P 57 90217
Reason: Fluorescent penetrant is suitable for testing of serial production. Water is a low cost
remover suitable for simple shaped parts. Water soluble developer may be applied on
whole batch of tested components. Whole process may be easily automated.
Figure 24: Example 3 – possible configuration of FPI line using process I A b.
NDT30P 58 90217
Standard EN ISO 3452-1 in relation to this subject offers a flowchart which may be useful:
Figure 25: Main stages of PT process according to EN ISO 3452-1.
NDT30P 59 90217
41. Which system is suitable for testing of 46. Aerospace parts are tested in serial
a casting in the as cast condition? production. Which system is the best?
a) The high sensitivity fluorescent. a) II C e.

b) Low sensitivity colour contrast. b) I D a.
c) Hydrophilic. c) I A c.
d) Any of the above. d) Both b) and c).
42. There is no available water source on 47. A few aerospace components are in
site. Which system can be used? service tested on-site. Which system is
suitable?
a) II A a.
b) I B b. a) II C e.
c) II C e. b) I A c.
d) I D d. c) I C d.
d) II C e.
43. What shall be considered when a
penetrant is to be selected? 48. Which developer is most suitable for
red dye water-washable penetrant?
a) Type and size of discontinuity.
b) Price. a) Form a.
c) Ambient temperature. b) Form c.
d) All may be important factors. c) Form e.
d) Any of above.
44. Mass production of simple components
for the automotive industry is to be 49. If the penetrant may damage the
tested. Choose the system: material:
a) II C e. a) Penetrant time must be as short as

b) II A a. possible.
c) I D b. b) Careful post-test cleaning is necessary.
d) I A d. c) It may only be used with dry developer.
d) Must not be used.
45. Welds are to be tested on a
construction site. Which system is 50. A large volume of aluminium forging is
normally used? to be tested with low demand on
sensitivity. Which system is suitable?
a) II C e.
b) II A a. a) II C d.
c) II D b. b) II A c.
d) II A d. c) I D b.
d) I A c.
NDT30P 60 90217
II C e IAb IAd
Illustrative photo: Indications of PSM 5 panel produced by different penetrant systems.
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Inspection
10 Inspection
Inspection is a critical part of the penetrant testing process, but no more so than processing. Careless
processing will reduce and possibly stop the ability to detect defect indications.
Viewing conditions may significantly influence inspection result. Some small but severe indications may
be overlooked, especially when minimum requirements are not fulfilled.
10.1 Viewing conditions
Colour contrast techniques
Minimum test surface illumination required for inspection is:
 500 lx (according to EN ISO 3452-1).
 100 fc (according to ASTM E 1417).
Monochromatic light sources such as sodium vapour lamps must NOT be used, as they emit a
single-colour light (monochromatic) which affects colour rendering making indications very hard to
distinguish. Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps emit a yellow light and high-pressure ones a pink-orange
light. Such lamps are often used in street or security lighting.
Fluorescent techniques
All fluorescent penetrant inspection procedures require a minimum level of UV-A illumination for
inspection. Below this level the fluorescence of indications will be insufficient for reliable defect detection.
Indications are viewed under darkened conditions with the operator viewing bright indications against a
dark background. A ‘warm-up’ time should be allowed before using the UV lamp. Increased white light
level will reduce the contrast. The normal required viewing conditions are:
 UV-A: > 1000 µW/cm2 (according to EN ISO 3452-1 and ASTM E 1417).
 Visible light: < 20 lx (according to EN ISO 3452-1).
< 2 fc (according to ASTM E 1417).
Some specifications also require a maximum UV-A level to avoid a glare of the inspector and/or
degradation of fluorescent material. (e.g. EN ISO 3059 (NDT – Penetrant and Magnetic Particle Inspection
viewing conditions), recommends generally not more than 5000 µW/cm2).
Vision aids
Inspectors must have their visual acuity and colour perception checked on an annual basis. Regular
glasses or contact lenses may be used; photo sensitive/photo-chromatic spectacles must NOT be
worn.
Adaptation time for the inspector’s eyes to adjust to the darkened inspection area is needed when using
UV light. The minimum required length of time varies depending on the applied specification but is
typically 5 minutes although shorter times may be specified.
NDT30P 62 90217
Inspection
Inspection and viewing aids must be treated with caution. Hand magnifiers are useful, especially to
distinguish between scratches, dents and cracks but should not be too powerful, 8x magnification being
about the maximum. Illuminated magnifiers, having either miniature UV-A lamps or bulbs, as
appropriate, are also useful. For restricted access, particularly when using penetrants as leak detectors,
cold light endoscopes might be considered which can be bought with a UV-A light box.
10.2 Forming of indications
As a result of the penetrant testing process, an indication may be formed on the surface around the
opening of a discontinuity. The size and shape of the indication is influenced mainly by the shape of the
discontinuity surface opening and by the volume of entrapped penetrant. It means that the non-linear
indications do not necessarily relate to non-linear imperfections.
Figure 26: Forming of indications over time.
Acceptance criteria are usually based on size and shape of the indication with the type of related defect
not usually considered (the only exceptions being indications of cracks, which are usually evaluated
strictly regardless of the shape of their indications. Crack tips act as a stress concentration and are
therefore more likely to propagate and cause in-service failure when compared to rounded or volumetric
flaws/defects such as pores. Therefore, where possible, parts should be initially inspected as soon as the
developing time starts (i.e. after the developer has dried) as well as during development time to
determine if it has a linear (crack like) or non-linear shape.
The final inspection must take place as soon as the development time elapses. At this stage the
dimensions of the indication are measured. If the developing time is exceeded, indications may grow for
longer affecting the inspection results.17
17 Evaluation may also be done on the basis of the defect size. In such case the developer shall be removed and any discontinuities are measured under
visible light. This approach was used by former US military standards, where it was adapted to some aerospace specifications, and is also reflected by
some current US standards.
NDT30P 63 90217
Inspection
10.3 Types of indications
10.3.1 Indication types according to their relevance
 Relevant: Real indication related to a discontinuity (e.g. crack).
 Non-relevant: Indication which is not related to a discontinuity but is caused by the character of the
material (e.g. indication of thread root).
 False (spurious): Surface artefacts appearing like genuine faults (e.g. brush hair).
Figure 27: Relevant indication of crack (left); non-relevant indication of surface roughness (middle) and false
indication caused by insufficient pre-cleaning (right). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
10.3.2 Indication types according to their shape
Non-linear (rounded) indications
Indications with length 𝑙 smaller than or equal three times the width 𝑤 (𝑙 ≤ 3𝑤 ) are usually considered to
be non-linear.18 Length is the largest size of indication and width is perpendicular dimension to it.
Figure 28: Examples of non-linear indications.
Linear indications
Indications which cannot be considered as non-linear are designated as linear for evaluation purposes.
18 This rule may vary. Applicable acceptance standard shall be referred to for relevant information.
NDT30P 64 90217
Inspection
Figure 29: Examples of linear indications.
The size of the visible indication may be related to the length of the discontinuity but it is not possible
to assess a depth of discontinuity from the indication size.
10.3.3 Indication types according to their mutual arrangement
The severity of the discontinuity may vary if it is isolated, in a cluster or aligned with others of the same
type. Both non-linear and linear indications may be characterised accordingly:
 Isolated: Indication visibly separate from other indications.
 Clustered: Area where density of indications is visibly higher. This area may be defined by an
outline.
 Randomly distributed: With no pattern of organisation.
Figure 30: Isolated and clustered indications on background of randomly distributed indications.
Aligned indications
A typical aligned distribution of indications is formed when lack of fusion in a weld is followed by aligned
porosity. According to the definition given by the ASME code, these indications need to touch a line
parallel to the axes of the weld.
Figure 31: Aligned indications.
With components indications may be aligned to any curve on the test surface. A minimum amount of
indications is needed (2 or 3 indications in a line is considered to be coincidence rather than forming a
pattern).
NDT30P 65 90217
Inspection
Non-linear indications are more likely to be aligned. Evaluated acceptance criteria are usually compared
with the sum of the indication lengths along the defined length of line (spaces between indications are
excluded).
Intermittent indications
Aligned linear indications could be assumed to originate from a series of separate defects, such as cracks.
However, it is more likely that it is one discontinuity bleeding out intermittently (which may be partially
closed/smeared or it may contain a contaminant which will not allow bleed out along the whole length of
the defect).
Figure 32: Intermittent linear indication.
Acceptance standard may apply special rules when intermittent indications are evaluated (e.g. any
adjacent indications separated by less than the major dimension of the smaller indication shall be
assessed as a single, continuous indication and its size includes length of both indications as well as the
distance between them).
Evaluation standards may also apply a similar approach to non-linear indications (e.g. clusters).
10.4 Recording level (threshold)
Some manufacturing processes produce a rough surface or with a high level of surface porosity. In many
cases this is accepted because the final product offers good mechanical properties for its specific
application. If penetrant testing is used for the detection of fine defects on such materials, then
compensating for an unfavourable surface condition by using low sensitivity penetrant is not a good
choice.
Figure 33: Larger indication on background porosity which is not registered (aluminium casting,
cold chamber technology). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
Penetrant testing will, in this case, produce a large number of indications of background porosity and
between them larger indications of discontinuities may be detected. In order to allow practical evaluation
of the test, a minimum detection threshold shall be determined.
This means that indications with a smaller than specified dimension are regarded as the normal surface
condition and are not considered as reportable during evaluation. This approach is included in most of the
acceptance standards and can be used for evaluation of components and weldments.
NDT30P 66 90217
Inspection
10.5 Wipe-off technique
If the results of penetrant testing cannot be interpreted (e.g. due to excessive background indications)
then the whole part shall be re-processed starting with pre-cleaning. If the nature of the indication
(relevant, non-relevant or spurious) cannot be clearly determined, it is possible to use the wipe-off
technique. This means the removal and direct reapplication of the developer to the diagnostic area.
Once applied, the developer draws out some of the penetrant entrapped in the discontinuity. If the
developer is removed and re-applied, the new indication will be smaller than the original. Therefore this
technique may be used only once and if any further re-examination is necessary, the part shall be re-
processed completely (starting with pre-cleaning).
The size of the indication (for comparison with the acceptance criteria) shall be measured on the original
indication dimensions.
The best practice is to wipe off the developer from the test area by using a single wipe with a lint-free
cloth, cotton buds or fine brush moistened in solvent or acetone. If a linear indication is to be re-assessed
then it shall be wiped off in the perpendicular direction. Solvent-based developer is then normally used
because of its high sensitivity. The details of a re-inspection may be specified by the relevant standards
or specifications and the process is usually subject to agreement between contracting parties.
Figure 34: Wipe-off technique used for verification of indication type (fluorescent penetrant wiped off
using a brush and acetone). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
NDT30P 67 90217
Inspection
Figure 35: Wipe-off technique used for verification of indication nature (colour contrast penetrant
wiped off using a lint free cloth and remover). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
NDT30P 68 90217
Inspection
10.6 Examples of Penetrant Indications of weld defects
a) Toe crack indication. b) Toe crack/lack of fusion (intermittent indication).
c) Four linear indications of transverse crack. d) Lack of fusion – non-linear indication.
e) Branching cracks indication. f) Chevron cracks indication.
g) Centreline (branching) crack – linear indication. h) Centreline crack – non-linear indication.
i) End crater pipe – non-linear indication. j) End crater crack – linear indication.
Figure 36: Examples of indications of weld defects (penetrant type II). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
NDT30P 69 90217
Inspection
10.7 Examples of Penetrant Indications of various engineering components
a) Rounded indication of clustered porosity. b) Rounded indication caused by linear defect.

