Deliverable REG D3.2.

4, Best Practice Guide on tactile metrology, Best Practice Guide, REG

Researcher, Feb 13

Author: dr.ir. Edwin Bos Xpress Precision Engineering B.V.

Version: 0.3

Date: 13-02-2013

This best practice guide is intended to give additional information, specific to the measurement
of small and fragile work pieces, like optical components, using a tactile sensor.

A good reference for information on general tactile probing metrology for CMMs is written by
Flack, D: CMM probing, NPL Measurement Good Practice Guide No. 43 , July 2001. Important
remarks from this guide are briefly summarized, but for a more in-depth look, the reader is
referred to the original guide.

Other publications to note are: E.J.C. Bos, Tactile 3D probing system for measuring MEMS with
nanometer uncertainty, ISBN 978-90-386-1216-4, PhD thesis, Eindhoven University of
Technology; 2007, and, E.J.C. Bos, Aspects of tactile probing on the micro scale, Precision
Engineering 35 (2011) 228–240.

Other sources of interest are indicated at the end of this guide.

1 On this guide: ........................................................................................................................... 2

2 Contents of this guide .............................................................................................................. 2
3 Six guiding principles (NPL)....................................................................................................... 4
3.1 The right measurement .................................................................................................... 4
3.2 The right tool .................................................................................................................... 4
3.2.1 Measurement uncertainty of the tool...................................................................... 4
3.2.2 Estimation of measurement uncertainty ................................................................. 5
3.2.3 Standards for specific instruments ........................................................................... 6
3.3 The Right People............................................................................................................... 6
3.3.1 Significant digits........................................................................................................ 6
3.3.2 A note on accuracy, precision, resolution, repeatability and uncertainty ............... 7

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 3.3.3 The VIM on accuracy, resolution, repeatability and uncertainty ............................. 8
4 Interaction effects between probe and a work piece ............................................................11
4.1 Contact forces during probing ........................................................................................11
4.1.1 Collision forces due to the probe mass ..................................................................11
4.1.2 Over-travel forces due to the probe suspension stiffness .....................................12
4.2 Surface forces .................................................................................................................13
4.2.1 Surface forces and friction .....................................................................................14
4.2.2 Reduction of surface forces ....................................................................................14
4.2.3 Surface forces during single point probing.............................................................15
4.2.4 Surface forces during scanning ..............................................................................16
4.3 Dynamics and friction .....................................................................................................18
4.3.1 Dynamic excitations ...............................................................................................18
4.3.2 Synchronization between probe and CMM ...........................................................18
4.3.3 Micro friction during probing .................................................................................19
4.3.4 Tip rotations during single point probing ...............................................................19
4.4 Geometric effects for tactile probes ..............................................................................20
4.4.1 Finite stiffness effects of the probe........................................................................20
4.4.2 Mechanical filtering due to probe tip radius ..........................................................21
4.4.3 Anisotropic effects..................................................................................................21
4.5 Thermal effects...............................................................................................................21
5 Probe selection .......................................................................................................................22
5.1 Probe stylus ....................................................................................................................22
5.2 Probe tip material...........................................................................................................23
6 Bibliography............................................................................................................................24
6.1 References referred to in this guide...............................................................................24
6.2 Other interesting reading material.................................................................................24
6.3 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................25

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According to NPL [NPL 43], there are six guiding principles to good measurement practice. These
principles are used in this guide as well:

 The Right Measurements: Measurements should only be made to satisfy agreed and
well specified requirements.
 The Right Tools: Measurements should be made using equipment and methods that
have been demonstrated to be fit for purpose.
 The Right People: Measurement staff should be competent, properly qualified and well
informed.
 Regular review: There should be both internal and independent assessment of the
technical performance of all measurement facilities and procedures.
 Demonstratable Consistency: Measurements made in one location should be consistent
with those made elsewhere.
 The Right Procedures: Well-defined procedures consistent with national or international
standards should be in place for all measurements.

At the start of this guide, some remarks are given on the first three guiding principles.

Before you start any measurement, a good starting point is to ask yourself: why do I want to do
this particular measurement task?

What are the functional requirements on the test specimen that lead to the specified
requirements (on the drawing)? Are the requirements clear and logical or open to
interpretation?

In other words: is the metrology tool suitable for this particular measurement.

There are two parts to this question:

1. Is the tool physically able to perform this particular measurement and is it the best tool
for this job?
2. Is the measurement uncertainty of the metrology tool for this measurement (condition)
sufficient to obtain the desired results?

Let us start with the second question…

Kunzmann in his 2005 CIRP keynote paper [Kunzmann 2005], discusses the role of metrology in
the production chain. It is important to realize that each measurement tool has a measurement
uncertainty. In order to be able to assure that a dimension is in agreement with the specification

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on this dimension, the measurement uncertainty of the metrology tool should be significantly
lower than the required specification. This is discussed using the figure below.

