CHAPTER 12

' I ' I I I - ~ ~ l l ~ s iI (( ),I ;I S~~ l, ~ L I I ~II;IV(:

,S I)R:III.:k(>ti fro~r~
llisl~ol),11. L., ed. [l987] I h n d b o o k of
Ii~~~ ,~I,~11~1~7111lt.ii~~ii
pd .Sovicl!j oj ( h 7 r r i i (U~~ivcrsit,~
ol'lbro~\toPress, Toronto, Ontario, SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION
, ( lllllllllll).

12.1. Basic Features of Solar Cells and Solar Systems

Solar radiation can be converted into electrical energy directly, witholil. ; I . I I , ~ i i 1 1 ( * 1 .

mediate process at all, by the use of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells. 'I'llc:sc\ c,c,lls 1 \ 1 1 >
usually fabricated as flat discs, up to a few inches in diameter. Tllc ~ I , ( ~ V ; I . I I I , I I , ~ ~ , I ~
of this form of electricity generation, compared with thermal proccssvs ~ I I V ~ ~ V I I I J ~
the Second Law of Thermodynamics, are considerable. Advantages of l)l~ol.ovoll ill1

generation include [I,2,3]:

(a) There are no moving parts so that little maintenance is reqi1irc:tl;
(b) They utilise an infinitely renewable (compared with the 111lllli1.11 li1;~s1);111)
and pollution-free power source;
(c) The cells are reliable and long-lasting, with no harmfiil w;lstc ~ ) r . o ~ l ~ ~ c . l , s ;
(d) There is no discernible health hazard;
(e) The cells are usually made of silicon, which is one of earth's ~iiosl.i ~ , l ) ~ r ~ l c l r ~ ~ l
and cheap materials;
(f) The cells can be used on site in remote locations, such as 1)1ioys; I . I I ( . I I O I ( ~ ( I
a t sea, or spacecraft in orbit;
(g) They have a high power-to-weight ratio, which is reqllirctl i l l ; I . ( ~ I . O : ; I I I I I . I >
applications;
(h) They are manufactured and researched in a highly dcvclo~)c.(l,sc.ic.l~\,ili(.ic llY
based, well-funded industry, so that continual improvc:li~c~l~t,
01' 1)(*1.1i) I . I I I I I 1 1 1 1 %
can be expected.

With this list of advantages above one can ~ir~tl(:rst;~~ltl t,h(: very I ; i r . ~ ( .i~~vc$:;l.tr I I * I I ~ I 11

time and effort that has been, and still is, tl(:vot,c:tli,o so1i~1. (:(,I1 O ( ~ V ( ~ ~ O ~ ) 11':;111111 III~~II~.
photovolt,nic convcrtcrs wcrc: :~vi~ilal)l(: irlorc: c:l10;1.~)1~ t.llcy wo~rl(lc . o r t ~ l ~ l ~( .~I I~; I ~I I ~~~ ~, ( .l , y
t l ~ wl~ol(: : sc:(:li(: o r (:lc(-t,ri(,,it,y , t , i111i(,ss
~ t : ~ \ ( ~ ~ ~ i l(OK o ~ l < ~ ~ L I S I I I ~ I ~ I ~ (, 111fo1.t I ~ I L . \ I I I ~ I I , I , I I~ , I I ~ - y

si,ill (2002) ~ ( ~ I I I ~ Is. (~~I vI ( ~ rt,i111os ; ~ , l l,oo ( ~ x 1 1 ~ ~ 11'01.1 s iIvI I~; I-, S S I I S I , , 1 1 1 1 1 , :II,I-vi;tI111* I f 1 1
sl)(.(.i;~lisc.(l ; ~ , l ~ ~ ~ l i c . ;: ~ ; IlIiIo.11,s
~ lI ss l ) i ~ ( , ~ > ( . i~: ; o. li;~~ . l,'(l- ~, ,I (.OIIIIIIIIIII(.;I~IIIII : ; I : I ( . ~ I I I I : ; 1 1 1 1 4 1
( . ( - I . ~ , I I I I I ( I I ~ ~ ~ I I I I ~I I IY - I I : ;
 I l l I 0 1 1 . . 1 ~ 1 ( . 1 Ill!: 1111. 111:,l (11 :.,11.11 11.lI:. I l l l . 11.1 I l l \v;11 I '
~ ' I l ~ . ; ~ I \ Ill IIO\L'l*I 1:; 1l:il~lI. 'liIII:;
~ 1 1 ~ ~ ~ 1I l 1 ; 1 1: ~ ( 1 1 1 . i 1.11 I:, I
l l ~ l ~ l l l l l ~l , ll l ~ ~ , 1 ~ 1 1 l ~ I ~\ vl ; l ll, l~ 01 ~ l , l \ V l ~ \l v l l l , l l l l l l ~: ; l l l : l l ~ i l l : ~ l l l ; l l , i l l l l

11 I , ,.~I.II Ilulfr~.r1r1.t IIIII~;II~.;I) I:. I0110 \V/III'! \.1111l1: I I , ~ I I I ( . ; I I (./li(.i~*ll(.~ 01' IO:):,,
I Ill ' 111 I . I ~ I; I 1 I ; ! \ , ; l l I ~ ; l ~ I00
~ l ~ l l l l l ~~ ~ l~l l! l ~ l ) , ~ l ~ ~ l l ~~l ll ~~: l l <\\,;1.1,1,s.

4
Roottops (Japan, Gz~tnany)
Remote habltat~onal
1'111 I / I I I I I Ii ~ ~ iI: I
i I 01' 1~11~1~l,ri1.il.y I'IOIII ~0lil.r~)l~oI,ovolt;ii(; (~;Ilsvt~rieswitlrly TI^ 107J
l i 1 8 - III:.I \ v ; I : ~ Y;:\i)~),/~)(>;l.k w;~.l,l..I5.y 1!)77, till(: l,o vil.~t,Iyillcreased research, the cost
\11:111 (11111)11(~110 $ 1 r)/l)(';~.l< \v;~,l,l,,(.;~.llillg 1111.111(:rt,o $'10/~1eitkwatt in 1983. In the:
I I 1 I0 :II I I I o $2 1 w i t , 2 The (lecreasing cost of PV
1 1 " I I I I I I I - . ; I I I ( 1 1.11(, wo~~I(Iwi(l(~ growt,ll i l l L11cir 1isc: are illustrated in Fig. 12.1 (41.
l 11111111: :'I )Oil glol);~li11s~illk:dt~i~sc: of P V gweration excwcled 1 GW (1000 MW)
I 1 11 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 I.>;I I ~ I I I ( ' . 'I'II(~ (.ost.s oj. P V systcills llow (2002) vary between US$6 arltl

-
1 I:!: 1 :! 1 1 1 . 1 ~v;I,II,,
1
1 1 1 1 1 'III,:I
~ ( ~ S I I I ~ i~ l lI I(.osi.s

I I I 111:; 1l.01 1 1 I.III.;I.~ I ~ o ~ ~ s c l ~to

~
S I . O / W I . A t t.l~(:s('( : o s ~1 ~ ~ P~V111%
for PV-generated electricity from US$0.25/kWtl

o l ttfeleco~ll
ls
s econonlic advantage, for
repeater stations, over batteries ant1
Fig. 12.2. Forecast market growth in the PV industry [5]

* ' I I ! ~ . I I I ( ' J:~.III*I.;I.I.III. scst.swlltrrc. nlil.i~~s c:loc:tricity is unavailable [4]. for solar cell arrays of $0.15-$0.3 per peak watt. When maintenance: ~ I , I I ( I i 1 1 1 . ( - 1 1 ' : , 1
1 1 1 I 1 0 I * * (.o~tll)(~(.it~iv(, will1 (:oaventional generation the cost of electricitfly upon capital costs are added (probably more than doubling the pricc pcr ~)(':~.li witl.1.)
' 11.1 I \ , # . I l I I I t.ol)slltlli~r.s
1.1 1111lstI I O W (2002) be around $0.07 per k w h in the USA alltl the cost of solar-photovoltaic-generated electricity is found to be still sc~vc~l.;~,l I.~IIII.:.
1,'; j 1 1 . 1 Ii\Yll i l l (:I.(,;I.~. 13rit,;l.in. 'I'llis c:nergy cost corresponds to an installed cost, the cost of conventional generation, using fossil fuels. A relevant nunlerii!;~.l( S X ~ I I I I ~ ~ ~ I .
is given as Example 12.9, in Sec. 12.8.
( ,051 JIL~I w.111($/Wp)
Figure 12.2 shows a forecast of the anticipated growth of PV mark(:t O I ) I ) O I . ~ . I I I I I
M W Shipped
ties. Over 800 MW of new PV generation (equivalent t o a largc convcl~l.io~~i~,l IIIIWI.I

plant) is expected t o he added each year. The largest area of gmwt11 is c l x ( ~ c + c , l ( , ~ l

t o be in grid-tied systems. Large scale P V power generation schelncs will ~ ) r . o l ~ I: I ~Y l
remain in the demonstration phase [4,5].