Pin, production defect. Shrinkage in car brake disc – production defect.
c) Crack indication. d) Indication of crack (cross-section of interfaces).

Aircraft wheel – in-service defect. Flywheel – in-service defect.
e) Aligned indication (inclusions). f) Net of linear indications.

Extruded pipe semi-product – production defect. Hard chromium plating – production defect.
g) Intermittent indication of crack on heavy h) Linear indication of shrinkage.

background of random porosity. Inconel casting – production defect.
Cold chamber casting – production defect.
Figure 37: Examples of indications on components (penetrant type I). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
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Inspection
51. Rounded aligned indications may be 56. If penetrant system I A d is used the
caused by: indication will be:
a) Random porosity. a) Red on white background.

b) Cracks. b) Yellow-green on dark blue-violet
c) Laps. background.
d) Both b) and/or c). c) Red on dark blue-violet background.
d) Yellow-green on white background.
52. A spurious indication may be caused
by: 57. An indication shall be measured (for
acceptance):
a) Discontinuity.
b) Thread. a) At the beginning of development time.
c) Droplets of washing water. b) During the development time.
d) Both b) and c). c) Just after development time has elapsed
d) Any time.
53. Tight or contaminated crack may
produce: 58. What cannot be determined from an
indication (under any circumstances)?
a) No indication.
b) A linear indication. a) Discontinuity character (e.g. crack).
c) An intermittent indication. b) Discontinuity length.
d) All of the above. c) Discontinuity depth.
d) Both a) and c) cannot be determined.
54. A non-linear indication may be caused
by: 59. Acceptance may be assessed on the
basis of:
a) A single pore.
b) A cluster of pores. a) Indication size.
c) An end crater crack. b) Discontinuity size.
d) All of the above. c) Type of discontinuity.
d) All may be correct.
55. The wipe-off technique may be used
when: 60. Which of the following indications
represents the highest severity level?
a) Poor test performance results in a high
background. a) Non-linear.
b) The indication is too big. b) Linear.
c) The operator is not sure about the c) Aligned.
nature of the indication (spurious or d) It depends on the size of indication and
relevant). its position.
d) Both a) and c).
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Inspection
Illustrative photo: PSM 5 panel ready to be replaced. Chromium plated area was damaged by thermal shock caused
by improper handling. Penetrant system I E d (Fluorescent penetrant with water and solvent
excess penetrant remover and solvent based (non-aqueous) developer).
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Reference Blocks and Test Panels
11 Reference Blocks and Test Panels
A wide range of reference blocks, test panels and special measurement devices are used by Test
Laboratories. This chapter describes those which are the most common in practice.
11.1 Reference block type 1
EN ISO 3452-3 specifies reference block type 1, which may be used to determine the sensitivity levels of
penetrant product families and when penetrant material is to be classified, or to compare sensitivity of
different penetrants.
Type 1 reference block consists of four hard nickel-chromium plating panels with typical dimensions
100 x 35 mm and 2 mm thickness (see Figure 38 below). Panels differ by thickness of plating (i.e. 10;
20; 30 and 50 µm). Transverse cracks are made by stretching the panels in the longitudinal direction.
The width–depth ratio of the crack is specified to be approximately 1:20.19
These panels are dedicated for penetrant sensitivity determination. Using a set of blocks with different
plating thickness the pattern of cracks on different plating thickness blocks may vary.
Figure 38: Reference blocks type 1. Set of four different plates. Penetrant system I B a (Fluorescent Penetrant with
post emulsifiable (lipophilic) penetrant remover and dry powder developer). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
Determination of sensitivity as described in EN ISO 3452 is rarely used (EN ISO standards adopted the
US approach to determine the sensitivity of fluorescent penetrants by comparison with reference
materials). Nowadays these panels are used to compare sensitivity of two different penetrants. In this
19 Statement, that penetrant testing is able to detect cracks of width 0.5 µm is based on fact that plating thickness is 10 µm and width to depth ratio 1:20,
(width of the crack is 0.5 µm).
NDT30P 73 90217
case usage of a twin set of the same panels exhibiting similar pattern of cracks, would be advantageous
(see Figure 39 below).
Figure 39: Reference blocks type 1 used as twin set for comparison of penetrants (more sensitive penetrant
was used on block above). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
11.2 PSM 5 panel
The Penetrant System Monitoring panel (so called PSM 5 panel) provides a quick means of determining
the effectiveness of both fluorescent and colour contrast visible penetrant inspection systems. The panel
(see Figure 40) contains five artificially produced cracks. It is also known as TAM panel (Testing and
Monitoring panel).20
The test panels are made of stainless steel plate (ca. 100 x 150 mm, thickness 2.2 mm). The testing
surface comprises a strip of heavy chrome plating, and an area sand blasted to a uniformly roughened
surface finish of Roughness Average Ra ≤ 2 μm.
The chrome plated area contains five evenly spaced star crack patterns progressively smaller from the
top edge (see Figure 40 below). The largest crack is visible with low sensitivity penetrant and the
smallest is difficult to detect even with the highest sensitivity penetrant.
The cracks are usually produced by an indenter, which impacts from the reverse surface with different
levels of applied force. According to information provided by manufacturers, the star crack areas have
dimensions that are approximately:
20 Sometimes denotation ‘TAM 146040’ is used which refers to number of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft drawing which specifies the details of this panel.
NDT30P 74 90217
Table 2: Typical dimensions of cracked areas of PSM 5 panel.
Cracked area Largest Smallest
Size [mm] 6.35 3.97 2.38 1.59 0.79
Size [in.] 1/4 5/32 3/32 1/16 1/32
No two test panels have identical crack patterns due to the way they are produced.
This panel is the most commonly used for penetrant system performance checks as the cracked area is
suitable for verification of the system performance while the grit blasted area is suitable for evaluating
residual penetrant background characteristics related to remover efficiency.
Figure 40: PSM 5 panel processed with penetrant system I A d (fluorescent, water washable penetrant and solvent
based (non aqueous) developer. Result: 5/5 stars. Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
It may also be used for comparison of penetrant sensitivity, in which case the use of twin panels may be
an advantage).
11.3 Reference block type 2
EN ISO 3452-3 describes a reference block type 2 which is an alternative to PSM 5 panel and is used for
routine assessment of the performance of both fluorescent and colour contrast penetrant testing.
The type 2 reference block is again made of stainless steel plate (ca. 50 x 155 mm, thickness 2.5 mm).
The testing surface comprises an area of heavy chrome plating and an area with four faces of different
roughness (Ra = 2.5; 5; 10 and 15 μm).
NDT30P 75 90217
The chrome plated area contains five evenly spaced star crack patterns each of which is progressively
smaller than the previous when starting at the left edge (see Figure 41 below). The cracks are produced
by an indenter which impacts from the reverse surface with each with different force. EN ISO 3452-3
standard specifies the crack area dimensions as follows:
Table 3: Typical dimensions of cracked areas of reference block type 2.
Cracked area Largest Smallest
Size [mm] 5.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
No two test panels have identical crack patterns due to the way they are produced.
This panel is the most commonly used for penetrant system performance checking as the cracked area is
suitable for verification of system performance while the grit blasted area is suitable for evaluating
residual penetrant background characteristics.
Figure 41: Reference block type 2 processed with penetrant system I A d (fluorescent water washable penetrant with
solvent based non-aqueous developer). Result: 5/5 stars. Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
11.4 Liquid penetrant comparator block
The liquid penetrant comparator (more commonly known as ASME block or Aluminium block) is another
test block which may be used for comparison of sensitivity.
This test block is manufactured from 75 x 50 x 10 mm aluminium alloy block quenched from about
520 °C in water. If quenching is performed correctly, it results in numerous quenching cracks. The size
and pattern of cracks may vary between test blocks.
Unlike other test blocks, once penetrant enters a crack in aluminium block it is very difficult to wash it
out due to geometrically complicated shape of natural quenching cracks (compared to these produced
under artificially controlled conditions in chromium plating of other types of test panels). Therefore