Decision rules according ISO 14253-1 [ISO 14253-1]

The extended uncertainty of the metrology tool consists of both systematic and random
measurement deviations, as will be discussed in the next section.

In order to assure that a measured dimension is within specification, the measured dimension
should fall within the lower tolerance (LT) limit and upper tolerance limit (UT), corrected for the
extended uncertainty of the metrology tool.

To assure conformance with the specification, the measured dimension should be within:

LT + U/2 ≤ Xind ≤ UT – U/2

Where:

 LT: Lower tolerance (lower limit of the specified value)

 UT: Upper tolerance (upper limit of the specified value)
 U: extended uncertainty of the metrology tool
 Xind: measured value by the metrology tool

If the metrology tool is less accurate (higher U), the measurement result should fall within
tighter tolerance limits to assure conformance to the specifications.

A more accurate metrology tool, will therefore result in a larger effective tolerance limit for the
products to be measured and less product rejections.

As a rule of thumb, the measurement uncertainty of the metrology tool (U) should be at least a
factor 5-10 better than the required specification range (UT – LT).

Uncertainty estimation in measurements is discussed in several documents, including:

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  The Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM)
 Supplement 1 to GUM
 UKAS document M3003
 The NPL Best Practice Guide No. 6

The definitive standard for measurement uncertainty is the GUM, and the reader is referred to
this document for further reading.

Note that the standards given in this section are typically used in conventional applications.
Specific metrological areas, like CMMs with nanometer level uncertainties or CMMs used for
measurements on micrometer sized features, are currently not covered by these standards.
Also, these standards do not provide full estimations of uncertainty parameters.

 CMM's: ISO 10360-2

 Machine Tools: ISO 230 (many parts)
 Laser Trackers: ASME B89.4.19
 Photogrammetry: VDI/VDE 2634 Parts 1 and 2

The importance of having a competent, properly trained and critical thinking staff is illustrated
by the following quote from ISO / ASTM51707:

‘Although this guide provides a framework for assessing uncertainty, it cannot substitute for
critical thinking, intellectual honesty, and professional skill. The evaluation of uncertainty is
neither a routine task nor a purely mathematical one; it depends on detailed knowledge of the
nature of the measurand and of the measurement method and procedure used. The quality and
utility of the uncertainty quoted for the result of a measurement therefore ultimately depends
on the understanding, critical analysis, and integrity of those who contribute to the assignment
of its value.’

This guide does not intend to provide recommendations for Human Resources. However, a few
sections have been added to assist in the handling and understanding of metrological data.

According to the International vocabulary of metrology (VIM), resolution is the smallest

difference between displayed indications that can be meaningfully distinguished. However, this
does not mean that all digits are relevant, as the extended uncertainty of the metrology tool can
be orders of magnitude higher than the displayed resolution. This is especially true if the results
of internal transformations are displayed.

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Therefore, all measurement data should be indicated in significant digits. Significant digits are
those digits that carry meaning contributing to its precision. This includes all digits except
(Wikipedia):

 leading and trailing zeros which are merely placeholders to indicate the scale of the
number.
 spurious digits introduced, for example, by calculations carried out to greater precision
than that of the original data, or measurements reported to a greater precision than the
equipment supports.

Inaccuracy of a measuring device does not affect the number of significant figures in a
measurement made using that device, although it does affect the accuracy. A measurement
made using a plastic ruler that has been left out in the sun or a beaker that unbeknownst to the
technician has a few glass beads at the bottom has the same number of significant digits as a
significantly different measurement of the same physical object made using an unaltered ruler
or beaker. The number of significant digits reflects the device's precision, but not its accuracy.

In many publications the terms accuracy, precision, repeatability and uncertainty are used as if
they indicate the same physical quantity of a measurement instrument. This, of course, is not
correct.

Precision of an instrument is closely related to its repeatability. Repeatability is most often

indicated by the standard deviation of the data set obtained from repeatedly measuring the
same dimensional parameter of an artifact. As such, repeatability indicates the ability of an
instrument to reproduce a measured quantity.

Accuracy of an instrument is a measure for the agreement between the average measured
quantity of a dimensional parameter, e.g. thickness, and its true quantity.

The figure below provides a graphical indication of precision and accuracy in metrology:

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Source: Wikipedia (Created by Pekaje, based on PNG version by Anthony Cutler).

Thus, precision (repeatability) of a metrological instrument is an indication of its build quality. A

stable machine that is designed using the proper principles for precision machine design will
show a good repeatability.

Accuracy, on the other hand results from systematic measurement deviations of the instrument.
As these deviations are repeatable they can, in theory, be compensated for. Therefore, the
accuracy of an instrument is the remaining deviation after the instrument is calibrated to
international standards, e.g. the meter, and (software) compensation is applied to correct for
the systematic deviations. Proper calibration and compensation of systematic machine tool
errors thus improves the accuracy of the instrument.

Measurement uncertainty is the deviation of a measured quantity with respect to the true value
of the quantity. As such, measurement uncertainty is a combination of the precision and
accuracy of the instrument. Measurement uncertainty is discussed in detail in the Guide to the
Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM).