12.3. Physical Nature of Semiconductor Materials [6]

Materials that are commonly used as semiconductors, such as silic.ol1 i1.11(1 J : ( ~ I . I I I I I

nium, are found to lie in the fourth column of the Periodic ?'able nf I < ~ ~ ( : I I I ( : '1'111. III.~.
outer layer of electrons, somctimes called the valence shell, in t,l~t:1lo11r 1 1 1 o ~ I01~ ' l
the atom consists of four electrons which enable a pure crystal o f ~ ~ ~ i ~ t , ( ! l . i1i0l . l I ~ I I I I I
tight covalent bonds. The nuclei consist of protons ancl 11c11trollss~lrl~rr I ~ I I ~ 1.1 : I 1.111,

respective atomic mass units. Quantum shells of clect,rons slirro~~tltl 1~1.1.11 I I I I I ~ \ I - I I : I

so that the total number of electrons is equal t,o tall(:i~.l,olnic: IIIIIIII)(~I. ~I.I)(I ( I ( ~ ~ . ~ ~ I . I I I ~ I I ( ~ :
the place in the Periodic Tntjlc of E1(?111(:11t.s.
The c,ov:~l(!l~t, lxwiing in t,I1(1 \i\,l,t,i(x: ()I' 11, 1)11v(! (,r,vsl,itlis l , i y , l ~ l ,111 L l ~ i ~ ~l ,- I I I ~ I ~ I V I ~ I
IIIIII-II (!~i(:rgyis II(:(Y!SS;L~Y i l l or(l(:r 00 II.(~I' i1.11 ( - I ( ~ I . I . I . o I ~ 1'1.0111 1 . 1 1 ( ~11o11(1 i l l 1 1 1 I I I ~ I . I ( ~11.
* IIVIII~
i ~ , l ) l ( 1'01.
> ( ~ I I ~ I , I ( .. ;~I I, I~. I~. . ~ ~ I I ~ ~I ',I,I I , I > S ( , I I I ~ ( , I , I I , I I I , , [ , ~ I I I I ~ I . ~ , I 1111:;
*I I I I I V I * ::III.II 1 1 i j ~ , I 1 I I * : ; I : ; I , I Y I I y
I,IIII.I. I . I I ( * ~I I I . I * i11s11li1.l.1 1 1 : ; I I ~ ,1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I * I I I ~ I I ' I ~ I I I I I C . ' l ' l ~ t ,; I ~ I ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ I I . I 01 I I I I11 \ ' I I I I I I I ~ ,1 1~f .~1 111111
I I I I ! I l l I 1 1I I I l l l l l l l l l l , I IIIIIIII 11~111,".1 "1 1 1 1 1 ~ . \Y111111I 1 IlII:.I. lIllI\'
 '1'11 4 . 1 I I I \ ~ I , I 1, 1111l.1, S ( * I I I I I ~IIIIIII.I,I
.~ 11. I I I ~ I , I , I I I . ~ ; I , I I'ro111 ;I, l i g l ~ l ~ - s ~ : ~ ~ I)III,
s i lgrossly
~ i v ~ : i~~(:ffi-
c II,III I ~ I ~ ~ I ~ I . I . ~ II ,~ ~~ I II ~\ ~, VI * I . ~ , (I ~I II I. O :I,101,111 SII~I,:I.III(> l'or 11s~: ill I , ~ ~ L L I s ~ s ~or
, ~ l)k~ot(~v(~lt,:ii~
~s
I c-If!:, I.:I~III.III(> 01' I I I I I ( . I I I ~ i j ; l ~ t -(r. I I I . I . ( ~ I I ( . ~:;~.~)i~.(:il.,y, it, is ll(:(:(:ssiLry t , ~il~crcilscthe con-
\,I~I:>IOII , ~ . (yi1,Il IN: IIOII(: l),y i ~ ~ ( : r ( > it~1s1i~
~ , I I ~ I ~ I - I I ( ~'I'llis cIlcrgy
~ ~ g of the outer shell
I.II.~.I,I S111.11I I I O I lili(:;1.1.io11
I 111.:. (:ill1 I)(: il,(,llic~c;(l
I)y ;L very complcx industrial process
IS 1 1 1 ~ V I 11s
I "(lol)i111:", wllc~rc,l)yo l . l ~ c~i~atic:ri;~ls,
~ lyi~lgin the third or fifth column of
I 1 1 1 . 1'c.l ~ o ~ l i 'I:LIJI(>,
c. i l l , ( : c:o~lll)illotlwit11 t,hu puro sen~iconductor. This revolution-
i1.r \, I J I (.:Ili IJII.I JII!!;~I w;l.s ~)io~lc:c:rc:(l t Bell Tc:lephone Laboratories in New Jersey,
i ~ t11c
IP:411, I l l I L I l l ~ I!)5Os.
(a) (b)

I . . I . ~ ; I Y ) ~ L ~( -(. ~
" I~ ~ ~ impurities
ptor) Fig. 12.3, Planar representation of doped semiconductor lattice: (a) acceptor impurity, (11) 11011~11

impurity (from [ 6 ] ) .
1 I I 1 111. I 1 1 , )I.I.:;S of' t l o l ) i l l g , ~ L ~ ~ ~ofI IaI selected S impurity material are substituted for
. l ~ ~ l l lI I ~( OsI I I : ; 01' 1 . 1 1 1 , ~ J I I Is. ( ~ ! ~ l ~ i ( : o ~ ~ cmaterial
i l ~ c t o r within its semiconductor crystal donor impurity forms an n-type (negative) semiconductor in which thc: ~ I ( , ( . III II : .~ I
I . (\l:~.lr~ri:~.ls s11c41;I.S I~oroll,aluminum, galliurn and indium lie in the third are called majority carricrs and the holes are called minorit,y carriers, whii:l~is 1,111.
I I I ~ I I I I I I I 1 1 ) 1 . 1 1 1 , I'(*rio(li(: 'I'i1.1)1(1 ~ L I are
I ~ characterised by having three electro~~s in opposite way round from acceptor-impurity-doped material.
I 1 1 1 . 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1'1. :il~l'll~.I ~ ~ ( . o r p o r a t of i o ~(say)
~ a boron atom into a latticc of silicon Because of doping, the high intrinsic resistivity of pure semiconductor ~lii~l*:~~iil~l
1111,111:~ I I . S I I I ~ S i l l :\.I\(:lli~:t,t,lii~tis depicted in Fig. 12.3(a). The impurity atom
is markedly reduced and doped materials are adequate conductors of electric ~ : I I I I ( ~ I I ~ , .
( 1 1 1 1 ~ .1.11\~;1.1(:11(. 1)011(1s wit11 i~cijacelltatoms. In the fourth side, however, no
11,1111:.
In this book the term "semiconductor" should always be taken to mean the chqrrl,
I I I I I~I I I 1 1 \( I.I(Y.I,I.I J I I is i~.~i~il;~l)lt! to I)olld with the semiconductor electron and a "hole" commercially available materials now so abundantly used in the electronics ii~(l~lslry.
, I ~ B ~ I I , I I I : I; I I 1111. II)(.;I,(,~I)II OE t,l~(:111issingelectron. Such incomplete bonding can be

( 1 1 I . I I I ~ ~ : Yl 1.1 I II.(.II~.
( ( , I ~ r o l ~ g l tl lo~~cc:rystal.
~t Group-3 or trivalent impurities are called
1 1.1 11 I 11 i l l 11 )~~r.il.ic%s I)(:(' ~ I.IIS[! 1,llc:y have the capability of accepting free electrons. The 12.4. Photovoltaic Materials
111 31 !III-:I I i l J I I oI':I. 111 ) I . c t ~ \ I . i i r . I tlifk:rc~~cc across the crystal will cause a migration of holes.
1 ) 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ :. I 1 1 1 r l . 1 ~ s(>lllic:o~~tl~~c:tol. 111at(:rialwith acceptor impurity forms a p t y p c 12.4.1. Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
( I 11 I ' . I I I V I * ) sc~~~ric~c )~~tl~lc:t.ol. i l l wllic.11 t,llc! holes are called majority carriers and the frcc
Early forms of silicon photovoltaic cells were very expensive because of diffic,l~ll.i(:s ill
1 . 1 t - 1 I I I 111:; : I I . I ~ (.;I,II(YI 111i11ori1.y c:;l.rric:rs. the industrial preparation of sufficiently high-grade silicon. Very pure sisgh: (:rysl,it,ln
of silicon needed to be grown as cylindrical ingots, about 10 cm diameter, i l l ~ ~ ( I I L I .
to maximise the cell exposure area. This is now known as "monocrystallira:" siliI.ol~.
Processing and fabrication problems still exist in the preparation of siilgl(\1'1,y:i
\IIIII,I l.11:~ sl11.11 ;t.s ;~.r.sor~ic., ~ ) l ~ o s l ~ h o;ultl r r ~ ttntin~ony
s lie in the fifth column of th(:
talline silicon cells, which remain very expensive The wafers are t y p i ( ~ i ~ 1' , l!10
l~
'1.11 4 , I 1 1 1 . '1'11 1 ; I . I I ~ ;I.I.(: ~ c:l~i~~-;~.c~l.c~risc.cl I)y having fivc c~lcctronsill their outer shc]ls,
300 pm thick and need to be cut by diamond slitting discs of about ~ I I ( >S ; I J I I ~ ~
I \ , I I I I ~ I I I I I , 101. (.III.III~(.:I.~ ~.c%;l.c.l,io~~s. I~~c.orl)ori~.tioi~ o f (say) a p l ~ o s ~ ~ latom ~ a r ~int,o ~ s 11.
thickness, which is both expensive and wasteful of the silicon material. Fr<:[)itr~\l,il 111
111 I S J ~ ' ~ ~ , I - I . I I I : I . I I ~ I I I;III ~ , I J I I I SY ( ~ S \ I ~ \i, S~ ~i L I (:fF(:(:i,
I l,l~:~t,is (I(:pi(.i,(:(l ill Fig. 12.:$(l)).'1'\1(1
of the pure crystals involves temperature corltrol - withill M . l ° C of i~ IIII.II i l l ,
I I I I I ~ I I11 \, I I ~ . I I I I II'OI~IIIS I ~ I I (I~ I ). v ; i I ( v 1101111s
~t~ wiI,l~:~(l,i;t,c:(:~~f, : L ~ , O I I I S 1,11t OII(: (!l(:(:t,ro~~ II(>I.
1420°C. After cutting, grinding and polishing - all labour-ir~tousiv(:o ~ ) ( ~ r ; ~ l ~ i o ~
1 1 1 1 ):;I 1 1 1 1 1 1 11:; ~ I . ~ ( I I I1i1.s I I'I.(Y, 1 1 1 I , I I ( * V;I,I(SII(Y~ sli(:Il. 'I'II(- I'IXY: I I ~ I , S r~>li~l,iv(,l,y
(!I(:(~~,I.IIII 11igl~ the silicon wafers have to undergo a gaseous diffiisioii p r o c ( : s ~ i ~ v e ~111r: I v iI)OIII~ ~ ~I ~ I I J :
I I I . I I ~ . \ ~I I I I I I I I I I I . , V 111, c.r~.silyI I I ~ I . I I . ( ~ I I I YI'I.~IIII I i1.s I ) ~ I . v ~ : I I;\.I,oIII
~. Oy (.II(- i ~ . j ) ) ~ I i ~ . i ~ . ( .01'i o t 11.11
~
of material. One developmelit tht~t,11iw I)(:cII~-(~spol~sil)\(: k)r r(vll~t.l.iolli l l
1 \ 1 1 I l l l.111- l~lys1,lll.
t,hr c:ost, of solar pllot,(~voltni(- a:ll silii-OIIis t,o grow 1,111: silicol~~.ryst,r~,I i l l 1,111- I ~ I I I I 111' I
;I ril)l)olr r ; l , t , l ~~.II;I,II
~ : ~ ;I,II il~gol..l \ y (Iri\.wi~\g 1,111. ~ 1 ~ 1 ~~.~"sl,il,l
1 1 I I O W ~ I , I . II ~/ I:~~I I I I \ : ~ I 11, 11i1.