aluminium blocks are considered to be for single use (or very low number of uses). This disadvantage is
NDT30P 76 90217
compensated by fact that their manufacturing is said to be relatively simple. Detailed procedures are
provided by ASME V/6 (appendix III) or EN ISO 3452-5.21
The aluminium test block may be used for comparison of penetrant material sensitivity. In such case
different materials are applied to opposite halves of block (see Figure 42 below).
Figure 42: Aluminium test block used for comparison of different penetrants. Penetrant system I A d.
Higher sensitivity penetrant applied on the right side. Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
It can be also used to determine penetrant dwell time if the test is to be carried out at low ambient
temperature. In this case one part of the block should be tested at normal ambient temperature (with
standard dwell time) and the other half should be tested at low temperature. Because aluminium is a
good thermal conductor, it is necessary to break/cut the test panel into two pieces. With respect to the
fact that this test block is not designed for multiple uses, splitting the blocks has no economical penalty.
21 Regardless of the fact that the manufacturing procedure is well detailed and simple in principle, it is not so easy to produce this block in practice.
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Process Control Checks
12 Process Control Checks
When colour contrast portable kits (II C e systems, i.e. colour contrast solvent removable penetrant used
with solvent based, non-aqueous developer) are used, penetrant testing may be considered as one of the
simplest NDT methods requiring no special calibration checks. All penetrant materials are applied from
aerosol containers so there is no chance to re-use them, as total loss is guaranteed. The only thing which
must be controlled is working within the material expiry date and adhering to the correct viewing
conditions.
When using manual fluorescent penetrant processes and where post-emulsifiable penetrants are used, a
greater quality assurance/quality control level is required. In this case a complicated system of process
control tests and checks and the calibration of the many units of equipment are required.
As in other areas of penetrant testing, this field is also governed by quality standards. Two of the most
important standards are:
 EN ISO 3452-2 which is focused on the testing of penetrant materials.
 ASTM E 1417 which describes the number and type of system tests.
A detailed description of all of the tests can be found in the above referenced standards. Many of these
tests need only to be performed occasionally. They will need special equipment and most of PT Level 2
technicians will never need to use them.
The following text describes only selected common tests which PT Level 2 personnel should know how to
perform.
12.1 Overall system performance check
A penetrant testing system is comprised of penetrant materials which, together with process parameters
determine the system sensitivity. The best system performance may be expected when the process is
originally set up, as all materials are new and all equipment recently calibrated. Under these conditions
the highest sensitivity can be achieved. The task for PT Level 2 personnel is to monitor for any system
sensitivity change over time at a pre-determined frequency and to report any unacceptable deterioration
in system sensitivity.
The system performance test is designed to check if the system sensitivity is stable over time. It will
indicate a change in system sensitivity, but will not tell which parameter is the source of possible
malfunction or deterioration.
Sensitivity is defined as the ability to detect the discontinuity of the required size. Therefore in order to
check sensitivity level an item with a discontinuity shall be processed through the whole penetrant
system. Resulting test indication(s) are then evaluated. In theory any component item with a known and
relevant discontinuity may be used as a comparison reference block. Ideally it will be a component which
is tested using the system to be assessed on a regular basis. This comparison component block should
contain a critical discontinuity(s), i.e. to include a discontinuity that is ‘borderline’ not acceptable).
NDT30P 78 90217
An NDT laboratory usually tests more than one type of component and acceptance criteria vary. So to
find a number of various components with natural defects of critical size is practically impossible.
Therefore in practice artificial reference blocks are used. The PSM 5 panels or reference block type 2 are
suitable for this purpose. The presumption is that the block or panel is well maintained, and clean prior to
use (manufacturers recommendation regarding cleaning and storing shall be followed).22
The reference block shall be tested initially, when the penetrant system is supposed to be in optimal
condition. The result shall be documented and recorded. Assuming that the result of the initial test shows
that four of the five stars were visible (4/5), then this shall be documented with a reference photograph
(in colour and scale 1:1) because it is not only the number of stars visible but also their appearance,
brightness etc. which is to be compared.
Any deviation is not acceptable, not only when an actual test shows fewer indications, but also if more
indications are visible in which case it will be for the NDT PT Level 3 Technician to investigate and
determine the reason for this. All production testing shall be stopped until the system is made good and
able to perform to the required standard. Additionally all items tested since the last acceptable
performance check result shall be retested (that is why this test is done at the beginning of each shift).
a) Reference image. b) Actual result.
Figure 43: Comparison of master photograph (5/5) with actual result of test (3/5). Poor result is caused by
too long emulsification time (90 instead of 3 seconds). Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.
22 Keeping reference blocks may be very demanding, especially when aerospace parts are to be tested during production. Standards or manufacturer
recommendations but mainly aerospace procedures and audit criteria determine the best practice.
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Note that the number of indications visible on a PSM 5 panel is determined by the whole system. If
penetrant with sensitivity level 3 is used in combination with an inappropriate method of excess
penetrant removal and with low sensitivity developer, good performance test results would hardly be
expected. It means that any agreement between penetrant sensitivity level and number of stars required
is unintentional only.
PSM 5 or type 2 reference block
The selection of a reference block depends mainly on the applicable standard. The PSM 5 panel is more
common in industry but in many cases a type 2 reference block may be accepted as well. Once the
master requirement for performance is determined the reference blocks must not be interchanged.
Let’s assume a case: PSM 5 panel was used initially and system performance was set to 4/5. This means
that on PSM 5 panel a star (with dimension of 1.59 mm) must be visible. By simple comparison of star
sizes on PSM 5 and type 2 panel we can reach the conclusion, that reference block type 2 does not offer
the equivalently small artificial defect and therefore cannot be used.
Table 4: Comparison of cracked area sizes [mm] of PSM 5 panel and reference block type 2.
PSM 5 6.35 3.97 2.38 1.59 0.79
Type 2 --- 5.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 ---
Additionally the appearance of cracks is different due to different manufacturing processes used for panel
production (see Figure 44).
Figure 44: Comparison of the biggest star cracks on PSM 5 (left) and type 2 block (right).
The reference blocks differ not only by size of indications but also by its appearance (i.e. definition) and
therefore their mutual interchange is not recommended.
12.2 Measuring emulsifier concentration using a refractometer
The refractometer (see Figure 45) is a multi-purpose device which can be used to measure the
concentration of any solution. Traditionally it is used to measure the concertation of sugar in juice. In
such cases the reading is in Brix degree units [°Bx]. In penetrant testing it is usually used for measuring
concentration of hydrophilic emulsifier (but may be used for any solution). It works on the basis of Snell’s
law. A thin layer of liquid is applied on the input window. The light beam passes through the liquid and is
refracted at the optical boundaries. Concentration of the liquid affects the refraction angle and thus the
final reading.
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Figure 45: Function of refractometer.
It is obvious that due to this versatility a reading is not given directly as a percentage of solution. In
order to determine the concentration of the emulsifier, it is first necessary to convert the refractometer
reading to the correct units of concentration. For this purpose a calibration curve shall be prepared (one
for each solution to be measured – see Figure 46).
Figure 46: Calibration curve for refractometer.
When the concentration of emulsifier is to be measured, a value of the refractometer readout is