Finally, resolution is the smallest change in a quantity being measured that causes a perceptible
change in the corresponding indication. Therefore, resolution is an indication for the quality of
the sensor(s) used in the instrument and does not give a suitable indication for the quality of the
instrument.

The international vocabulary of metrology — Basic and general concepts and associated terms
(VIM) consists international definitions for measurement accuracy, precision, resolution,
etcetera:

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2.13 measurement accuracy:

closeness of agreement between a measured quantity value and a true quantity value of a
measurand.

NOTE 1 The concept ‘measurement accuracy’ is not a quantity and is not given a numerical
quantity value. A measurement is said to be more accurate when it offers a smaller
measurement error.

NOTE 2 The term “measurement accuracy” should not be used for measurement trueness and
the term measurement precision should not be used for ‘measurement accuracy’, which,
however, is related to both these concepts.

NOTE 3 ‘Measurement accuracy’ is sometimes understood as closeness of agreement between

measured quantity values that are being attributed to the measurand.

2.15 measurement precision

closeness of agreement between indications or measured quantity values obtained by replicate

measurements on the same or similar objects under specified conditions

NOTE 1 Measurement precision is usually expressed numerically by measures of imprecision,

such as standard deviation, variance, or coefficient of variation under the specified conditions of
measurement.

NOTE 2 The ‘specified conditions’ can be, for example, repeatability conditions of measurement,
intermediate precision conditions of measurement, or reproducibility conditions of
measurement (see ISO 5725-3:1994).

NOTE 3 Measurement precision is used to define measurement repeatability, intermediate

measurement precision, and measurement reproducibility.

NOTE 4 Sometimes “measurement precision” is erroneously used to mean measurement

accuracy.

2.20 repeatability condition of measurement

condition of measurement, out of a set of conditions that includes the same measurement
procedure, same operators, same measuring system, same operating conditions and same
location, and replicate measurements on the same or similar objects over a short period of time

NOTE 1 A condition of measurement is a repeatability condition only with respect to a specified

set of repeatability conditions.

NOTE 2 In chemistry, the term “intra-serial precision condition of measurement” is sometimes

used to designate this concept.

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2.21 measurement repeatability

measurement precision under a set of repeatability conditions of measurement

2.26 measurement uncertainty

non-negative parameter characterizing the dispersion of the quantity values being attributed to
a measurand, based on the information used. Measurement uncertainty is discussed in detail in
the GUM: Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement.

NOTE 1 Measurement uncertainty includes components arising from systematic effects, such as
components associated with corrections and the assigned quantity values of measurement
standards, as well as the definitional uncertainty. Sometimes estimated systematic effects are
not corrected for but, instead, associated measurement uncertainty components are
incorporated.

NOTE 2 The parameter may be, for example, a standard deviation called standard measurement
uncertainty (or a specified multiple of it), or the half-width of an interval, having a stated
coverage probability.

NOTE 3 Measurement uncertainty comprises, in general, many components. Some of these may
be evaluated by Type A evaluation of measurement uncertainty from the statistical distribution
of the quantity values from series of measurements and can be characterized by standard
deviations. The other components, which may be evaluated by Type B evaluation of
measurement uncertainty, can also be characterized by standard deviations, evaluated from
probability density functions based on experience or other information.

NOTE 4 In general, for a given set of information, it is understood that the measurement
uncertainty is associated with a stated quantity value attributed to the measurand. A
modification of this value results in a modification of the associated uncertainty.

4.12 (5.10) sensitivity of a measuring system

sensitivity quotient of the change in an indication of a measuring system and the corresponding
change in a value of a quantity being measured

NOTE 1 Sensitivity of a measuring system can depend on the value of the quantity being
measured.

NOTE 2 The change considered in a value of a quantity being measured must be large compared
with the resolution.

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4.14 Resolution

smallest change in a quantity being measured that causes a perceptible change in the
corresponding indication

NOTE Resolution can depend on, for example, noise (internal or external) or friction. It may also
depend on the value of a quantity being measured.

4.15 Resolution of a displaying device

smallest difference between displayed indications that can be meaningfully distinguished

During single point probing the probe tip is positioned in contact with a work piece to obtain a
measurement point in space. During the approach, the probe tip thus collides with the surface
of the work piece, resulting in an impact (collision) force Fimp.

The over travel force, Fovt, resulting from the suspension stiffness of the probing system is
discussed in the next section.

During a collision, the effective mass at the probe tip rapidly changes in magnitude and
direction. The change in kinetic energy results in an impact force of the probe tip at the point of
contact with the surface. The effective mass of the probe is the mass that is ‘felt’ when trying to
accelerate the probe tip.