i l l 1,111, I I I I J ~ ~ , I sili,.ol~,
~II ; I l i l , l J o ~ I ~, I ~ s ~ , I IS, I~~ V I * I ~ I;,I.I,
I\ IIIIIJI, I I I I I V I J I . ( I / I ~ , ; I ~ II I( I~ *~ )I ~! I I I I I
 I I \.$I.I~ I I I ~ I I I ' I 1.11 I ill1 IIO\\. 111. 111.1111, 01 011t1 1 1 1 1 . : ~ . ~ 1 ~ 11 1; 1 011.I ; I I I ! : I . 1 :\OO / I I I I \zlil11 III~I(.I~ 01' ~ I I ( . ~ ~ I . O II*'il:. , I I I Iis: ( , I I ; I I . (!cI11i., (!IS ;I.II(I I I I . I I ( % I . 1 1 1 1 1 1 l i l 1 1 1 I I ~ I . I I I I ~ I I I I ~ ~ , I( II I. O~ I
. I * I ):!..I
11. :. . ' I I l l l ! ' . l ~ l l l I l ~ 1 1 1 ~ " ~ 1 ; 1 111 1 . l - l ~ l l I1 1 1 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 1 ~ 1 ~ l l : ; I I y I)l"l.":>:; 0 1 ' 1 . 1 1 1 1 I l l ! ' , 1 1 1 1 1 1 \2';11;.1.:i 1 ' 1 . 0 1 ~ ~ S ~ I O W J I ); L I X , ;~l)o111,20 ~ I > ; I I . S l;1.1,(*1, 1 1 1 ~ I ( ~ v o ~ o ~ ) I I I I I~ , I~ I ;~I ,I I Si. I ~ I I I Si I . ( , I I S :I,I.I- I I I I W 11.11
I : I I ) ~ . ~ :. . I I I ! * . ~ I , I . I \ ~ ~ . I : I I I . \ I I I I I J I I I . ; I I I I I ~ ~ . I I I : : I:; I I I I , I I I ~ I I I I I I I I : I I I ~ I I . '1'111, I ~ I ) I I O I I I I I . O ( . ( > S Sr.c~s11l1~ proaclli~igtlic tli(~or(~l,i('i~l li111i1,of i,li(,ir offi(:i(:~~(.>~ will ~ , I I ~ I I - I ~ I I (~1~11s
II (~v(~III,II;I.II,v
I I I II.,,.. O I I I I , : , I I I I . I I ~ I ( I I ~ I I I l . I ~ t t t ~ - : ~ c l ~ l ~ i c11~1~1.11o0 ~ l ~ ; ~ l ; 1 1 1 ( 1 I ) I . O ( I I I ( . ( - ~ (~hlls wiI.11(!fli(.i(>~l(.i(>s catch up? A thin-film conlpetitor, not sliow~iill Fig. 12.4, is tali(:g i ~ . l l i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ; l . r . s c .
0 1 l l l l ~l l l l l l ~ l 10 (GaAs) cell, attractive because of its high efficiency. I t will opc:r;~t~c:i ~ t ,~ , ( : I I I I ) ( - I . : I
;\1101111.1 ~ I ( . V I ~ I O I I I I I I * I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 , I I S ~oI'c~rysl.;~lli~~c~ . I ~ I I . I I I S o S silic.oll is 1,11(, I I S ~ ot': I)olv- tures up to 200°C, whereas the maximum working temperature for silic:o~i,; I . I I O I I I
t I \ ,,,I ; I I I I I I I , : ; I I I ( . ( 1 1 1 I.;I,I II(>I. I , ~ I ; I , I I si11{;1(% (.rysI,:11I I I ~ I , ~ , (I;I,I. *I Mi~11,y ~ 1 1 i i ~ silico~l
lI crysti~l~ 100°C, is already accompanied by a serious loss of efficiency. Because of 1,11(*I ~ i ~ : l l c . l
:\I )I II,III
I. 1 I . ; I I I I \ ( 1111l.y wiI 1 1 1 1 1 I , I I ~ I I I ; I , ~ ( > I Y 01' l ) ( ) l , ~ ( ~ ~ ~ y ~ I~iii~t(!rii~l. , i ~ l l i i i ( >This is m11(.11 temperature tolerance, gallium arseilide cells can be used in focussing co~~c~c:~~l.r;lI
1 I I ~ . ; I ~ U . I 1 1 I 01 O ( I I I ( Y ' (.11;\.11 s ~ I I ~ : I ( ' - ( . ~ , v s I , ~ \ ~ h)r111s I ;1.11(1 l~scsiii11(.11 l(:ss silicon material. systems. Gallium arsenide cells, however, cost several times t,he price of silic.o~l1.1.11:.
Ii1.1 "111 1 - 1 1 ~ ~ I l i c ~ i c ~\viI ~ ~1 c1 ~1)oly(.r.,ysl.;~llil1(~
ic~s S O I ~ L I . IS i I W 0 1 1 1 ~5 7%. and it is questionable if the world supply of gallium would be adequate tjo I';~.c.iliI ; I \ ( ,
its widespread mass use.
I . . ~4~11rorl)lror~s
(Irirci-;~jstulline)
silicon ( a - S i ) A recent developnlellt is to use multilayer cells, with different energy tl;iq~s,!:(I
that sunlight first strikes the material with the largest band gap. One rtcc:111c l c . > i ~ : l l
III i l l l l l l l l ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ sili(.ol~I,11(>r(>
is 110 L C ' ~ ? ; I I ~ ~ Lcrystal
T structure. The very expensive stacks layers of gallium arsenide onto layers of silicon. A GaAs cell on to]) ; I . ~ ) S I I I I I ! ~
I 1 1 I 11 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 I . I . ( ~ ~ I I I ~ ( ~ I I O S i ~ ~ \ l o l v ~i )~
11 I I~
I.Cgsingle-crystal forms are unnecessary. Thc solar energy from the blue (short wavelength, high energy) end of thc S ~ ) ( ~ ~ . I , I . ~ I I I I ,
; I I I : . ~ ) I 1 1 1 1 1 I I I ( ~ 1 1 1 . l l i c . i c ~ 1 1 1 , 1'01. i ~ . ~ ~ i o ~ .sili(:oll, p l i o ~ ~ills the visible light range, is nlore tha11 passing redder light t o a silicon cell beneath. Higher conversion efficiency is ~ ' c ~ t a l i : l: ~ ~ ~
1 1.11 1 I I I 1 1 % : ~ 1.1 I('\J;I.I I I ( , t'( ) I . s ~ I I ~ ~ o - ( ' Isili~on. . Y s ~ , ~Alnorpllous
L~ silicon can be deposited by capturing a larger portioll of the solar spectrnm. The laboratory prot,ol,,~l)c~ 01
1 1111 I , : I I . ~ \ ~ I I J I , I I I : I . ( ('l.ii1.1 ( S O I I N : ~ , ~ I I I O S ( : i ~ l l ~"sl~bstrates")
1 1 d in very thin films, of th(: this new cell is reported to have an efficiency of 31% [B].
( 1 1 I 11.1 1 1111I ~ . I l i ( . l i . 'l'l~isg~.c:;~,l.ly L.(:(~IICCS the amount of silicon material used and, Some interesting research is under way to attempt t o make solar c:c:lls 1'1.0111
, I I . . I . I I I I I ~ I I I Iy, I I I ( ~ (.osl of' 1ri;r.ss ~)l.otl~~c:tio~i.
4
plastic materials rather than from crystalline silicon. This is, in effect, i ~ l il,t,1,('111
i I )I
A l I 1 1 1 11 1j9.11I ) I . ( ~ s I ' I I ( .i~ ~~ . ~l i ~i l~) Ii( :~ L I I I O ~ ~ ~silicon
~ O U S solar cells are relatively cheap,
101.11I I I ; I Y I I I I I I I I I c,Ili(.io~~(.y is low, of t,hc: order 7-10%. This raises interesting cost-
1 . I l i 1 I I , I I I . \ , ~ . ~ I I S I ( I ( * I . ; I I . ~ ~ Ii Il lS t,ll(\ (1(1sig11 of ally specific photovoltaic cell array. Amor-
1 1 1 1 , ~ 1 1 . . : , I ~ I I . I I I I (.(-1Iswi1.11 i1.11 (:Hi(:i(,i~(.y range 5-(5% are t o be used in a 50 MW
I 1 1 11 11.111 I ; I 1 1 . 1 1 ~ 1 ' 1 . st.;~.l.io~l
11 I 1,o 1 )(: l)llilt ill tllc tlesert outside Los Angeles, Californi;~,
I]:;!\ 1'11
( ' : I I I i l . 1 1 1 . :~~~ti(.il);~.l,o(l I,JI;LI. I'iit,~~ro ge~~(:r;~tions of amorplious silicon cells will
I . \ , I , I I I I I : I I ( \ ' ; I ( . I I ~ ( ' V ( , !.\I(% si1.111(1 I(:v(:Is of op~rationalefficiency as crystalline silicoil
1 1,11:," 1 1 I I I I I I J ~ , ~ ;I I I I I ~ I . I ) ~ I O I I SsiIi(.on ( i ~Si) i~iodl~lcs have dominated the consumc!r
4.11.1 I I I I I I I . : , I I I ; I I . ~ ( I % I sill(.(%
( I . I I ( ~ 1 !)80s, 1,lloy arc: o11ly currently (2002) being launchc~tl
l l l l ~ ll l l l ~~ 1 1 1 \ 2 ~ 1 l~l 1l ~; l l ~ l ~ l ~ l 171.