converted using the calibration curve to obtain real concentration value.
12.3 Viewing conditions – visible light
When using the colour contrast penetrant system the illumination of the tested surface shall be measured
using a light meter (also known as lux meter), which is properly calibrated for this purpose.
The light meter probe must be placed on the tested surface regardless of the distance from the light
source. The level of illumination depends on the intensity of the source, the distance from the source but
also on the angle under which the light is incident to the test surface. It can be calculated according to
equation (4).
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I ∙ cos 𝜑
𝐸= (4)
𝑎2
Where: 𝐸 = intensity of illumination in lux [lx] 𝐼 = source output in candelas [Cd]
𝜑 = angle of light incidence [°] 𝑎 = source to surface distance [m]
For a correct reading, a lux meter probe must be aligned with the surface in respect of the above
mentioned law. If the probe is tilted towards the light source the reading will be incorrect and the
measurement invalid.
Figure 47: Correct placement of light meter probe on tested surface.
12.3.1 SI units vs. customary units
European and international standards recommends to measure intensity of illumination SI unit ‘lux’ [lx].
A lux has a dimension [Cd/m2].
The US standards on the other hand prefer customary units – minimum intensity of illumination is to be
measured in foot candelas units [fc] (candelas per square foot). After unit conversion it is possible to say
that:
1 𝑓𝑐 = 10.76 𝑙𝑥 (5)
For convenient of staff who is used to work with SI units the US standards (ASME code, ASTM, …) usually
provide a required intensity of illumination in both SI and customary units. The following example
demonstrates why provided information must be handled carefully.
Example 4:
A PT inspection is to be carried out in accordance with ASME code V/6 using colour contrast penetrant.
Relevant paragraph of code stipulates that ‘a minimum light intensity of 100 fc (1000 lx) is required on
the surface’.
If the job is carried out by technician who is used to work with SI units, the value of (1000 lx) will be
most probably used as criteria in this case and in the unfortunate case may happen that an actual
intensity of 1005 lx is recorded on the report.
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From equation (5) outcomes that 100 fc = 1076 lx. In order to avoind any doublts outcomming form this
discrepancy US standards usually states that ‘The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as
the standard. SI units are provided for information only’.
From this point of view shall be recorded intensity of illumination (1005 lx) considered as insufficient. The
chance that such non-conformance will be revealed by inspector is relatively high.
12.4 Viewing conditions – UV-A light
If illumination intensity of UV-A light is to be measured all the rules above mentioned for visible light
apply, except the requirement for probe to source distance.
UV-A light sources (especially mercury vapour lamps) usually have a limited output which additionally
tends to decrease over time (slowly, but constantly). To monitor this, a constant source to probe distance
is required by most standards. Typically it is 400 mm (EN ISO) or according to ASTM, 381 mm (15 in.).
This measurement does not need to be done on tested surface – usually it is done separately, before
inspection. To keep the above mentioned distance a tool (e.g. stick of required length) may be used.
Consequently when inspection takes place, a PT Level 2 must ensure that the required viewing conditions
are met on the surface under inspection.
When viewing under UV-A light the background level of visible light shall also be monitored. A maximum
limit is usually 20 lx (or 2 fc). This counts contributions of all light sources together:
 Visible light leaking from the outside to the inspection area.
 Visible light emitted by the UV-A source.
 Visible light emitted due to the material fluorescing at the inspection area.
 Any other source (e.g. display of MP3 player or mobile phone).
When the background illumination is measured all possible light sources shall be switched on (including
UV-A lamp).
12.5 Dry developer contamination check
In a dust storm chamber the developer is agitated by a propeller to produce a dust cloud which may
consequently settle on the tested parts. As developing time elapses the parts are covered by a thin layer
of developer with local build-ups which must be carefully removed by tapping or blowing. Removed
powder may be reused.
During the development time there is high chance the dry powder developer grains will absorb the
penetrant.23 In such case a contaminated developer may be re-applied to a new component and create
spurious false indications.
23 The capillary action encouraged by developer is caused due to absorption as well as adsorption process. This means that penetrant is entering not only
spaces between the developer grains but also the grain by itself so once a grain of developer is exposed to penetrant it becomes contaminated (and in
case of fluorescent penetrant will be fluorescing). Contamination of developer cannot be removed – the developer needs to be replaced.
NDT30P 83 90217
The dry powder shall be checked regularly to ensure it is:
 Fluffy and not caked.
 Not contaminated.
Consistency check
Powder condition is checked visually – inside the chamber (sufficient visible light is required) and any
evidence of baking or the presence of moisture (see Figure 48) is not acceptable and the developer shall
be replaced.
Figure 48: Crumbled bits on test panel with circle as an evidence of moist developer.
Contamination check
A contamination check is a process check. A test panel made of plate with a circle of 101.6 mm (4 in.)
diameter shall be processed in dust storm chamber. The test panel must be clean and dry before being
put into the dust storm chamber (with no penetrant) so the only indication which may occur will be
caused by contaminated developer.
The result is viewed under UV-A light (same conditions as specified for inspection). Standard
ASTM E 1417 specifies that ten (10) or more specks of contaminated developer are not acceptable. If
such condition is observed the developer shall be replenished or replaced.
NDT30P 84 90217
Figure 49: Test panel showing seven fluorescence specs in a circle – acceptable result. Reproduced courtesy of Michal
Skerik.
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Documentation of a Penetrant Testing Process
13 Documentation of a Penetrant Testing Process
Penetrant testing process is regulated by national and international standards. As not all requirements of
standards are applicable to a testing within a company, it is common, that the NDT laboratory has its
own Written Procedure for penetrant testing (based on the applicable standards).
A written procedure usually covers all PT operations in the laboratory and/or on site. Where detailed
instructions for the testing of a limited group of similar parts is needed, then a Written Instruction is
prepared based on the above referenced procedures and national and international standards.
Another kind of document is the test report. While a written instruction stipulates how the test will be
done, the report describes how it was done.
13.1 Written instruction
The written instruction is a document, which shall contain all the important information needed for
completing the inspection: all testing parameters, acceptance criteria and other relevant details. This
information is usually listed in full detail or less frequently an alternative document is referenced.
Specific details that may be included in the written instruction are:
 Title of written instruction.
 Description of components (including sketch/drawing if relevant) including scope of tested