Upon contact, the kinetic energy due to the impact is converted into the elastic–plastic
deformation of the probe tip and work piece. Note that for surfaces with a high roughness, in
theory, the roughness peaks on the work piece surface that initially contact the probe tip will
almost always deform plastically. However, there are several measures to prevent (macroscopic)
plastic deformation of the work piece due to the impact force:

 use a probe whereby the suspended mass is small,

 use a probe with a relatively large tip diameter,
 decrease the approach speed,
 use a work piece material with a high Young’s Modulus,
 assure that the over-travel distance of the CMM after contact is small, and
 provide sufficient damping to prevent bouncing of the tip.

For a quantitative analysis, the reader is referred to [Bos 2007] and [Bos 2011].

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It is noted that, if the kinetic energy at the probe tip is not fully absorbed during the collision,
e.g. by damping, friction or plastic deformation, the probe tip will bounce of the work piece. As a
result, the relative velocity between probe tip and work piece surface may increase during
subsequent bounces, resulting in higher contact forces. It can be shown that the influence of
bouncing on maximum contact force during the collision can be neglected when the damping
factor of the probing system is 0.3 or higher.

Over-travel forces, Fovt, results from the over-travel distance of the CMM after the initial contact
between probe tip and work piece surface. During probing contact is typically detected by the
probe. The probe sends a signal to the CMM to start decelerating. The over-travel distance is the
distance traveled by the CMM between the point of initial contact and the point where the
movement of the stage ends, for a precision coordinate measuring machine this is typically 7
micrometers for an approach speed of 1 mm/s.

The contact force between tip and work piece as a result of the over-travel distance is the result
from the stiffness of the structural loop between them. In practice, this value is mainly
determined by the stiffness of the probe suspension.

As a result, the over-travel force Fovt equals the over-travel distance multiplied with the effective
stiffness of the probe in its tip.

To prevent (macroscopic) plastic deformation of the work piece due to the over-travel force one
can:

 use a probe with a low suspension stiffness,

 use a probe with a relatively large tip diameter,
 use a probe with compliant stylus,
 decrease the approach speed,
 use a work piece material with a high Young’s Modulus,
 assure that the over-travel distance of the CMM after contact is small (i.e. good CMM
dynamics and controller).

Note that for many measurement applications, several of these actions result in undesired
results. For example, the stylus is often part of the metrology loop. A very compliant stylus
(more compliant than the probe suspension) will reduce the probe sensitivity.

For a quantitative analysis, the reader is referred to [Bos 2007] and [Bos 2011].

As mentioned, a work piece material with a high Young’s Modulus is less likely to deform
plastically. However, as the contact region size approaches the grain size of the work piece
material the effective Young’s modulus usually increases. Also, mechanical properties at the
surface of a bulk material may be influenced by surface segregation and oxide layers.

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As discussed in the previous section, the probe tip can bounce of the workpiece is the kinetic
energy is not fully absorbed during the collision. If this happens, the probe is still colliding
(bouncing) on the work piece when the over travel distance is increasing. As a result, the
maximum contact force is typically a combination of impact and over-travel forces.

The relative importance of adhesion forces, often referred to as surface forces, with respect to
gravity increases as the dimensions of a component decrease. This is especially important when
performing measurements on small components and when handling them, e.g. during micro
assembly.

The adhesive forces arise primarily from van der Waals forces, electrostatic attraction and
surface tension. The balance between these forces depends on the environmental conditions,
such as humidity, temperature, surrounding medium, surface condition, material and relative
motion.

Hydrostatic adhesion is often the dominant force in the micro regime and is increased by a high
humidity, large radii of curvature, long contact times and hydrophilic surfaces. The contact angle
from the fluid on the surfaces, which determines the hydrostatic adhesion, is very sensitive to
contaminants and to physical modifications of the surface. For example, the hydrostatic
attraction is generally shown to decrease when the surface roughness increases.

Figure Error! Reference source not found..1 shows the van der Waals, Electrostatic and
Hydrostatic attraction force between a sphere and a planar half space, as a function of the
radius of the sphere. As mentioned before, the surface forces greatly depend on environmental
conditions and the contact materials and roughness. Therefore this graph should be seen as an
indication for the relative magnitude of the surface forces in a typical situation.

Casimir Van der Waals

1,0E+02
Gravitational Electrostatic
1,0E-01 Hydrostatic

1,0E-04
Force (N)

1,0E-07

1,0E-10

1,0E-13
0,000 0,010 1,000 100,000
Sphere Radius (mm)

Figure Error! Reference source not found..1: Comparison of surface forces to the gravity force as
a function of sphere radius in mm.

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The static friction between a sphere and a plane is influenced by the force component FN
orthogonal to the plane and the coefficient of friction between the sphere and plane. The forces
during the probing of micro components need to be small to minimize plastic deformation of the
probe tip and work piece.

Probes that are designed for measuring micro components should therefore be very compliant
and lightweight, to minimize contact forces and prevent damaging components. However, for
these very compliant probes, the magnitude of surface forces is often in the same order as the
probing forces during a measurement.

As surface forces typically increase the force component FN they have a significant influence on
the friction force. The influence of surface forces for micro-probes differs significantly from
conventional CMMs, where the stiffness of the probe and its colliding mass are orders of
magnitude higher (typically over 1000x).