A
0
8 I A
V
0
0I I I I I I

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Year

Fig. 12.4. Development of thin-film, phot.ovolt.i~c

cckl ~ f \ i ( . i t ~ l l ( : i (17)
:~

+ crystalline silicon
W (:oppcr i11cli11r11 g a l l i ~ i r rS~I I I ~ I I I ~ ( I (Cl(;S)
I~
A r:trlrni~~rn~ , ( : I ~ I I ~ ~ I I I I )
0 ~ L I I I O I~ ) I I O I I S sili1~111
<, ~ ~ l l ~ l ~~ l l ll l ~~ ~
l l 1 i l l l ~
 'Khc cllergy (:ol~t,(:l~t,
I&' of' I,IIc ~ I I ( . ~ I I I I I I ri~,(Li;~l,iotl
K [ , I I ~ I . ( ,~ I I - I ) I ~ I I ( ~
is i l l (lis(.rc't,ol);l,(~I<(~l~s
on its frequency, according to tllc rclation

where f is the frequency in Hz or s-' and h is the Planck coilstant (6.62(i x I0 '''I .I3
or 4.136 x 10-l5 eVs).
The frequency f of the radiation is related to its wavelength X by t,llc: ~ . ( : l i l , I . i ( l ~ l
\

I . Ol)~'ri\t.iollof tkic S c r r ~ i c a n d u c t o rDiode and

Solikr I'l~ot~ovoltaicCell where c is the velocity of light (c = 2.998 x lo8 m/s).
Combining (12.1) and (12.2) expresses the radiation energy ill t.c8r11 1s (11'
I ,I-I. ;I ('I-~sI.~I.~ oI'lt-l.yo(:111i~tcl.inl l)c brought into conjunction with a crystal of n-type wavelength.
III~II,I*I.~~I,~ s11(.11 1.11i1.1.(,II(! ,j~lll(-t.ioll represents perfect continuation of the lattice. Eve11
I I I I I I I ~111118s(.il.(-cl sl.i~.l,c: ill1 of tllc dlargctl sub-atomic particles are in constant motion

I 1 1 1 1 ~ t 1 I I . I I ~ ~ I . I I I ; I II ~ I I ( ~ I . ~ Y 1 1. 1 1 ~iilcrcase of temperature causes the release of further

where the energy W is in joules when the wavelength X is in metres. Altc:r~l;~l.ivc~ly,
I , I ( Y . I I O I I : ; ~ I . I I ( I Ilc~l(\s (IIK: t80 t,he breaking of covalent bonds.
if the Planck constant is expressed in electron volt seconds (eVs),
' I ' 1 1 1 . I I I I~S ( , I I I I I I I O I I 1'0r111 of I ) r r jliilction device is the semiconductor diode re(:-
(:(

I 1 I i t . 1 , wllic.11 is ~)l.()l)i~l)ly t11c: rnost frequently used component in electronic circuit,^.

' 1 ' 1 1 t . ~ I . ~ I I I ~ ~ ( . ; I . ~ 01' I I ~xi,(:ri11~1Iy
. ~ ( Iil.11 applied reverse voltage across a p n junction dc-
v 1 1 . t . l.iltl:;(':i it. SIII:LI( I.CVOL.SC lci~ki~ge or thermal current. This condition is known iw where now the energy W is in electron volts when the wavelength X is ill i~~ct,~.c!s. 'I'll(.
I I . \ , I , I : ; t t 11i;l.s 01. ~.c:vtrrsc! 1)lockingin electronic circuits. If a forward bias voltage is ap- energy per photon a t various parts of the solar spectrum, Fig. 11.1 of Clli~l)I.(tr I I,
I ~ l 1 t . 1 1 il(.l.(lssi L 11 I I j~ill(:t,ioi~ tiovice, the low resistivity of the semiconductor material is given in Table 12.1.
I I - : , I I 11.5i l l (.II(* I ~ossiI)ilit,y 01' 11igll forward current, which depends upon the extcr- I t is significant to note that only part of the incident solar radiation (:iLII 1)rocI11(,(~
I I I I I ( . I I t . ~ ~ i li l. l l ~ ) ( ' ~ ~ i l l l ( : ( ! . T11c (lied(: rectifier therefore has the nature of a termini~l
a pl~otovoltaiceffect. The lniniinuln amount of input energy per phot,oll ~ ~ c ~ . t l (I , vI I l
\ ~ I I I I . ; I ~ I ,; ~~~, ( ' l , ~ i i ~ , l 011 , ( ~ l ,off swit,ch.
liberate electrons into a lattice of crystalline silicon (sometimes calletl t,llc: " c ~ ~ l c . r l l , y
A s ~ ~ ~ l ~ i c . ( ~ ~ ~1)c I,TI~ (iovicc ~ c ~ l . o(.;LI~ r . ~ L ~ Sbc O switched on by irradiating the p i 2 jl~ll(.- gap") is found to be almost 1.08 eV or 1.73 x From (12.3) or ( 1 2.4) r.t~i:;
I 1 1 1 1 1 \ Y I I . ~ II I I I O ~ . O I I S oI' ~11Hic.ic:llt cilc:rgy, a i d this is the basis of the solar photovoltaic~ occurs a t a wavelength X = 1.15 pm. The infrared portion of the sol:~rs ~ ) ( ~ ( . ~ , I . I I I I I ,
1 1 1 :I, sol;^^. ~)llol,Ovoli.il.i(: (,(:11 t,lic: incitlellt solar radiation passes through t,l~cb
t 6.11
with X > 1.15 pm, is useful for heating purposes but will not pho~,ovolt.i~ic~~~
11 I \ , I I I , ! I I ; I (.(s~.i:~l i111.o(,II(> j~~l~(:l,ioil. Sollle photo~lsof the incident radiation collitl(: energise silicon [lo].
\\, I I 1 I 1.1 I ( . V;I.II.I I ( . ( * ( , l ( ~ . l ~ l11 . c1s c )I'I.11(:silic:ol~(for c:xarnple) and are absorbed, relci~sii~~;
1 . 1 r . r . 1 I O I I S : I . I IJ II I ~ J ~ I ' S it11.oI,l~o(.I.,vsI,~LI Ii~I.t,ic(!.If t,he silicon re11 is electrically isoli~t.c~l Table 12.1. Photon energy, frequency, and wavelength for solar r ; ~ d i ; r l i o l ~ .
1 1 1 1 I I I ) ~ - I I t ' i l . ( . ~ l i t . 11, tlil.c>c.l, c r ~ r ~(11. f VOII,~LR(!will tll(:~lappear across it,s t e r i ~ ~ i r ~ i II' ~ls.
Encrgy [)('I 1~11o1011
1 1 1 1 . 1.1'11 1111.s ; I . I I t ~ ~ l . ( ~ t . t( ' ~l ( 'i( .~l , ~I . i ( . i ~ . l ( . i r ( . ~ ~ i(.o1111(:(*1,(:(1
l. 1.0 its l,(:rl~lil~;~ls, t,l1(\11:I. (lir(-(.(. - -

I . I I , I . I I 1 1 , I . I I I . I . ( \ I I ~ , ( I ') will ~ I I I W . Wavelength (pm) Requency (Ilz or s I) jo~llos ( , I I ~ ( ~ ~ , ~ Iv>oI lI t s

I\ 11 11 , ~ I I I I ( . ( . ~ ~ I ~I I~ I ~ o I , o v o l l , i (*oII ~ . i c * I,l~c!r.c,f'orc! I ) ~ : ~ ~ ' O I ~ 1,wo I I I S l'lli~(:l,io~~s S~IIIIIII.~III~- 0.3 (ultraviolet,) 9 . 9 ~ 1x 1 0 ' ~ (i.li2 x 10 I" .I. I:!:{
4 ~ 1 1 ~ ~ 1 \ ' 11, I I I I I . V I Y ~ ~ S I I I I I ~ ) : I I I , 1t.y ( ~ ~ I I v ( ~~I ~II O~~ ,~I I ~I lo I ~ ; (.II;I,I.~(>Si1,11(l it, i11s0
I SI I(-l(!(,t,l.i(* 0.5 (visible light.) 5.!)!)lj x 1 O 1 ' j :<.!I72x I 0 I" :!:I8
I I O I I I ~ I I ~ ~ ~1 . 1:1;1 . ( . I I ~ L I . ~ (~. ,; ~ ( ~~ . t . i ( < l . : i1.0 ( . I I ( ~ (It,vi(.(- l , ( $ l . ~ l l i ~ l i l . 1.11
l s II(Y.OIII(- (1ir1v.t voI(.i~.~:(-s.11' 11. 1 .O (rlct~ri~~fr?~.rc:il) 2.!)!)H x 1 0 ' " I .!lHli > I0 I :!I

l o 1 1 1 1 1:; ( , I I I I I I I - I , ~ . I Y ~I . 1 1 t . ( . I I I I , I ~ I , I Y jV,o i l l l o I I I I I ~ , ~ I I I I . I I ( ~ ( , I L I I 1 1 1 % ( ~ o I I I Y ~ I , I ~ I I ;, I S I ) ( ! ( * l ( ~ ( ~ l , ~ ~ i t ~
I . 15 ( I I ( Y I V IIII'I.;LI~IYI) :t.(i07 Y 1 0 ~ " I .i:!'7 .
10 ''I I 0'iX:i
2.0 ( I I I I ' ~ ~ I I ( Y I ) I .I!I!I h IO'" ( I !I<I:\* 10 (I ti:!
1 1 1 1 11'111 :!.(I(1111'1 I I I I Y ~ ) I ) !l!l!l:\ . 111~ 1 1 (i(i,.! . 10 In' (1 I l:i
 \ ~ ' I I ~I , I'I II ' IW I I \ J I ' I ~ ' I I ~ : I . I I I:i It':i:l (111111 I I I I O I I I I I ( I . I!) / I I I I ) 11sI ~ I I I ' I . ~ : Y I . O I I I . I ' I I I is . ; ~ : ' I * I I . ~ . I ' I .
l.ll111~ \ 111. ~ , ~I!(*
t . 1 1 l . l l ~ l l . l l ~ l l l ~ l )Vl1.l 111' I .(IS 1 - v . l ~ ; l l ~ t ~ l ~ l ~ l l; l\ lI!t in l ~ l ~ l t ~ l l , s l ! lf)ll l l , I ~ I l O lnx(?!ss
I * I I I * I J ~ , V 1111t1vtt I .(I8 t * V is I I ~ I S I I I - I I I ~ I I l),y L I I I * sili(.ol~; I . I I ( ~ r(L-;~,l)l)(>;~,~.s ;I,:; I I ( ~ ; L I , W I ~ , \ I ~ I I ( ,