components, materials and surface condition.
 Scope detailing general requirements of the test (e.g. colour contrast or fluorescent,
solvent-removable or water-washable penetrant; post-emulsifier).
 Reference documents (e.g. codes, standards, client requirements).
 Personnel responsibilities and required qualifications.
 Technique procedure, equipment and settings (if applicable), initial pre-cleaning and surface
condition/preparation, drying, test temperature, penetrant system – application, penetrant removal,
type of developer used, post cleaning and inspection details.
 Applicable standards and codes.
 Examination details, diagnostic area and overlap. Application of penetrant, excess penetrant removal
and developer, temperature limits and viewing conditions.
 Interpretation of results and evaluation of indications against the acceptance criteria with a sketch
showing the positions of indications if required.
 Requirements on test reporting.
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13.2 Test report
The test report will normally include an assessment of the condition of the component against the
specified acceptance criteria.24
A detailed test report will normally be produced for each item under test and will cover all of the
parameters that affect the quality and integrity of the test as laid out in the written instruction.
Alternatively more items may be reported together as a batch.
 Component details will include the material, form (i.e. weld, forging etc.), dimensions, surface
condition and heat treatment.
 Test Material details will include penetrant, excess penetrant remover and developer (and including
the batch number for each material).
 Procedure details will include test temperature, pre-cleaning, drying, penetration time, applicable
standard(s) and any deviations.
 Test Result details will include date of test, location, evaluation - accept/reject.
 Test House details will include name, supervision and personnel qualifications (according to EN ISO
9712).
A test report may contain documentation of revealed indications. According to EN ISO 3452-1 this may
be done using:
 Written description.
 Sketch.
 Photograph.
Photographs are the most common.
A PT Level 2 candidate is required to draft a simple written instruction as well as a test report. Both these
tasks are usually part of a practical exam.25
24 The decision whether to accept (or reject) a tested item is normal part of NDT reports. Some exception from this rule exists e.g. when NDT is done on
aircraft (in-service aerospace inspection) the responsibility for acceptance is transferred to engineering division. In most general cases (aerospace
manufacturing including) it is NDT Level 2 who must decide about acceptance.
25 Please note that documents drafted under exam conditions may be (are) different than those used in practice.
NDT30P 87 90217
13.3 Review questions (chapters 11 – 13)
66. UV-A light intensity is usually