In a normal situation, the surface forces result in an increased normal force component FN and
therefore an increased static friction force. As the probe is stationary, it accumulated water
particles in the contact region, increasing hydrostatic attraction (and FN). As such, the static
friction force typically increases for an increasing relative humidity and thickness of the lubricant
film. However, for very low levels of humidity (RH below 2%), the electrostatic adhesion
component increases, creating a higher static friction.

For the dynamic friction case the adsorbed water layer on a hydrophilic surface acts as a
lubricant, reducing the coefficient of friction, especially at a relative humidity > 70%. When the
relative humidity increases, there is a balance between the increased hydrostatic surface
attraction and the reduced coefficient of friction (due to the lubrication effect).

Finally, for low levels of humidity (RH below 10%), the friction in the contact between probe and
work piece during scanning creates an electrostatic charge. A higher contact forces and scanning
speeds increase the buildup of electrostatic charge.

In summary, it can be stated that the relative humidity should be above 10% to decrease the
build-up of electrostatic charge and below 60% to decrease hydrostatic adhesion. As a guideline
for precision tactile probing, the relative humidity should therefore be around 30 - 40% RH.

As discussed in the previous section, the influence of surface forces is especially important when
performing measurements using micro-probes, as these probes are typically very compliant to
prevent damaging the work piece.

There are several methods that can be used to decrease the magnitude of the surface forces,
including:

 The relative humidity influences both the electrostatic adhesion, via the surface charge, and
the hydrostatic adhesion. A relative humidity above 10% reduces the buildup of electrostatic

14
 charge and improves the decay of surface charge. To reduce the hydrostatic adhesion, a
relative humidity below 60% should be used. Theoretically, when a measurement is done
where both the probe tip and work piece are immersed in a fluid, the electrostatic and
surface tension effects are eliminated.
 The use of hydrophobic coatings reduces hydrostatic adhesion. A contact angle of 90 degrees
between the objects and liquid would balance the attraction and repulsing forces of the
liquid.
 Free charges such as in ionized air can combine with and neutralize exposed surface charges.
 Use conductive materials which do not easily form highly insulating native oxides. By
grounding the conductors the electrostatic charge can be drained off.
 Use materials with a small contact potential difference to minimize the contact
electrification.
 High contact pressures, caused by the adhesion forces, can cause local deformations at the
contact site. This deformation will increase the contact area and hence the net adhesive
force. Therefore, hard materials are preferable.
 Keep the contact area small. Therefore, a contact between spherical objects is preferred over
the contact between planar objects. The contact area can also be reduced by increasing the
surface roughness. This will considerably reduce the van der Waals forces.

It is important to note that in most applications the attraction force is dominated by hydrostatic
attraction. Therefore, the items in the above list are arranged to first reduce hydrostatic
attraction, then electrostatic attraction and finally van der Waals forces. However, it should be
clear that this arrangement is somewhat system specific.

As discussed in the previous sections, repeated probing results in an increase of the hydrostatic
attraction force between probe tip and work piece due to the accumulation of water particles in
the contact region. The is shown in figure Error! Reference source not found..2, where a micro
probe (Gannen XP) is repeatedly brought into contact with a steel gauge block at a very low
speed (few nanometers per second). This makes it possible to see the different effects of the
attraction forces during single point probing, that influence these measurements. Note that
even though these effects are always present, normal CMMs (even most nanoCMMs) cannot
obtain the positional accuracy and stability required to perform this measurement.

15
Figure Error! Reference source not found..2: Effect of surface forces and the buildup of surface
forces during repeated probing.

In this graph, the effect of the attraction forces between the tip and work piece at different
separations (distance to work piece) can be observed. The attraction forces result in a force on
the probe tip. Even though these forces are in the order of micro Newtons, the very compliant
probe (required for micro probing) and the very high probe sensitivity makes it possible to
measure them.

From figure Error! Reference source not found..2 it is clear that even at a separation of 200-300
nm, the probe is attracted to the surface. As there is no contact between the fluidic layer on the
probe tip and work piece, the force is mainly caused by electrostatic attraction. As the
separation decreases, the probe snaps against the work piece (snap in effect) when the fluidic
layers on the probe tip and work piece are in contact.

During contact the distance to the work piece (now negative) and the tip displacement are the
same. When the probe is retracted, the hydrostatic forces create a relatively high attraction
force. As a result, the probe tip sticks to the work piece (up to about 200-280 nm) until it snaps
loose (snap out effect).

It can be seen that repeated probing increases the attraction forces, mainly due to the
accumulation of water molecules in the contact region.

During scanning, the surface forces create an additional preload force as discussed in paragraph
Error! Reference source not found. and paragraph 4.2.1. Also, the water molecules on the
surface increase lubrication, thus lowering the coefficient of friction.