1 I I I I ~I l l ~ l l l , i l l ~1 :0 I I l c , ( ~ I ~ v ~ l . ~I .. iI cI .~ I . ~ ~ flow.
II~. III l , l l ( . w i ~ . v ~ ~ lr;~.llgc:
~ ~ ~ ~O.:\g l( , lX~ < 1 . I 5 / r i l l ,
111. I I I I \ ' I 111l~I.it.lll1l.l. J'I.('(IIII'II(.Y, ;I. ~)l.ol ) o l . l . i O l l I .OH/W' 01' 1.11(:i ~ ~ ~ O ( : i i ~ t ( : ( l W' is
c:llc:rgy 12.7. Electrical Output Properties of the Solar Photovoltaic Cclll
\ \ ' ~ ~ : ; t . t ~11.l:; 111ti1,lj.O V I ~ILIlis I . sl)(:(.I,~.i~,l I . ; I , I I ~ O ; L l)roporlfiot~ :{:{%, of' t,l~ei11pllt eilergy
The external characteristic of a solar cell is the property of current vc:rsi~svoll.~~.j:c$.
I I 'I'l~isI . ~ Y ~ I I I V \. .S\ I ( . I I I ~ L X ~ I I I II,l~(:orc:t,i(.;~l ~I~I col~v(:rsioi~ cfici(:ncy t , 44% ~ for a
An ideal characteristic would be rectangular in shape. Practical chara.ctc:rist.ic~s ill rs
I M - I I ~ , t . l . l y ~ . t ~ ~ ~ s l . rc~r,ysl.ir.lli~~c~ ~ ~ c ~ l . c ~silic,or~ l (:(~11.
roughly rectangular, Fig. 12.6. Each different level of incident radiatiol~ rc-s~lll.:~
I I I i~tltlil,iol~ 1,o ~ . I I ( : illt.ril~si(: pl~ysi(::l.lliir~itat~iolls abovc, any photovoltaic cell is
in a different characteristic. The intercept of a characteristic on the r~~rrcslll r~si:~
! ; I I l I ~ I , I . \ . I -l ~ 1.1 I I'III.~,~ 11-1. 11 )SSI%S(Ill(: 1,o its c:lect,rical operation. The passage of cur-
\'

I 1 - 1 1 1 . 1 . \ 1 1 ( I I I ~ : I I OII(* s ( ~ ~ ~ l i c . o ~ ~ crllilt,(:riil.l l l ~ ( : t ~ oCr~ I I S C Sheating ( I ~ Rlosses ) and this may represents zero voltage drop across the cell terminals and is the short circ~lil,1.111.rt.11t
1 1 1 - V ~ I I I ~ I ~ I ~ I I : I . ~I)y . ( ~ ~( ,II t ( , ( . o ~ I I , ~ L I : I , r(:sisti~i~(:e between the terminals and the cell ac- Isc which is (almost) directly proportional to the incident light intensity. 'I'llis I : I
I I ~ I -~ l l r l . l . t - l . i ; ~ . l . 'I'l~(,r(* is ILISO pow(:r loss a t the cell junction which must be strictly true for individual silicon cells, Fig. 12.7, and also for solar arrays of many i ( I ( * l ~ I . i c . Il ~
cells, Fig. 12.8 [12]. The intercept of an I-V characteristic on the volt,agtr 11.xisi l l
4 . 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I ~ - I I 1.0 i~.voitlOv(:rl~(:i~(.il~g. T ~ I C Svarious C forms of loss contribute additional
Fig. 12.6 and Fig. 12.7 is the open circuit voltage Voc, which varies l o g . a r i l , l ~ ~ ~ ~ i
I ~ I I I I I I N I I I I ~ I1.11 I ~ .~~. I I ( . l i l ~ ~ i ( , i ~oIf, iworking c ) ~ ~ efficiency. The final result is that a n opera-
with the incident light intensity, Fig. 12.8. Most solar cells operate with ;L wol.ltillV,
I I , I I I I I I I 111t , v o l ( i ~ . i c(*(:I1 : c:oi~sl,ructc:dof crystalline silicon has a maximum theoretical
level of direct voltage of less than 1 volt.
\ v 1 1 1 l t i 1 1 l : c~l1ic~i1~11c.y of i~l)o~it, 23%, ;~lt>hough this is seldom attained or approached
I I I ~ , ~ I I I I I I I I * I~)l.il(.(,i(:(: . ~ . ~ ~ I . I Ill]. Rncent (2000) laboratory prototypes claim efficiencies
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , I I I I . I I ~ I ~ ,25'X, 171. 12.7.1. M a x i m u m power d e l i v e r y
hI11x i l l l l l l l l ~.(~;~.lis;~I)l(: (:fli(:ic!l~cicsfor various materials are shown in Fig. 12.5, In direct current circuits with a solar cell source the power generated is t.11(:1)1'011
wlllt.ll is 11. s ~ ~ l o o l ~ li~,~)proxirnatc ~c~l, characteristic [12]. Each material has its own uct of the cell voltage and current. For typical characteristics like Fig. 12.6 1111-
I l~~~~~~~,!~.~.i:it.ic.:r.ll,y c:t.ii.ic.;~lva.llte of energy gap, corresponding t o the 1.08 eV for
maxirnurn power delivery point lies in the region of the knee of the curve,. '1'111~
r i l l l l . t ~ l l . As I . I I ( ~ .j1111('t,io11 t,c:rnperature of a semiconductor material increases, its
current and voltage at the maximum power point Pm are defined here as I,,,,, i 1 1 1 ( l
I ~ ~ , I I I : ; I I . I I I I *c - l l i c ~ i c . l ~ c ~is , y r(:(I~i(:(?(l. At 100°C, for example, the characteristic of Fig. 12.5
Vm, respectively, and the maximum power deliverable, for that particular vi~.l~~cb 01'
\vt I I I I I l I ) I * 11 )wc~c.t I , ro~ighlyuniformly, by about 40% and the maximum efficiency insolation, is
1111 : ; i l i r , t 111 wo~~ltl tlrop t,o 14%. It can be seen that the materials gallium arsenidc
( ( : I I A:;), I . ~ I , ( ~ I I I ~ ~ (,(:llllrilli~~ IIII (C(lT(:) i~11dalllininium antimony (AlSb), for example,
 v i ~ , ~ I'I.(IIII
(,;I,II .y ( . i l . ~ . ~ l i Il I I ) ( ~ I . I I . ~ . I ~1.0I I i ~ l l i ~ ~ i l , , y ~ I J ) ( ~ II, II I ( . I I I ~~ I ) I ( ' I ~ : I
Y , I > I - I I I'or sl~oll,

111 ortlc!~t,o tlolivc~l\.\I(: I I I I I . X ~ I I ~ I I I l)ossiOl(~

II I ) O W + ~ I . , 1'01. ii sl)ct(.iIi(vll c ~ v ( ~ 01'l ~ I I S O \ I I . ~ . ~ I I I I ,
RL rr~ustsatisfy ttlic: r(:Ii~l,io1isl1i1)

12.7.2. Equivalent circuits

The electrical performance of a photovoltaic cell can be approximately rc:prc:scs~~l.c$ I
by the equivalent circuits of Fig. 12.9, for the constant current regions of Figs. I :?.I;
and 7. A constant current generator which delivers its short circuit curro~\kIs( L I I
the power source and this is shunted by a nonlinear (i.e. does not obey 0li111'sI r l w )
resistor Rj representing the variable junction resistance. For most circ~ii(, c.lr.l(.~~lll,

(V)
1)irccl v~~lragc tions the equivalent circuit of Fig. 12.9(b) is satisfactory. A more sophist,ic~i~l.c~c
I, IIII(,
more appropriate, representation is given in Fig. 12.9(a), where the int(:r~~ll,l ~ I I - Ii ~ v
I I!' . ' l ' v l ) i ~ . ; ~I.. Il I I . I . I . I I ( ~ o l I . i ~ g( (: l. ~ i t ~ ~ i ~ ~ l , cofr i as tsolar
, i ~ s photovoltaic cell jll] resistor Rs is much smaller than R L , while the internal shunt resistor R,?,,is 11111i.11
larger than R L , for maximum power delivery.
The equations of circuit operation for Fig. 12.9(b) are