61. Penetrant system performance is
measured:
usually checked using:
a) On the inspected surface.

a) Reference block type 1.
b) At given distance from source.
b) Reference block type 2.
c) At any distance from source.
c) PSM 5 panel.
d) Both a) and b).
d) Both b) and c).
67. A part is inspected under UV light

62. The sensitivity of penetrants may be
according to EN ISO 3452-1. Which
compared using:
viewing conditions are acceptable?

a) 2700 µW/cm2 and 8 lx.
b) Aluminium block.
b) 5200 µW/cm2 and 29 lx.
c) PSM 5 panel.
c) 700 µW/cm2 and 1.6 lx.
d) All of the above.
d) Both a) and b).
63. Wash ability of penetrant may be

68. Which detail is usually NOT mentioned
demonstrated on:
by written instruction?

a) Penetrant dwell time.
b) Penetrant batch number.
c) PSM 5 panel.
c) Penetrant type.
d) Both b) and c).
d) All are usually mentioned.
64. Which test block was designed to be

69. Penetrant system ‘II C e’ has to be
used for determination of penetrant
used. Which parameter is not
sensitivity? acceptable?
a) Penetrant dwell time 7 minutes.

b) Developer time 50 minutes.
c) Temperature 7 °C.
c) PSM 5 panel.
d) All may be acceptable, it depends on the
d) Both b) and c).
specification.
65. When the performance of a system is

70. If an aerosol container is used, what is
verified indications are compared by:
usually required?
a) Number. a) Determine penetrant sensitivity level

b) Brightness. using reference block type 1.
c) Appearance. b) Check the system performance (PSM 5).
d) All of the above. c) Check the expiry date.
d) All of the above mentioned is common.
NDT30P 88 90217
Illustrative photo: Fatigue cracks, aerospace brake system (I A d; sensitivity level 3).
NDT30P 89 90217
NDT30P 90 90217
Correct Answers
14 Correct Answers
Chapters 1 – 3 Chapters 4 – 5 Chapters 6 – 7 Chapter 8
1 D 11 D 21 D 31 B
2 B 12 B 22 D 32 A
3 D 13 C 23 B 33 B
4 D 14 C 24 A 34 B
5 C 15 D 25 B 35 A
6 A 16 D 26 D 36 B
7 C 17 D 27 C 37 B
8 D 18 B 28 D 38 C
9 C 19 C 29 C 39 C
10 D 20 D 30 A 40 D
Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapters 11 – 13
41 B 51 D 61 D
42 C 52 C 62 D
43 D 53 D 63 D
44 C 54 D 64 A
45 A 55 C 65 D
46 B 56 B 66 B
47 C 57 C 67 A
48 C 58 C 68 B
49 D 59 D 69 D
50 C 60 D 70 C
NDT30P 91 90217
References
15 References
EN ISO and BS Standards
[1] EN 1371-1. Founding – Liquid Penetrant Inspection. Part 1: Sand, Gravity and low pressure Die
Casting. Brussels: European Committee for Standardisation, 2011. 30 p.
[2] EN 1371-2. Founding – Liquid Penetrant Inspection. Part 2: Investment Casting. Brussels:
European Committee for Standardisation, 2011. 24 p.
[3] EN 4179 Aerospace Series. Qualification and approval of personnel for Non-destructive testing.
Brussels: European Committee for Standardisation, 2017. 34 p.
[4] EN 10228-2. Non-Destructive Testing of Steel Forgings. Part 2: Penetrant Testing. Brussels:
[5] EN ISO 3059. Non-destructive testing – Penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing –
Viewing conditions. Geneva: International Organisation for standardisation, 2012. 14 p.
[6] EN ISO 3452-1. Non-Destructive Testing – Penetrant Testing. Part 1: General Principles.
Geneva: International Organisation for standardisation, 2013. 34 p.
[7] EN ISO 3452-2. Non-Destructive Testing – Penetrant Testing. Part 2: Testing of penetrant
materials. Geneva: International Organisation for standardisation, 2013. 34 p.
[8] EN ISO 3452-3. Non-Destructive Testing – Penetrant Testing. Part 3: Reference test blocks.
Geneva: International Organisation for standardisation, 2013. 16 p.
[9] EN ISO 3452-4. Non-Destructive Testing – Penetrant Testing. Part 4: Equipment. Geneva:
International Organisation for standardisation, 1999. 12 p.
[10] EN ISO 3452-5. Non-Destructive Testing – Penetrant Testing. Part 5: Penetrant testing at
temperatures higher than 50 degrees C. Geneva: International Organisation for standardisation,
2008. 12 p.
[11] EN ISO 3452-6. Non-Destructive Testing – Penetrant Testing. Part 6: Penetrant testing at
temperatures lower than 10 °C. Geneva: International Organisation for standardisation, 2008.
16 p.
[12] EN ISO 9712. Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of NDT personnel. Geneva:
International Organisation for standardisation, 2012. 42 p.
[13] EN ISO 12706. Non-destructive testing – Penetrant testing – Vocabulary. Geneva: International
Organisation for standardisation, 2009. 18 p.
[14] EN ISO 23277. Non-destructive testing of welds – Penetrant testing of welds – Acceptance
levels. Geneva: International Organisation for standardisation, 2015. 14 p.
[15] CEN ISO/TR 25107 Non-destructive testing. Guidelines for NDT training syllabuses. Brussels:
[16] CEN/TR16638. Non-destructive testing—Penetrant and magnetic particle testing using blue
light. Brussels: European Committee for Standardisation, 2014. 20 p.
[17] M 39. Method of penetrant inspection of aerospace materials and components. London: British
Standards Institution, 1972. 12 p.
NDT30P 92 90217
References
US Standards and Codes
[18] ASTM Book of Standards, Volume 03.03: Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures:
Nondestructive Testing. West Conshohocken: ASTM International, 2016. ISBN: 9780803187290.
[19] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V. New York: ASME, 2015.
Other relevant documents
[20] Liquid Penetrant and Magnetic Particle Testing at Level 2, Training Course Series No.11.
Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency. 2000, 300 p. IAEA-TCS-11.
[21] Training guidelines in non-destructive testing techniques. Vienna: International Atomic