16
If the probing system used has an anisotropic stiffness, i.e. the stiffness in XY-direction is much
lower than the stiffness in Z-direction, the play of forces differs significantly from a probing
system with isotropic stiffness.

Figure Error! Reference source not found..3: Effect of the contact angle during probing (left),
effect of the contact angle during scanning on the equator (right).

In figure Error! Reference source not found..3 (left), a series single point probing operations is
shown in the XZ plane. As most probes provide an XY-motion of the tip by a rotation of the
probe suspension, the probe tip rotates slightly when the tip is moved in the XY-plane. As the
probe tip is in contact with the work piece during this rotation, the tip and attached stylus will
move in the vertical direction (equal to the angle of rotation times the tip diameter).

When the probing operation occurs in the vertical direction, there is no probe tip rotation and
hence no additional motion of the probe tip in another direction then the probing direction. By
analyzing this effect it is clear that the magnitude of the rolling effect therefore depends on the
direction of approach.

Whether the probe tip will stick to the work piece or slip as a result of the vertical motion (due
to the rolling effect) depends on the angle of approach and on the play of forces in the probing
system. When the stiffness of the probe suspension in vertical direction is significantly higher
than its stiffness in XY-direction the probe with slip continuously.

However, when surface forces are taken into account, it can be observed that the probe will first
stick to the work piece and at a certain deflection start slipping. The surface forces in this case
provide a preload on the contact, which causes this transition. The probe behavior thus
becomes less predictable.

17
For a typical measurement environment, the main sources of dynamic excitation of the probe
system are:

 floor vibrations,
 acoustic excitation,
 air flow, e.g. air conditioning, and
 vibrations due to the measurement instrument, e.g. the coordinate measuring machine.

Typically, excitation of the probe results in a deflection of its suspension. This deflection is
measured and does therefore not influence the measurement uncertainty directly. However,
the resulting fluctuation in the probe signal does influence the trigger level and thereby the
over-travel distance and force.

Vibrations of the probe tip due to machine vibrations may have a significant influence on the
signal noise between measurements. Contributions include the control system of the machine
and internal sources of vibrations, e.g. due to roller bearings. In general it can be stated that the
first Eigen frequency of the probe should be above the bandwidth of the control system of the
CMM.

Vibrations also result in deformations in the metrology loop between probe tip and work piece.
The metrology loop includes the work piece itself, CMM, probe holder, suspension, stylus and
tip. Deformations of the stylus due to vibrations are not recorded by the probing system. When
the influence of these deformations cannot be measured, their magnitude should be minimized
as they contribute directly to the measurement uncertainty. Vibrations in other parts of the
coordinate measuring machine, e.g. a vibration of the work piece table, may be compensated
for when the vibration is measured by both the probing system and the coordinate measuring
machine simultaneously, as discussed in the next section.

Vibrations in the metrology loop of a CMM can be compensated for when the effect of this
vibration is measured. An example is a vibration of the work piece table, carrying the artifact to
be measured. If this vibration is measured by the CMM and probe simultaneously, the effect of
the work piece table displacement due to the vibrations can be compensated for.

However, this compensation is influenced by the phase difference between the measurement
signal from the probing system and that of the CMM. Secondly, a phase difference may result
from the mechanical behavior of the CMM and probing system. This results in a difference
between the vibrations as measured by the probe and as measured by the CMM.

A phase difference may also result from a time delay between the recording of the signal from
the probing system and CMM, i.e. trigger delay. The third and final source under consideration is
a difference in the phase change as a result of signal processing in the probing system and CMM.

18
This phase delay should be decreased to minimize synchronization errors between probe and
CMM. One possibility is to increase the time constant of the filters used in the electronic
components, i.e. the cutoff frequency should be low, as this reduces phase delay.

Micro friction in single point probing results from the difference in elastic properties between
probe tip and work piece. Micro friction during probing results in energy dissipation in the
contact, i.e. hysteresis. It is noted that this does not influence the measurement uncertainty of
the probe directly, as the change in tip position is measured by the probing system.

However, the friction force will increase the load required to produce a contact of a given size,
by at most 5% compared to Hertz theory. Thus, it can be shown that the deviation in indentation
depth with respect to Hertz contact theory is 3.2% or less. A sapphire probe tip with a 0.05 mm
tip radius, in normal contact with a planar aluminum work piece with a contact force of 2.94 mN
yields a Hertz indentation of 31 nm. The contribution of micro friction to the displacement of the
probe tip for the direction orthogonal to the surface is therefore approximately 1 nm. Unless
this contribution is calibrated and compensated for, it will result in a measurement deviation.

Micro friction may also result from a rotation of the probe tip over the surface of the workpiece,
as will be discussed in the next section.

The two main sources for a tip rotation during probing are deformations of the structural loop in
the probing system, e.g. bending of the stylus, and rotations as a result of the probe suspension.
For a probe with a rotating suspension, the contribution of the deformation of the structural
loop to the rotation of the probe tip is much smaller than the contribution of the suspension.
The contribution of the deformations in the structural loop is therefore neglected in this section
and only rotations due to the probe suspension are taken into account.