Constant current Constant current

Source SOUTCe

(4
 1~;1~111:l.I.1011 111 I I l l . 11111 I l , \ V . I \ ' I ~ I 1 4 ~ ; l l l l 1 4 ~ I l I ~1 1I . 1 \ , ! . ~Il~:~IIllt.l.lvl~ l.lI1.1I : . i l l 1 ~ , 1 ; 1 1 1 1 . I l l ~ I , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 l
lilis i l ' it, W;I,:< IIIIS(III(~I.I,IYI I : I . I I I ~ * I 1 1 1 ~ 1 , 1,111, "II(.;II,II I.;I.~" I,II;II, I , > , I ~ , I I I I , : ; I I I S O I I I I . li1111s
a11c111ovc:ls. l < ~ ~ i l ( l i ~; I l, IpI ,I ~ I I I ~ I , I I I ~ . ; I , ~ I I ~ I:I I K[~ro,i(,(.l, 01' 1,tlis six(! w ~ I I I ( I I I I V O I L V ~ ( Y ) I I ~ , ~ I I I I
ous rnannit~gby opcratio~l:~I pc:rsollucl al~tlfrcclr~cl~t, trips for 11~:spi~c:c:st~~tl,t.li.. It.
therefore raises the questions of human life and health in space. The lnassivc: c:ost.
could only be borne by governmental funding, or with governmental particip;tt,io~~.
Solar photovoltaic electricity power stations on earth are an existing rc;l.li(.y.
They comprise a solar cell array - usually combined with some form of concent,r;\.
tor system, a storage battery facility capable of accepting most or all of the sol;^^
power output and a suitable control system. Terrestrial or earth-bound solar I , ~ W I * I
stations are only viable in regions of intense radiation, such as North Afi-ic:;~., ~.III.
Middle East, and countries with a Mediterranean climate, like the souther11 I K I I I::
of the USA, and Mexico.
,"M'
1
$1,-
' I / 1 1 Mission 4A: scheduledfor 1 The Winston compound parabolic concentrator, described in Sec. 1 I .TI.? 1 1 1
' 4 November after the firqt 1
Chapter 11, can also be used for solar photovoltaic energy capture. Bect~~~scs r,ll1.
Photovoltaic panels and
heat radiators on the flight efficiency of conversion is reduced at high temperatures it is usually rlecessi1,r.v 1.11
will be attached t o the use liquid cooling for silicon cells, as illustrated conceptually in Fig. 12.13.
\
>tyw \p,~?cr,~ft
#
I
'1,
)/ truss structure and de-
Ployed as shown Russia's
three-man Soyuz craft will
I A commonly used form of concentrator in photovoltaic systems is the Frc~s~~c.l
] be available for any erner. lens optical system. This is a refracting lens system that uses glass or plastic I(,II>;
/ gency return t o Earth.
\L material in which concentric (or parallel) grooves are cut or moulded. The grc1ovc.s
are shaped and arranged to make all the light converge to a point or along i L l i r i c . ,
1,'i~:. 12.15. I I I ; I ~ St,:~t,ion
I I I ~ ~ I ~ I ~ I I ; I ~ , I ~Spc~(;1: [16]. Fig. 12.17. Common uses of Fresrlel lens systems include theatrical spol.lil:l~1,s.
Lighthouse rotating warning lights invariably use large Fresnel lens systems. I , O W I ~ I
power applications include solar cookers and solar furnaces. The Fresnel h\os I . O I I
centrates the input radiation like a magnifying glass. Use of Fresnel lens s y s t , ~ , ~ ~
can provide the equivalent of 50 times the normal solar radiation, solnct,i~~lc.s 11.

ferred to as "50 suns". [Note that this is not the same as a concentratio11 r ; i . l . i ~ i01
50, as defined in (11.6) of Chapter 11, which refers to a ratio of two aren.s.1
A 350 kW solar voltaic system is in operation supplying two villagos o ~ ~ l . : ; i t l ~ .
Riyadh, the capital city of Saudi Arabia. An assembly of 160 photovoltaic ; I I . I : ~ y : ; .
Fig. 12.18, using Fresnel lens concentrators, delivers pourer to the 1100 1cWl1I I . ; I ~ I
acid storage batteries and also provides input power to the local 60 Hx c ~ l ( ~ c . I ~ ~ .vi ~ . i t
grid through a DC-to-AC three-phase inverter. One of the local C ~ J V ~ ~ ~ I I I I I I ~ , I I ~ ; ~
features is desert sandstorms and the F'resnel lens surfaces are cleaned I I I ; J , I I I I ; I ~ I I ~ I'y
washing with water [18].
Most of the serious research work on solar photovoltaic cloc:t,ric: ~)owc,~ ~ : ~ . I I I . I; I

tion is now taking place in Germany, Japan and the USA. Vi~riol~s i~~st.:r.ll;~t ~ I , I I : ; w11 11

ratings of the ordcr of a few hundred kW, lip t,o a fcw t,ol~sof MW, ;r.rc! I ) ~ ; I . I I I I ( ~I I ( 1 1 I I I I
dcr citrvc:lopmc:l~tor arc rrow ill c:orlll~~issiol~. This i~~c:l~ldcss ;I. tl(:sigrr 1'111. ;I. I . O I I I I I I I I I I I I \

(,,oIl(y,(: i t 1 A~~G~,IIS:I,S, IJSA, wit,11;i11~:l(~(~t,ri(:;~,l I I I I ~ , ~ ) I IoI'~i20

~, IcLV I'IXIIII :I!J;IOO : ; I I I J ~ , ~ ~ ,
rr,ysl,;~,l s i l i ( ~(.I>IIS ) ~ ~~ I I ( . ~ I ~ I I ~ I ~ ; I ,1);11.;1,I)olic. ~,III~~, ~ , I . O I I ~ , ~~, I~ ; I , I ~ I < I I( I ~~ O~ I, I ~ . I ~ I I ~ , I ~ ;1I. t~1 1O1 1I . q I T * , : ,

w i l , l ~; I . I I ; I V I ~ I . ; I , J ~ I, I~ ~O I I ( ~ I ~ I I ~ , I ~ ; I . ~01, I O :I iIO S I I I I : : ,
 Fig. 12.18. Concentrator photovoltaic array in Saudi Arabia [18] using four-c:c.ll 1111il.s.

In Arizona, USA, an experimental 20 kW photovoltaic array llas I)(Y,II I ~ ~ l i l l .

using innovative cells made of crystalline silicon. These are mounted u l l t l ( ~i~.c.~.ylic.
concentrating lenses and are reported t o have conversion efficiencies gr.c:;l.l.csl.t . l i r l l ~
20%. A 100 MW photovoltaic array using thin-film silicon technology is ~ ) r . o l ~ ~ ~
for the US Department of Energy's site a t Nevada [19]. Annual US s l l i [ ) ~ ~ l c s(11'~ ~ ~
photovoltaic cells increased from almost zero in the early 1970s to grc:;l.l.cs~- 1.11ri11

75 MW in 1996 and to 77 peak MW in 1999. Crystalline silicon cells ( . O I I ~ . ~ I I I I ( >1.0

dominate the US market, accounting for 96% of the total shipments ill I!)!)!) I20(.
Quad lens In the USA the industrial sector has now (2002) replaced the re~ideilt~iirl sc:c:lJo~. II:~

the largest market for PV cells and modules.

12.9. The Future Challenge for Photovoltaics

The challenge in the development of photovoltaic materials is t l c u ~ o ~ r s ( . ~ ~i l:l ~ I . (

Fig. 12.19, which compares the spectral profile of the sun (at m -- 0) wil.111.111, 1.1 I I
responding profile for commercial grade silicon. In a radio or t c : l ( : c ' o i ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~III:I ~~i(.
system these two curves would be described as a bad mis~~li~I.c:l~. '.~'III: S I I I I 1 1 1 ~ o I i l 1 ~
is not going t o change. What is needed is a cheap i~11(1~ L ~ I I I I I ( ~ I~ ~L II I;~I ,. ~ , wiI.11 I * I . ~11; I , ~
sp(:(:t,ri~I r(:spoilsc t,hat is a bct,tcr fit t,o tall(:solilr c:l~;~.~.;~c.i.c~rist.i(: il.11(1 1 1 : 1 ~:I. I l i j ~ , lI '~I I I ' I lr,y

c:or~vc:rsioi~ cffic.ic~~c:y. Alt,r:rr~i~t,ivc:ly, tllc 1lcc:cl c.o~~ltl I)(! si~.l.islic:tl wil,ll S O I I I l~, , ~y l l t h ( 1 1
~.i~,(Ii;~,l,io~l I I I ; I , ~ , ~ , \ I ~(l(:vic:cb
~IK (wl~i(:l~ is, i l l ~:ll'(:t~l,, ;I, I ' I T Y ~ I I ( ~ I I ( ~(,II;I,II[;(T)
,~ II(-~.WIY*II l.l~t$
i ~ ~ l ) ~ sol;^^.
l l . ~-:~.tIi;~.l,ior~ i 1 1 1 ( 1 1.111- sl~(v,l.r.;~.l
~ ) l . o l i l v(11' 1,111. sc11:11. (.(-I1 ~ ~ ~ : r . l , ( * t . i : ~I l~ ; I I I I I . I I I ( I I I ! I
 Which module has the larger I,, measured a t the standard insolation of 1000 A/III"'/

It can be assumed that I,, is proportional to the insolation

For module 1 looo

I,, = -
400
x 1.25 = 3.125 A
Human

For module 2 looo

Isc= -
400
x 1.05 = 3.23 A
Wavelength (millimicrons)
The calculation shows that module 2 has the higher standard value of I,y,..
I ' I !I ! of
S ~ ~ , c : l . r~.c!sl~onses
l~l sunlight and a silicon photovoltaic cell (unknown origin).
Example 12.3
I I - ~ I I * I chlrort.
I . I , I . ~isI prc?sc?l~t,ly
devoted to this task all over the world. The highest, A 28-cell module of a solar array has Voc = 17 V a t 25OC. What will t)t: 1.1113 v11.lllc3

t c c . ~ ~ - ~ ~ I , i r~.c~c.oli~.tl(:
lic. and great wealth will go to the successful inventor/discoverer. Voc at 60°C if the cell data specifies 0.0024 V/"C/cell?
hqc I:;(. of
I.11cb work now under way involves government-sponsored or government-
Temperature difference = 35°C
ti111 I H I I list-I l rc,sc~rl.rc:l~ prototypes. The big commercial future for photovoltaic electric:
From (12.14) the reduction of open circuit voltage is given by:
I M ) W I * I .) : I - I I ~ * I . ; I . ~ , ~ ~still
II awaits the development of a much cheaper photocell.
Voltage reduction = 28 x 35 x 0.0024 = 2.35 V
Working value of Voc is Voc = 17 - 2.35 = 14.65 V
12 . 1 . Worked E x a m p l e s This represents a reduction of 2.35117 or 13.8%.
If the short circuit current is only slightly increased by the temperat,llrc: rises, 1,111,
implication here is that the maximum power will decrease by the ordcr 10 I YX,.
A :;I,~II.I (.(,I1 ilrrny has a current--voltage characteristic, a t the standard insolation Example 12.4
(11 1000 W / I I I ~in, which Vo, = 11.5 V and I,, = 1.75 A. For a particular resistivc:
In the current-voltage characteristics of Fig. 12.10 for a typical photoccll, wlirll, v11.1
1 1 1 1 1 t 1 I/,,,,,7.75 V illi(l I,,T, = 1.15 A. Calculate the maximum power deliverablc
ues of load resistance would result in maximum power output a t the t1irc:o sl)c:c.ilic~tl
11 111 1 1.111' IOII.( I r(~sist,i~~ic(:
that will result in maximum power delivery
radiation levels?