Energy Agency. 2002, 314 p. IAEA-TECDOC-628.
[22] Lovejoy, M.J. Penetrant Testing. A practical guide. New York: Springer Publishing Company
1991, 236 p. ISBN 978-0-412-38700-5.
[23] ASNT Non-destructive Testing Handbook, Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT). Vol.2, 3rd Ed.
Columbus: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1999. 493 p. ISBN 1-57117-028-6.
[24] ASNT Liquid penetrant testing methods – Questions and Answers. Columbus: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1999. 493 p. ISBN 978-1-57117-100-9.
[25] Eick, C.W. ASNT Level III Study Guide – Liquid Penetrant Testing Method, 2nd edition
Columbus: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 206. 43 p. ISBN 978-1-57117-108-5.
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Glossary of Terms
16 Glossary of Terms
A
Adhesive force Intermolecular force which causes liquid resits to be separated from another material.
Aerosol Mixture of solid particles or liquid droplets in air or another gas.
Anti-coagulants Agents which prevent the separation and agglomeration of the dispersed phase from an
emulsion, dispersion or colloidal solution.
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
ASTM America Society for Testing and Materials.
B
Background General appearance of the surface on which indications are sought.
Batch Amount produced together during one manufacturing process.
Batch test Verification of batch material properties (related to properties of previous batch).
Black light See UV-A light.
Black light filter See UV-A light filter.
Bleed out The action of penetrant being drawn out from a discontinuity by the developer on to the
surface to form a visible indication.
C
Capillarity Phenomenon caused by surface tension resulting in the elevation or depression of the
surface of a liquid in contact with a solid.
Capillary action See capillarity.
Capillary elevation Capillary action resulting to elevation.
Carrier fluid Fluid which acts as a carrier for the active materials.
Carry-over of Transfer into the rinse tank of penetrant remaining on components.

penetrant
Cohesive force The intermolecular forces which cause a tendency of molecules in liquids to resist
separation.
Comparator test block Intentionally cracked metal block having two separate areas for the application of
different penetrants so that a direct comparison can be obtained.
Contact angle Angle at contact point of solid-liquid and liquid gas.
Contact time Time required for the penetrant to act on the test surface.
(Penetrant)
Contact time Time required for the developer to act on the test surface.
(Developer)
Contrast Difference in colour or brightness between two neighbouring points.
Corrosion inhibitor Substance that minimises corrosive attack.
COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health regulations 1988 (statutory instrument

No 1657). Part of Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 (enabling act).
D
Defect An imperfection bigger than the acceptance criteria.
Degreasing fluids Agents used to remove oil and grease from the surface of components before the
penetrant process.
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Glossary of Terms
Developer Substance with the ability to withdraw a penetrant retained in defects and provide a
contrasting background for the penetrant where required.
Development time Time when development is in progress, measured from when the developer on the
surface dries out.
Discontinuity A material imperfection.
Drag-out of penetrant Loss of penetrant from the tank as a result of carry-over.
Drainage time Time allowed for the drainage of applied fluids.
Dry developer Developer in the form of a fine dry powder.
Dust storm cabinet Device used for application of dry powder developer.
Dwell time See contact time.
Dye penetrant Penetrating liquid used for flaw detection, containing dyes intended for viewing in visible
light.
E
Electromagnetic Range of electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, UV radiation, IR radiation
spectrum X-ray etc.).
Electrostatic Where the component to be inspected is electrically grounded and the penetrant
application particles given a high positive charge to be attracted to the component when released
from the gun.
Emulsifiable Penetrants which may be removed by water (contains an emulsifier).

penetrants
Emulsifiers Liquids used to facilitate removal of excess penetrant by forming an emulsion during the
rinsing operation.
Emulsification Treatment of penetrants to render them water-washable.
Emulsification time Time in which the component treated with penetrant is in contact with the post-
emulsifier.
Emulsion Mixture of droplets of one liquid dispersed in another.
EN European Norm (standard).
Excessive background Unwanted colouration remaining after incomplete removal of a dye penetrant from the
colouration surface.
Excessive background Unwanted fluorescence remaining after incomplete removal of a fluorescent penetrant
fluorescence from the surface.
F
Family of penetrant Materials produced by one manufacturer intended to be used together.
materials
Flash point Temperature at which a liquid, heated in a Cleveland cup (open test) or
a Pensky-Martens apparatus (closed test), gives off sufficient vapour to flash
momentarily on the application of a small flame.
Flaw See discontinuity.
Fluorescent penetrants Penetrating fluids containing additives to give fluorescence under UV-A light.
Fluorescence Phenomenon when material absorbs energy of short wavelength radiation, exciting, and
consequently de-exciting while releasing excessive energy in the form of radiation with
longer wavelength.
H
Hydro-air nozzle Spray gun, mixing air with water (in order to reduce amount of spent water).
Hydrophilic emulsifiers Water-compatible removers used with standard penetrants which provide improved
NDT30P 95 90217
Glossary of Terms
control of the emulsification step and require different processing steps than standard
lipophilic emulsifiers.
I
Immersion Action when item is dipped (immersed) in liquid.
Immersion time Time during which components are submerged.
Imperfection See discontinuity.
Indication In PT a sign around a discontinuity formed by penetrant.
ISO International Organization for Standardization.
K
Kinetic penetrant See viscosity.
parameter
L
Lipophilic emulsifiers Oil-based emulsifiers.
LOX Liquid Oxygen.
Lux SI unit of luminance or illumination.
M
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet (see COSHH).
Monochromatic Containing only one wavelength.
N
NDT Non-destructive testing.
P
Penetrability Ability to penetrate discontinuity.
Penetrant Liquid which when applied to a material is designed to find its way into surface fissures
and remain there in detectable quantities during subsequent removal of excess
penetrant from the surface.
Penetrant material General term for penetrant, developer or any remover.
Penetrant material See family of penetrant material.

family
Penetrant system Penetrant materials used for testing according to specific procedure.
Penetrant remover Any means used to remove excess penetrant from the surface.
Penetrant system See reference pieces.

