Chapter 4

Output recording & Presentation

 Functional elements of an Instrumentation system
 Indicators
 Pointer-Scale, Alphanumeric,
 Graphical, Recorders
 Digital recorders

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 Introduction
Block diagram of Generalized Measurement systems
What is Signal conditioning?
Start

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 Block diagram of Generalized Measurement systems

Primary sensing Element  The primary sensing element receives signal of the
Start physical quantity to be measured as input.
 It converts the signal to a suitable form (electrical,
mechanical or other form), so that it becomes easier
for other elements of the measurement system, to
either convert or manipulate it.

Variable conversion Element  Variable conversion element converts the output of

the primary sensing element to a more suitable form.
It is used only if necessary.

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 Block diagram of Generalized Measurement systems

Variable manipulation Element  Variable manipulation element manipulates and

Start amplifies the output of the variable conversion
element.
 It also removes noise (if present) in the signal.

 Data processing element is an important element used

in many measurement systems.
 It processes the data signal received from the variable
Data processing Element manipulation element and produces suitable output.
 Data processing element may also be used to compare
the measured value with a standard value to produce
required output.

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 Block diagram of Generalized Measurement systems

Data transmission system  Data Transmission System is simply used for transmitting
Start data from one element to another. It acts as a
communication link between different elements of the
measurement system.
 Some of the data transmission elements used are cables,
wireless antennae, transducers, telemetry systems etc

 It is used to present the measured physical quantity in a

Data presentation Element human readable form to the observer.
 It receives processed signal from data processing element
and presents the data in a human readable form.
 LED displays are most commonly used as data presentation
elements in many measurement systems

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 Data presentation Element

Data presentation Element

Start

 The data presentation element is the final element in the measurement

system.
 Its function being to communicate the measured value of the variable to a
human observer.
 The measured value should be presented as clearly and easily as possible,
otherwise the value registered by the observer may be different.

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 Data presentation Element

Data presentation Element

Start
Example:
 Consider an accurate flow measurement system where the true value of
flow rate is 11.3 m^3/hr and the measured value 11.5 m^3/hr . The
measurement system error is 11.5 – 11.3 = 0.2 m^3/hr .
 If the observed value is 12.0 m^3/hr , then the observation error is 12.0 –
11.5 = 0.5 m^3/hr .
 Hence, observation error is greater than the measurement error and
means that the high system accuracy is wasted.
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 Data presentation Element

Factors affecting observation error

Start

 The distance of the element from observer

 Ambient lighting.
 The eyesight, patience and skill of the observer.

Note:
A clear presentation is of major importance.

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 Classification of data presentation Element

Start

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 Data presentation Element

Choice of Data presentation Element

Start

 In choosing an element the first decision to be made is whether or not a

permanent record is required.
 A record would be required for example in the following situations:
 High speed event: e.g. a human heart beat, which is too fast to be followed
by an observer. In this case an analogue recording, i.e. In this case an
analogue recording, i.e. a continuous graph of blood pressure versus time,
on a paper chart is ideal.

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 Data presentation Element

Choice of Data presentation Element

Start

 A record would be required for example in the following situations:

 Large amounts of data: e.g. measurements of temperature, pressure, flow
rates in a chemical reactor, which require subsequent quantitative analysis
and calculation, possibly by computer. This requires a digital recorder.
 In fault situations: e.g. an aircraft crash, where it is essential to establish
exact sequence of events so that the real cause of the fault can be found .

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 Data presentation Element

Pointer scale indicator  In applications where indication is sufficient, a choice

Start must be made between analogue pointer-scale
 A moving coil indicator connected to a indicators and digital displays.
Thévenin signal source, Eth,Rth.  Pointer-Scale indicators are analogue display devices.
 The coil is situated in a radial magnetic
field of flux density B, so that a current i
through the coil produces a deflecting
torque:

 where A is the cross-sectional area of the

coil and n the number of turns. This
deflecting torque is opposed by the spring
restoring torque:

 where c is the spring stiffness and θ the

angular deflection.

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 Data presentation Element
 Assuming negligible frictional torque, the resultant
Pointer scale indicator unbalanced torque on the coil is TD − TR. This is equal
Start to the product of moment of inertia I and angular
 Eb can be calculated using Faraday’s acceleration .
law of electromagnetic induction.
 where RL is the resistance of the coil  The current i is given by:
and Eb is the back e.m.f. induced in
the coil due to its motion in the
magnetic field.

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 Data presentation Element

Pointer scale indicator

Start

 Differential equation for pointer–scale indicator.

 Assuming change in theta as an output and change in source input volatge as in put the transfer
function for pointer scale indicator will be:

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 Data presentation Element

Pointer scale indicator

Start

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 Data presentation Element

Digital displays
Start
Character displays
 These are used to display the numerals 0 to 9, the letters of the alphabet A
to Z in either upper or lower case format, and a few other symbols such as
punctuation marks.
 Displays showing alphabetical and numerical information are often referred
to as alphanumeric displays.

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 Data presentation Element

Small scale alphanumeric displays

Start
Seven segment displays

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 Data presentation Element

Small scale alphanumeric displays

Start
7-segment decoder & display combination

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 Data presentation Element

Start

7-segment
decoder and
display

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 Data presentation Element

Small scale alphanumeric displays

Start
7 x 5 Dot-Matrix Display

 The 7 x 5 dot-matrix format enables a far

larger set of typically 192 characters to be
obtained, including all numerals, upper
and lower case letters, together with
Greek letters and other symbols.

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 Data presentation Element

Characters Displayed Using a 7 x 5 Dot-Matrix

Start
Display

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 Data presentation Element
Characters Displayed Using a 7 x 5 Dot-Matrix
Display
Start

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 Data presentation Element

Recorders
Start
 Recorder records an electrical or nonelectrical quantities as a function of
time.

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 Data presentation Element

Graphic Recorders
Start
 Graphic Recorder display and store a pen and ink record of the history of
some physical of event.
 Graphic recorders can be of strip-chart or x-y recorders.
 Strip-chart recorders enables to record one or more quantizes as a function
of time.
 X-Y recorders records one or more dependent variable as a function
independent variable.

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 Data presentation Element

Galvanometric Recorders  The deflection is produced by a galvanometer which

Start produces a torque on the account of current
passing through the large moving coil situated in a
strong magnetic field.

 Greater the amplitude of the incoming signal

(proportional to the quantity being measured), the
grater is the deflection.

 Instrument should be critically damped to avoid

overshoot.

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 Data presentation Element

Optical Galvanometric Recorders

 The optical galvanometer recorder
the light intensity is proportional
to the quantity being rerecorded.

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 Data presentation Element

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 Data presentation Element

Digital Recorders
Start

 An analog signal is converted to digital by an analog-to-digital converter,

which measures the amplitude of an analog signal at regular intervals, which
are specified by the sample rate, and then stores these sampled & quantized
numerical value in computer hardware such as compact disc or hard` disk.
 Digital recordings are very accurate, the accuracy determined only by the
quality of the D/A and A/D converters.
 For optical disc recording technologies such as CDs or DVDs, a laser is used
to burn microscopic holes into the dye layer of the medium.
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