At 1250 W/m2, maximum output power Po occurs when V = 0.447 V n.llcl I

58.1 mA so that Po = 0.447 x 58.2/1000 = 25 mW.

Similarly, a t 1000 W/m2, for maximum output power it is seen that V :--0.42H V
and I = 48 mA, giving Po = 20.54 mW.

Also, a t 500 W/m2 input radiation, the maximum output powcr oc:c:~ll.s111, C'
0.428 V and I = 25.2 mA, so that Po = 10.8 mW.

It can be deduced from these results that, t,llc: rtli~xi11111111 o ~ ~ t , p powcr

lit is i ) r o l ) o r t . i o ~ ~
to tlic i n p l ~ tradiation I)owt:r, witliil~i l t ~ o ~5'~
X1t ,c:rror.
 Example 12.7
A number of identical solar cells, having the characteristics of Fig. 12.20, i ~ r x :(.OIJ
nected in parallel. How many cells would be needed to deliver 1 A of currc:~~t t,o Ir
'1'111. l,,vl JI(.II,I ~)l~ol,o(:(~ll wit(11( : l l i ~ ~ . i ~ ( * t , ( , r i(lopi(:I,(!(l
~t,i(:~ ill Fig. 12.20 is dclivcring powcr
10 R load resistor with an input radiation level of 1000 W/m2?
I I l o I S ~ S I I . , 7.5 12 wit.11 nil i l i p ~ r;~diation ~t of 1000 W/m2. What is
I I \ ( * v r ~ . l ~ l 01' rc:sist,or I<:, irl tllc equivalent circuit?
c . 1,I 11. .jl~~~c.l,ion With a load resistance of 10 R the load line intersects the current-voltago (.IIILI.II.I'
I I , 7.5 6 2 t.11(: I.(:s~s~~LII(:(:
lirl(: irit~rsectsthe 1000 W / m 2 characteristic a t ;I
teristic for 1000 W/m2 a t the co-ordinate V = 0.46 V and I = 45 mA.
I', I:ig. 12.15, w1lc:rc: t,lic tcrlrlirlal voltage V = 0.364 V.
l,o~qi.
At 1000 W/m2 the short circuit current is 50 mA. Each constant currcrlt gc:~lc-rr~.l~
11' 1.1118 si~~~l)lilic:tl
(!(l~~ivi~I(:lit
circuit of Fig. 12.9(b) is used, then the load current is is therefore delivering 5 rnA of current t o its identical junction resistor, nut1 115 I I I A
t o the load resistor, Fig. 12.21. To deliver 1 A, therefore,
1
Necessary number of cells n = - = 22.22
'1'111% I.( I I I S ~ . I I I I ( .(.IIrr(:ut,tl(:livcrcd by the constant current generator is the short circuit 1000
\ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ( - 01' 50 IIIA.Wit,ll 7.:) 12 load the junction resistor current is therefore, from

( I :!.!I), The design choice is to use either 22 or 23 cells.

With 22 cells, I = 22 x 0.045 = 0.99 A
With 23 cells, I = 23 x 0.045 = 1.035 A
.I I I II(.I I( )II Ii3 tlicrcfore has the value
~.(>sist,or

A t.ypc: of c:orllmcrcial solar photovoltaic cell has Vmp = 0.48 V and Imp =
~.~&I.~,II.~II

:!I) IIIA/(.III' 1111derstandard insolation conditions. What combination of cells would

I I ( ~ 1.cvl11irc.tlt,o fully c:llargc a nickel-cadmium battery requiring 4.2 V and 70 mA?
N~~rlibcr of cells irl series - 4.2
- --- = 8.7 (say 9)
t,o slipply thc voltage 0.48

Arcs of solar cell

70
~ r ~ a t ~ c rt,o
i agc:ucrirte
l = - = 2.4 cm 2
29
1.11(:rc:cluirc:cl c,~~rrc:lit,

Output voltage I V I

Fig. 12.20. o l I (.IIILVIL(.I,I~I

S I ) ~ ( ~ I I~I (~-l I~I o l ~ o v 1.t-I1 , ~ ~ i ~ ~ i*I,i(.*.

I,,,,, ! 87 I I I A
A 11111111)orol' i(l(:~~l,i(:i~l
soli~r(~:lls,I I I L V ~ I I ~I.II(S ('I~i~ri~('I,(:risI,i(.s
01' Icip,. 12.20, rl.rcb( . I I I I -
nected ill s(!ri(!s. How I I ~ ~ L I Is(!ri(!s
Y (:oi~~~(:(;l,(:(l(;ells arc ~icc(lc(l t,o dclivcr ILII O I I ~ , I ) I I ~ ,
of 10 V to a 10 (2 load resistor with ail illsolation lcvcl of 1000 W/in2.
With a load resistance of 10 R the load line intersects the 1000 W/m2 c:~~rrc:r~l.
voltage characteristic a t the co-ordinate V = 0.46 V and I = 45 mA.
At 1000 W/m2 the short circuit current is 50 mA. Each constant current gc>~~c~l.n.l,
therefore delivers 5 mA of current to its junction resistor R j , and 45 mA t,o t,11o Ion.11
resistor, Fig. 12.21(b).
The load current is equal to the constant current-source value of 45 mA. Tl~caI o ~ ~ t l
voltage is the sum of n series-connected identical voltage drops Vj.

To deliver a load value of 10 V requires

The design choice is to connect either 21 or 22 cells in series

With 21 cells, V = 21 x 0.46 = 9.66 V
With 22 cells, V = 22 x 0.46 = 10.12 V
Example 12.9
In a particular location in the USA the solar insolation has a powc:r tl(-~~sit,y
of 1000 W/m2 for an average of 112 hours/month. The energy dcmilncl is lilt.
1500 kWh/month. This can be provided by a solar cell array with an e s t , i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t
lifetime of 20 years. The cost of the solar cells is about $3 per peak watt,. l.'r~l)r.ic~r
tion, maintenance and interest on the capital cost effectively (at least) do~ll)l(:sI,II(.
price per peak watt. Calculate the cost of the energy per k w h .
1500
Required power = -- 13.4 kW average
112
Cost = 13,400 x 3 x 2 = $80,400

Energy consumed in 20 years = 1500 x 12 x 20

= 360,000 k w h
Cost per k w h = 80,400/360,000
= $0.223/kWh

This should be regarded as a niinimum and rat,lx:r opl,i~~iist~ic: figrlrc:. 'I'Ii(: I ) I ' ~ ~ H I ~ I I I .
(2002) tariff for electricity in tlw lJSA is I L ~ ) ~ $0.07/kWll. I I ~ TII(! (.ost, 01' HOIII,I,-
gc!ii(:ri~t,(~l
(:l(:ct,ri(:it,yt,l~(~r(:for(~ (11. :\ ( ~ I , I I I( 1 )roI)1~1
IIIWIS t,o I)(> I.(VIII(YYI l),y 11 S~~(*l,or 11.y
iriorc~)i l l or(I(b~.I,o I ) ( $ (.o~~~l)c~l.il.ivc.. I'~~.l~~~ic.rll.io~~,
'I'11(9 ILII(I l i ~ l r l l ~ ( ~ i l ~
~lll~illl,c-l~n.~~c.(-
 12.10. Sk~!t,(,l~
I,II(! (:11rr(:111,
voll,~~g(s of il tf,ypi(~~~l
(.IIII,~ILI.I,I;I.~s~,~(: sol;~r~)l~ol~ovolt,~~,i(* (~111,
Idelitify tSlicpoiliLs of op(:r~~t,iol~ for (1) ope11 cir(x1it volt:~ge,(ii) sllort, ( ~ i 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 1 i 1 ,
current, (iii) maxiniu~ripower tlelivery.
12.17. Sketch the current-voltage characteristic of a typical solar photovolk~lic(Y:II.
Identify the point of operation for maximum power delivery. How wol~ltl
you determine this location?
/!fl.'llf' /j/l~/,Sl(','i fYtLl,S
,SO~(l,'l'~ ~ / l , f l / ~ f l ' l l O ~ / ~ f l , ' ~ ( '
12.18. For a silicon photovoltaic cell what are the approximate values of 1,111:1.1lt.ioti
1. 1. I ,is!, 1,111. ; I , I ~ v ; I , I I ~of, ; Ipllot,ovoltaic
.~I:s cclls c:oniparcd with solar thcrinio~~ic: (i) Vmp/Vocl (ii) Imp/Isc?
-,, J I ~ )~)!i~~;~,l,io~~s. 12.19. A module of solar cells has I,, = 1.5 A when the radiation is 1000 W/III'.
; I)c~sc.ril)c~ t,llc: ;lt,omic: st,ruc:t,llrc: ol silicoil illid explain the term "covalc:~lt, What will be the value of Is, when the radiation is (i) 850 W/III',
/
I)Olltl". (ii) 300 W/m2?
I ; I )t~sc,ril)c> 1,111) clilri:rci~ccs 1)c:twc:c:ii the types of silicon semiconductors kriow~~ 12.20. For the solar cell characteristics of Fig. 12.10 identify the operi~t,i~lg voll,lry,~~
11,s(;I.) ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ o c . r y s t , i ~(t)) l l i l polycrystalline,
l(:, (c) amorphous. and current values, with load resistances of 8 R and 20 R, for rstlii~t,io~~ I~*vchln
1I , l C x l ) l ; ~ i1,11(- ~ ~ t,c:r~l~s " ~ r - t y ~silicon"
)~: and "p-type silicon". of (i) 1000 w / m 2 , (ii) 500 W/m2.
I;!, Wl111.1, is t.110 ~~liiiii~luni clicrgy of the incoming radiation that will cause (:IN:- 12.21. The temperature effects on a certain solar cell arc spc:cilic#tl I I N
I . I . O I I St,o Ilow :~.c:ross t,llc: eiicrgy gap in silicon? How is this energy relatotl Lo -0.0024 V/"C/cell and +0.006 mA/"C/cm2. A modular array 01' : j o (.I$IIN
1 . 1 1 1 ~ I ' I . ~ Y ~ I I ( ~ ~ I ( : ~w;i.vcl(!rigt,l~
, i ~ n dvrlocity of the radiation? generates Voc = 19 V a t 25°C. What is the change of Vo, lor (:;I.I.IIlo"(!
I! i Wl~ytloos t,li(: cfficic:l~rychi~ract,cristicof Fig. 12.5 fall off at high valucs oI' rise of cell temperature? Estimate the percentage change in 1,111: vrll1118 111'