For a probe with a rotating suspension, a measurement in x- or y-direction requires the probe
suspension to rotate. This rotation is inversely proportional to the distance between the center
point of the probe tip and proportional to the point of rotation and the displacement of the
probe tip.

As a result of this rotation, the probe tip will also rotate. The probe tip is in contact with the
workpiece at a distance r, equal to the radius of the probe tip. Therefore, the point of contact
will shift over the workpiece over a distance equal to the rotation * probe tip radius.

The rolling effect thus results in a repeatable shift in the point of contact between probe tip and
work piece. This displacement of the probe tip over the work piece surface is a real shift in the
probe tip position and is accurately recorded by the probe. Thus, it does not influence the probe
measurement uncertainty directly.

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In tactile probes a force is generated between tip and work piece during probing. This force
results in a deformation of the probe, work piece and coordinate measuring machine. Since the
stiffness of the CMM should be several orders of magnitude higher than that of the probe used,
this contribution is neglected. Work piece stiffness depends both on surface indentation and
structural stiffness at the measurement position, which contribute to measurement uncertainty.
Deviations due to a finite stiffness of the work piece can be reduced by decreasing probe
stiffness, compensation of the effect by calculating the force–distance curve or probing at
minimal over-travel, i.e. low force probing. The main disadvantage of reducing probe stiffness is
stick–slip during scanning and an increase in the release distance of the probe due to surface
forces.

The effects of a finite stiffness in parts of the probing system depend on the measurement
method used in the probe. In most 3D tactile probes a stylus is used to position the probe tip in
space, i.e. the stylus is part of the structural loop. A force on the probe tip thus results in a
deflection of the stylus as a result of its finite stiffness.

The stylus also connects the probe tip to measurement systems in the probe, i.e. the stylus is
part of the metrology loop. As the probe tip position is not measured directly but via the stylus,
the deflection of the stylus is included in the measurement. However, as the stiffness of the
stylus is constant, the effect is repeatable and can be compensated for during the calibration of
the probe.

However, as part of the tip displacement goes into the deflection of the stylus a compliant stylus
results in a loss of sensitivity. Roughly, it can be stated that when the stiffness of the stylus is in
the same order of magnitude as that of the probe suspension, the probe sensitivity decreases.

The compliance of the stylus and the resulting reduction in sensitivity is a main limitation for the
aspect ratio between length and radius of the stylus that can be used. For micrometer sized
probe tips the result is that only a small stylus length can be used. Therefore, a stylus typically
consists of a measuring part and a base part.

The radius of the measurement part of the stylus limits the radius of the probe tip, as during
probing the probe tip should be able to scan a wall parallel to the stylus without the risk of
contact between stylus and wall. Therefore, finite stiffness effects limit the minimum tip radius
that has practical use. Stylus stiffness depends both on radius and length. Depending on the
probe used, a ratio of 5-100 can be used is a small reduction is sensitivity is accepted. The more
compliant probes will allow for smaller tips and a higher aspect ratio.

This is the case for all tactile probes in which the stylus is a part of the metrology loop suffer
from this effect.

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When, during a measurement, the probe tip is in contact with the work piece at more than one
point, the information obtained is mechanically filtered by the radius of the probe tip used. This
filter has a low pass characteristic; the cut-off frequency increases with a decreasing radius of
the probe tip, because a smaller probe tip can penetrate smaller roughness valleys. Also, the
measurement of internal structures, like holes and trenches, differs from the measurement of
protruding structures.

Therefore, a smaller probe tip will better reproduce the surface structure.

When stiffness at the probe tip is not isotropic, the response of the probe will depend on the
measurement direction. To describe this effect the directional response pattern of a probe,
which is equivalent to the directional pretravel variations, is of interest.

Other factors which may influence the directional response pattern include the suspension of
the stylus, asymmetric moment of inertia of stylus, arrangement of probes in different
directions, direction dependent sensitivity of probes, set-up of the axes, probe tip form
deviation, and the direction dependent dynamic behavior of the probing system including styli
combinations. As a result, the output signal for a measurement depends on the measurement
direction. Unless compensated for, this effect will result in a measurement deviation that varies
with the direction of the measurement.

In many cases, the vertical sensitivity of a probing system differs from its sensitivity in X- and Y-
direction. This results in a measurement deviations that increases with higher vertical deflection
of the probe.

When considering the influence of thermal effects on the measurement, it is important to

distinguish between short term stability and long term stability of the metrology loop. Short
term stability refers to the situation where the metrology loop has to be geometrically stable for
the duration of the measurement only, e.g. drift of the local coordinate system. Parts that
require long term stability need to be geometrically stable during the time in-between two
successive calibrations, e.g. reference scales.

In the situation of a coordinate measuring machine, all measured dimensions are relative to the
work piece itself. Therefore, the measurement result is mainly affected by drift in the metrology
loop during the measurement itself. Long term stability is only required for the metrology
systems (e.g. the linear scales used), and its influence is typically much lower. The parts of the
metrology loop that only contribute to drift of the machine coordinate system therefore require
short term stability.