monitoring panel
Penetrant testing Process for detecting certain flaws open to the surface in materials by the application of
penetrant, removal of excess by a penetrant remover and if necessary the application of
a developer to produce an indication of the defect.
Penetration time Time allowed for the penetrant to be in contact with the material (see Contact Time)
Phosphorescence Specific type of fluorescence when the material doesn’t emit light immediately after
excitation, but later on.
Photo-chromatic Able to change transparency in relation to the intensity of impacting illumination.
Post-cleaning Cleaning surface after process has finished.
NDT30P 96 90217
Glossary of Terms
Post-emulsifiable Penetrant which must be treated with an emulsifying agent to render it water-washable.
penetrant
Post-emulsifiable Penetrant flaw detection process in which a penetrant is treated with an emulsifying
penetrant process agent after the completion of the penetration time.
Post-emulsifier Emulsifying agent applied to non-washable penetrant in the post-emulsifiable penetrant

process.
Pre-cleaning Preparation of a surface prior to penetrant inspection.
PSM Penetrant System Monitor.
PT See Penetrant testing.
Q
QPD Quality Product Database.
QPL Quality Product List.
R
Reference pieces Specimens containing controlled artificial or natural defects, used for checking the
efficiency of the penetrant flaw detection processes.
Replenishers Materials added to compensate for the loss of particular constituents in a penetrant
during use.
S
SDS Safety Data Sheet (see COSHH).
Sensitivity Ability to detect fine defects.
Shelf life Finite life of compounds, chemicals, etc., after which the stated properties of that
substance cannot be guaranteed.
Smeared Closed by mechanical action (opening of discontinuity may be smeared/closed).
Specific gravity Ratio of liquid density to density of distilled water at 40 °C.
Spray nozzle Fitting which produces a spray of fine droplets without compressed air.
Spurious indications Surface artefacts giving the appearance of genuine faults.
Static penetrant Parameter expressing influence of wetting ability and surface tension on the penetrant
parameter process.
Surface tension Elastic tendency of fluid to keep as small a surface as possible.
Suspension Mixture of solid particles with liquid.
T
TAM Testing and Monitoring.
Thixotropic Property of fluids characterised by high viscosity at low stress but low viscosity when
increasing shear stresses are applied.
Through penetration Process in which a suitable penetrant is applied to one side of a component and the
technique developing agent to the other side with the objective of revealing cracks, fissures or
porosity giving a continuous leak path through the component.
Type test Verification of penetrant material properties in order to classify this material by a third-
party laboratory.
U
User test Test of penetrant material done by end users.
NDT30P 97 90217
Glossary of Terms
UV light Ultraviolet light covering UV-A, UV-B and UV-C band (100 – 380 nm).
UV-A light Ultraviolet light of 320 – 380 nm.
UV-A light filter Filter which effectively removes the UV-B and UV-C fraction of UV light.
V
Vapour degreasing Removal of oils, greases and organic soils by use of a suitable vapour.
Viscosity Measure of internal friction of liquid, kinetic parameter.
Visible light Electromagnetic radiation visible by human eye, 380 – 780 nm.
Volatility Measure of tendency to evaporate.
W
Water-washable Penetrant flaw detection process where the penetrant used is washable by water spray
penetrant process without the application of separate emulsifying agents.
Wet dip developer Suspension of finely divided developer particles in a liquid medium suitable for
application by dipping.
Wetting ability Ability to cover surface (related to penetrant).
Wetting agents Substances added to liquids to decrease their surface tension.
NDT30P 98 90217
Glossary of Terms
NDT30P 99 90217
Glossary of Terms
NDT30P 100 90217

Glossary of Terms
PT – Penetrant Testing
TWI Training & Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom
First edition
105 pages
Copyright © TWI Ltd
2017
Technical redactor and Editor: Michal Skerik
Technical review: Tony McNulty, Ian Watson, Andrew Jeffreys
Typographic corrections: Caroline Richardson
Photographs and Illustrations: Michal Skerik
NDT30P 101 90217

Glossary of Terms
NDT30P 102 90217

NDT 30P Penetrant Testing 090217 - Notes For Electronic Distribution

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NDT 30P Penetrant Testing 090217 - Notes For Electronic Distribution

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Penetrant testing

TWI – Training and Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington

Cambridge CB21 6AL

Copyright © TWI Ltd

2 PENETRANT TESTING – GENERAL PRINCIPLES ................................................................................................................................6

3 CAPILLARY ACTION AND PENETRABILITY ........................................................................................................................................8

7 CLASSIFICATION OF PENETRANT MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS........................................................................................................26

8 PENETRANT TESTING PROCESS AND PARAMETERS ......................................................................................................................31

9 SELECTION OF A PENETRANT SYSTEM ..........................................................................................................................................54

11 REFERENCE BLOCKS AND TEST PANELS ....................................................................................................................................73

12 PROCESS CONTROL CHECKS .....................................................................................................................................................78

13 DOCUMENTATION OF A PENETRANT TESTING PROCESS .........................................................................................................86

16 GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...............................................................................................................................................................94

The best of luck with your exams.

Regular NDT methods Advanced NDT methods

 Penetrant Testing (PT)  Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Ultrasonic Testing

 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)  Infrared Thermographic Testing (TT)

 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)  Shearographic Testing (ST)

 Radiographic testing (RT)  Digital Radiography/Computed Radiography (CR/DR)

 Eddy Current Testing (ET)  Acoustic Emission (AE)

 Colour contrast technique.

2 Penetrant Testing – General Principles

2.1 Penetrant materials

2.2 Penetrant testing

3) Excess penetrant removal.

After pre-cleaning the material shall be clean, dry and within

See Section below on for further details.

See Section 8.2 on page 34 for further details.

3) Excess penetrant removal

See Section 8.3 on page 37 for further details.

See Section 8.7 on page 46 for further details.

See Section 10.1 on page 62 for further details.

See Section 8.8 on page 50 for further details.

Figure 1: Testing sequence.

3 Capillary Action and Penetrability

Figure 2: Elevation of penetrant in capillary pipe.

 Direct proportion to surface tension 𝑆 ………… (Higher tension = better penetration).

 Indirect proportion to pipe diameter 𝑑 ……… (Smaller pipe = better penetration).

 Indirect proportion to gravitational constant 𝑔 (Less gravitation = better penetration).

3.1 Surface tension (𝑺)

3.2 Contact angle ( )

Figure 3: Contact angle.

Consider the three different cases below.

Figure 4: Contact angle, wetting ability and droplet shape.

 Below 90 degrees – the liquid has wetting ability (e.g. oil).

 Above 90 degrees – the liquid has no wetting ability (e.g. mercury).

(𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 1, and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° = 0).

3.3 Influence of surface conditions

Figure 5: Water in contact with clean and oily metal.

3.4 Relation between contact angle and surface tension

Figure 7: Influence of amount of penetrant on surface to size of indications.

 Good penetrant materials have contact angle of 5 to 10 degrees.

3.5 Viscosity (𝜼)

3.6 Review questions (chapters 1 to 3)

1. Which parameter is the most important 6. The viscosity mainly affects:

2. If temperature increases, viscosity: a) 0 to 20 degrees.

a) The chemical composition of liquid.

c) Low contact angle and low wetting developer?

4. Which method is suitable for testing d) Excess developer removal.

5. Penetrant will penetrate better if:

a) The contact angle is bigger.

Reproduced courtesy of Michal Skerik.