1 111, c~lll~rg,y gill'? maximum power Pma t the same insolation level.
I ! ;. Wl1i1.I)is t,Il(: c:Lf(:ct, of t,c!nlpcrature on the efficiency of a photovoltaic (:(all 12.22. Sketch an equivalent circuit for a silicon solar photovoltaic cell. How is L I I I S
()l)(sr;~t,ioi~'! source current of your equivalent circuit related to the solar radiakio~~ frllli~ly,
on the cell?
12.23. For the solar cell characteristic representing 500 W / m 2 of Fig. 12.20, t l ~ ~ v o l ~ q
W11i1.t~ i~.rc,I,11(:principal diffic~ilt,iesin manufacturing single-crystal silicoi~li)r an equivalent circuit for operation at the maximum power point PI,,. ( :II.~I.II
I!
late values for the load resistance, junction resistance and brand^ ( : I I ~ ~ ( : I I ~
1lscbi l l ~)l~ot,ovolt,aic cc!lls?
12.24. In a silicon solar cell the effective junction resistance Rj varics wi(,l~( . I I ~
? WII;I.~, is 1,11(, principill advantage of producing single-crystal silicon by grow-
rent. For a constant insolation of 1000 W/m2, using the cl~i~rilc:t,c:rist,ic. ill
i ~ t ~, I ~ (gs c.ryst,i~lill tllc form of a ribbon rather than a cylindrical ingot'!
Fig. 12.20, calculate values of Rj with load resistances of 5 I2, 10 Sl ~ L I I I I
I ! I I . ( : ; l l l i ~ l ~ l;~rsc~i~itl(:
r is c*ilpableo f c:onvcrting energy a t higher theoretical worl(-
50 R. Sketch the form of variation of Rj with current over t,ho wllol11o1)t1r
il~gc~llic~ic:l~c*ic:s t,lii~i1silicon ill ~)hotovoltaiccells. What are the objections I J I
ating range.
i1.s witl(~sl)l~oi~tl ~isc:?
12.25. The solar cell that is characterised in Fig. 12.20 operates wit,l~i~ lixc~tlIolrtl
I :!. I I . WI1i1.1,is t,11(, I I I ; I . ~ I I i ~ , ( l ~ i ~ ol fi t[ ,)i~~l ~y ~ r y ~ t , isilicon ~ l l i ~solar l ~ cc:lls (:OIII])II,I.I~I~
resistance of 5 R. How does the value of the junction resista11c:c: I?., vrl,r,yr1.H
w i l , l ~si~~p;l~~-c~~~yst.id c.c~lls'!
the radiation level falls from 1000 W/m2 to 500 W/m2?
I :!. I :!. S1~31~il:y 1,111' ~~c~ir.solls wily so1;l.r c:olls 11ilvc: s11c.11low vil.lII(:~of c~ol~vc~rsioll
12.26. For the solar cell characteristics of Fig. 12.10, what, vi~lli(!ol' lor~tlI ~ ~ s ~ H ( , I ) I
c~llic~ic~~~c~y.
would result in a load line passing through thc m a x i n i ~ 1)owc:r i ~ ~ ~ ~ ) o i ~I ',~,, t ,
I :). I:\. W11,yI I , I X > soI;~rI ~ O I I I ~ ( ~ I I ~ , I ~ ; IofI,(:11 , ~ , O ~ S IISI:(~ i11 l)l~oI,ovolt,;~,i(. (~:lli ~ ~ ) ~ ) ~ i ( ~ ; ~ l , i o ~ ~ s ' !
a t 1250 W/m2?
I;! 1.1. W11i1dI S i l l ( , I ~ I I ' I Y , ~ , 01' ~ I I I * I ~ I ~ J I , SI ,( (~ ~( ~I I I ~ ) I ~ ~ ~ I , 011 I , I I t~, II l~v l ) l ~ o I , o - ( ~ o ~ ~ v ( ~ ~ . s i o ~ ~
1 5 I l i

12.27. For the solar cell characteristics of Fig. 12.20, wllil.t, V ; I . ~ I I ( > oI' I( j11.t l l.c*si:;lI I I
( , i ( * l i ( . , y 01' 11 ~ ~ l i ~ ~ l , o ~ ( ~~, l ~
l ' .l~l , i t . i ~ ~
would result in a load line passii~gt,llrol~gl~ ~,II(.I ~ I ; ~ . X ~ I I ~ II I) IOI WI I ~ I ~. ) o i l ~ I),,,
t.
I ?; I r), 1 1 1 S I ) I I I , I ~ ~ I I ( ,
111.1~11 01' l ) l ~ ~ ~ l ,I I~I Y~Y I (( V-I ~I,(,~ Il) Il~ sO I I I I ( ~ I ~ 11, s l ) ~ * ~ . i lI i~ ~O W
- (Ol I O, I I ~ , I ) I I I ,
at 1000 W/in2'?
is 1 1 1 1 l y 11 I ' I ~ I I I . ~ . ~01'~ I I1 . 1 1 1 ~ 111.1~11 1.11111, wo1111101-I . I ~ ( ~ I I ~ I 111. . I ~ I1.111%
~ I~III.I,II'H SII~I'IIIY*.
W ~ I \i ;!i I.11iti':
( ' ~ I I I I ~ I I I Ic $~ ~
.rolo,r
~ I I I1.c5ll.r
II.~
l!)7!).
I! ! A I I I I , I . I . I I , ~ 01' so111.1. ('11.(.11 01' ~ . I I I . ( V (:(:lls
( ~ - l l(s. o ~ ~ s i s01'l , s (.wo I)II~I.;I.II(~I I)I.II.II(.~I('S, ~ 19. Swcct,, W. [I!)!)(i]
"1'owc:r I L I I ~ I l 4 : ~ ~ ( \ r ~ 1/1:/5/1;
y", 93 ( I ) , 70 75.
Sl~c:c:l,~.rrt~~,
1.4I I I I I I Y . I . ( - ( I i l l sth~.i(*s.Sl(c~l,c.ll 11, s i l ~ ~ l )clii\.l:l.11,111,
l(, 01' 1,11(:l'or11101' Fig. I%. I I , I,o 20. "Iter~ewsbleEncrgy Anr~ual2000", I':~lc:r.g~111ror.111iLliou Atl~~~i~~ist.rlrl.ioII,
(IS I ) ~ ~ I I I I I I .
IIIII::II.II.I.~~ 1' ( ~ I I I I I . I I , ( ~ I , ( ~ I . ~ s I , ~ ( ~ .
1 . 1 1 t - 1 )vc~1.11.l1
I ment of Energy, Washington, DC, USA, 2000.
I:! :!I A (~ol~sisI,s01' I,\II'(Y! l)iI,I'iI,II(!I ~>I'~I,II(:\I(!s,
S I I ~ I I , I~I , I , I , I I , , ~ (!;L(.~I ( , ~ I I ~ , ~ L two
~ I I ~i(Ict11-
I I ~

Li1.11.1 (~-11s i l l s(~rios. ~ ~ I \ I , (11.. \(1iitgri~111

I 01' t,lk(! (>v(!riLII 1 (:lli~r;~(:t,crist,i(~, v
~ ~ O I I I I ) ~ I , I XwiI,ll
Y~ I,II(> 1 V ( ~ l ~ i ~ , r i ~ ( ~ t , of' s tl ,li (i -~ l c i i v i ~ l cell.
( ~ rciw ~~al
I! \ 'I'wc-~~l,,y soli~.rc,c~llso f (,II(:I.y~>c, c.l~i~ri~c:t,c:riscci
ill Fig. 12.20 a r e connected ill
~ I I I . I . H . I I ( ~ 1.0 ;L 10 011111 Ioi~(1. (:i~I(:~lli~t,~ the load current, voltage a n d power
~ I I , * I II,II(> r i ~ , ( I i i ~ l ,isi o(~i )~ I000 W/1rl2, (ii) 500 W/1n2.
--,
I ? I . J l low wol~l(lyo11 rc!i~liscl iL t,c:rminal voltagc of 10 V using solar cells of t,hc:
- ' I , , y l ) ( b c.l~l~r~tc.I.c-l.is(:([
i11 Fig. 12.20:)
. A[, I L rr~.clir~.l,io~rI(!vc:l of 1000 W/m" with a load resistance of 1 0 a, 100 solar
c~-lls ol' 1,11(! t,yl>c,c-l~i~ri~c:(,c:riscd
in Fig. 12.20 are connected in series. Calculat,c!
~ . I I ( \( . I I ~ I . ( ~ oI lI t~, i. ~, g~ (L:I I (power
~ a t t h e load terminals.

h II-VI-I):II,. I . ( :. ( I!)x:\\ .S,IL~I.

1'0111(:r,211~1cdition (Pergamon Press, Oxford, England).
'/,wt.il~cbl, I < . II!)!)O] Il(1.7-r~essir~g Solar Power (Plenum Press, New York, USA),
I : l l l l . ~ l l , l ~1;.
l~

S ~ . I I I. Il .~1 .I!)!):II , "l'l~c~l,ovoltsic:s:

Ur~limitcdElectrical Energy from the Sun", Physic:.v
'1 ilf/ll,!/, s1-1).
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