It is noted that thermal deviations should be considered for all parts of the metrology loop. For
coordinate measuring machines, this includes the contribution of the machine, probe and work

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piece. For example, for an aluminum work piece with a nominal length of 10mm a homogeneous
temperature change will result in a deviation of 230 nm/K.

In most tactile probes, the stylus is a part of the metrology loop that requires short term
stability. Deviations in the stylus, e.g. due to temperature variations, are typically not measured
and thus contribute to the measurement uncertainty. A 6 mm tungsten carbide stylus has an
expansion of 31 nm/K, i.e. 0.3 nm for a temperature variation of the stylus of 10 mK. It is
therefore important to keep temperature variations small or measure temperature to
compensate for thermal deviations during probing.

In this section, several general recommendations will be given for the probe styli that should be
used for the measurement.

Many different probe tip materials are available (see next section). For the majority of tasks,
ruby ball styli are used in practice. Some things to keep in mind when doing tactile
measurements:

 Keep it simple: To maintain accuracy of measurement the user should keep the stylus system
as simple as possible, a single straight stylus will generally give better performance than a
stylus with bends and joints. Therefore whenever possible the user should choose an
articulating or indexing probe head with a straight, rather than a compound stylus.
 Use a short stiff stylus for maximum sensitivity.
 Use the largest ball tip possible (note section on mechanical filtering).
 Check that the stylus tip has not come loose from the stem.
 Keep the probe tip, stylus and work piece clean.
 Use the most appropriate probing speed (preventing surface damage).
 Use the most appropriate stylus type, e.g. straight, star or bend, and keep it as stiff as
possible.
 Check that the stylus stem does not contact the workpiece.
• Calibrate the stylus frequently enough to prevent drift in sensitivity and changes in probe tip
shape.
• Keep records of the measurements.
• Be critical of your results, even if you like the outcome.
 Be aware of the relevant CMM standard specifications.

Also see NPL Good Practice Guide No. 41, for advice on the choice of the number and location of
measurement points on the work piece.

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To prevent wear, the probe tip material should be selected, based on the work piece material.
The table below provides several suggested material combinations:

Probe tip material

Workpiece Optimum To be avoided Other suitable
materials
Stainless steel Ruby Silicon Nitride
(abrasive wear)
Cast iron Zirconia Silicon Nitride Ruby, Tungsten carbide
(abrasive wear)
Aluminum Silicon Nitride Ruby (may suffer
adhesive wear)
Glass Ruby Glass, fiber

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[Bos 2007] E.J.C. Bos, Tactile 3D probing system for measuring MEMS with nanometer
uncertainty, ISBN 978-90-386-1216-4, PhD thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology; 2007.

[Bos 2011] E.J.C. Bos, Aspects of tactile probing on the micro scale, Precision Engineering
Journal, 35, 228–240, 2011.

[ISO 14253-1] ISO 14253-1: Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) -- Inspection by

measurement of workpieces and measuring equipment - Part 1: Decision rules for proving
conformance or non-conformance with specifications ISO 1998.

[Kunzmann 2005] H. Kunzmann, T. Pfeifer, R. Schmitt, H. Schwenke, A. Weckenmann,

Productive Metrology - Adding Value to Manufacture, Annals of the CIRP, 54/2, p.691 (2005).

[NPL 43] Flack, D: CMM probing, NPL Measurement Good Practice Guide No. 43, July 2001.

Bell, S A, A beginner's guide to uncertainty in measurement, NPL Measurement Good Practice

Guide No. 11 , (Issue 2) , March 2001.

Birch, K, Estimating uncertainties in testing, NPL Measurement Good Practice Guide No. 36 ,
March 2001.

Rodger, G, Dimensional measurement using vision systems, NPL Measurement Good Practice
Guide No. 39 , July 2001.

Flack, D, CMM measurement strategies, NPL Measurement Good Practice Guide No. 41 , July
2001.

Flack, D R, Hannaford, J, Fundamental good practice in dimensional metrology, NPL

Measurement Good Practice Guide No. 80 , January 2006.

Leach, R K, Brown, L, Jiang, X, Blunt, R, Conroy, M, Mauger, D, Guide to the measurement of

smooth surface topography using coherence scanning interferometry, NPL Measurement Good
Practice Guide No. 108 , April 2008.

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This best practice guide has been written under an EMRP Researcher Grant. The European
Metrology Research Programme (EMRP) is jointly funded by the EMRP participating countries
within EURAMET and the European Union.

Measurements have been performed with a Gannen-XP probe on a TriNano N100 (at Xpress
Precision Engineering) and with a with a Gannen-XP probe on a Zeiss F25 (at VSL).

More information:

JRP website www.ptb.de/emrp/ind10-home.html

Xpress PE www.XpressPE.com

VSL www.vsl.nl

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