Functional Elements of an

Instrument
• Primary Sensing Element – PSE
 Senses the parameter
• Variable Conversion Element – VCE
 Converts the measured parameter into suitable
parameter
• Variable Modification Element – VME
 Modifies the converted parameter into suitable form
• Data Transmission Element – DTE
 Transmits the parameter over a distance

Basic Elements
• Data Presentation Element – DPE
 Presents the parameter in presentable form
• Data Storage / Playback Element – DSE
 Stores the measured values 1
 Primary Variable Variable
Measured
Sensing Conversion Manipulation
Medium
Element Element Element

Measured
Quantity Data
Transmission
All the functions Data Element
necessary for a Storage/
description of any Playback
instrument Element Data
Presentation
Functional Elements Element

of an Instrument

Basic Elements
Observer

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Primary Sensing Element
• First element - receives energy from the measured
medium
 Instrument always loads the system.
• In contact with the medium (Not always)
• Output of PSE is some variable proportional to
measured quantity.
 Voltage/displacement/Temp./pressure etc.(sensors)
 Thermocouple where e.m.f. generated (in milli-volts)
depends on temperature difference
 Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical
strain
 Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.

Basic Elements
• Ideally PSE gives output in same unit as measured
quantity

3
Variable Conversion Element
• Converts output variable of PSE in to more suitable
variable, retaining the information from PSE
• Converts the physical form
 Pressure – Force - Displacement
• Usually converted to electric signal
 Current (AC / DC)
 Voltage (AC / DC)
 Digital Signal
• Common examples
 Potentiometer – Displacement to voltage
 Whitestone Bridge – Resistance to voltage

Basic Elements
• Change in the units of input and output signals

4
Variable Modification / Manipulation
Element
• Modifies / Manipulates the Variable without loosing
information
• Includes
 Magnification
 Linearization
 Noise filtration
 Separation of desired signal
• Modifies the signal to the form more suitable for
presentation
• Can also be called as Signal Conditioning
 Analogue to Digital Conversion Suitable for computer

Basic Elements
• Computers are now more common (Microprocessors)
• Input and output units are same.

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Computer Aided Manipulation
• Vastly improved signal conditioning
• Combines presentation elements also
• Simplifying Data
 Linearization
 Scaling
• Improvement of Accuracy
 Calibration
 Using different relations wrt other signals
• Combining different signals
 Using mathematical relation between two signals to give
desired output
 Volume flow rate & density will give mass flow rate
• Extracting Data

Basic Elements
 Analysis gives data hidden in the signal obtained from
transducer
 Frequency Analysis
 Chromatograph
• Dynamic Measurement 6
Data Transmission Element
• When functional elements of an instrument are actually
physically separated, it is required to transmit data from
one to another
• From one element to another e.g. shaft and bearing
assembly, cables, telemetry, internet etc.
• Remote control / Centralized Control / Control Room
• Safe location
• No change in units or form

Basic Elements
7
Data Presenting Element
• Measured quantity is communicated to human beings
for monitoring, control or analysis
• Presents data in the form that it can be sensed by
observer.
• Pointer moving on scale, Pen recorder, Optical flat, Bip
or Audio file, Temperature-sense, Vibration,
Alphanumeric Display etc.
• Mostly output is in desired units
 Scale is calibrated to display actual quantity

Basic Elements
 Digital readout to give actual quantity
 Audio, temperature, vibration signals give warnings or
qualitative values

8
Data Storage Element
• Records data - Recorded data can be called back for
comparison / diagnosis / Analysis.
• Charts , Magnetic tapes, electrical signals stored in
digital memory as in computers etc.
• May contain additional information regarding time,
process, details of measured quantity.

Basic Elements
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Important Features
• All elements may be present some may not be.
• Some parts may perform multiple functions.
• These may not be physically separate systems.
• The sequence of elements may also change.
• Some elements may be present at two
locations.
• Breaking in individual element helps in
 Understanding the working of instrument

Basic Elements
 Preparing Mathematical Model
 Isolating the issues for improvement

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 Alternate Scheme

Primary Signal Signal Data

Sensing Conditioning Processing Presentation
Element Element Element Element

Input Output
True Measured
Value Value

Basic Elements
11
 Piston
Fluid Piston Piston Spring
Rod
Pressure (P S (V C (V C
(D T
(input) E) E) E)
E)

Pressure

Force
Force
Motion

Linkage
(V M E)

Motion

Pointer &
Scale
(D P E)

Basic Elements
Pressure Gage
Observer
(Readout)
12
 Fluid Bulb Bulb Tubing Bourdon
Tempera- (P S (V C (D T Tube
ture E) E) E) (V C E)
(input)

Temperature

Pressure
Motion

Linkage
& Gear
(V M E)
Motion

Pointer &
Scale
(D P E)

Basic Elements
Observer
(Readout)
Pressure Thermometer
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 Cam Cam & Micro-
Rotating & CABLE
Shaft Lever switch
Lever DTE
(input) VCE VCE
PSE

Pulse
Oscillation
Rotation Pulse
Solenoid
& Plunger
(V C E)
Displacement

Mechanical Counter
VCE, VME & DPE

Basic Elements
Observer
(Readout)
Digital Revolution Counter 14