CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I.1. Background

Sulawesi Island, located in the central part of the Indonesian Archipelago, has been a

subject of debate in term of its geological setting among earth scientists (van Bemmelen,

1949; Katili, 1978; Hamilton, 1979; Polve, 1997; Bergman et al., 1996; Elburg and Foden,

1999a; 1999b; Elburg et al., 2003; van Leeuwen et al., 2010). The multi-armed shape of the

island, with different lithologic sequences suggests that it is a complex assemblage of tectonic

terranes, leading to the wide range of interpretation for the evolution of the island.

Fig. 1.1 Shuttle radar tomography mission (SRTM) map of the Indonesian archipelagoes in a
global tectonic setting showing location of Sulawesi Island in the archipelago.

One of the most problematic features in Sulawesi is the occurrence of various

contrasting igneous rocks in space and time (Polve et al., 1997, 2001; Priadi et al., 1994;

Bergman et al., 1996; Elburg et al., 2003). For example, whereas HK (high-K or shoshonitic

series) and CAK (high-K calc-alkaline series) igneous rocks are only restricted in the younger

1
(less than 14 Ma) rocks from the southern part of the Western Sulawesi Province, the CA

(calc-alkaline) to low-K series igneous rocks are widely distributed in the central and

northwestern part of the province which yielded a relatively older magmatic series (more than

16 Ma) (Polve et al., 1997; Elburg and Foden, 1999; Elburg et al., 2003).

Despite intensive scientific research, there is an ongoing controversy about the

source of these magmatisms and the processes responsible for their petrogenesis as well as the

geodynamic setting. One of main components of the magmatic products in this island is the

Late Cenozoic granitoids which extend from the Western to the Northern part of the island

(Sukamto, 1975; van Leeuwen et al., 2007).

Granitic rocks are the most abundant plutonic rocks in the upper crust (Wadepohl,

1991; Clarke 1992) and plate tectonic processes including crustal evolution. Many granitic

rocks are associated with mineralization (Ishihara, 1981; Blevin and Chappel, 1995; Blevin,

2003; Baker et al., 2005). Another important consideration in studying granitic rocks is

geothermobarometry. Geothermobarometric study on granitic rocks will provide information

about pressure and temperature at which the granitic rocks were crystallized (Tulloch and

Challis, 2000; Moazzen and Droop, 2005; Zhang et al., 2006). Coupled with the cooling age

data (Ar-Ar dating age) the geothermobarometric information is very useful to estimate the

depth of emplacement and rate of exhumation which provide fundamental information about

tectonic processes in orogenic belts. It has been shown that the highly weathered granitic

rocks from sub-tropical areas in China serve as one of the most prominent HREE sources

(Bao and Zhao, 2008; Ishihara et al., 2008; Ishihara and Murakami, 2008). Recent studies

report the enrichment of REE in granitic rocks in tropical areas such as Thailand and Laos

(Sanematsu et al., 2009; 2011; Imai et al., 2013). Accordingly, investigation on REE from the

granitic rocks in Sulawesi Island is of particular interest in order to shed a light on their

geochemistry.

2
 Some works on the geochemistry and geochronology of the granitic rocks from the

central-west (CW) and north-western (NW) part of the island have already been published

(e.g. van Leeuwen et al., 1992, 2007; Kavaleries et al., 1992; Bergman et al., 1996; Polve et

al., 1997; Elburg et al., 1999a, 2002a, 2003; Priadi et al., 1994). However, reports on the

occurrence of the granitic rocks from this island were only from certain areas and the

discussions on their characteristics were only found in a relatively small portion compared to

other rocks (e.g. Priadi et al., 1994; Bergman et al., 1996; Elburg et al., 2003). Debate on the

source of granitic magmatism and evolution of the island is still arising (e.g. Bergman et al.,

1996; Elburg et al., 2002a, 2003; van Leeuwen et al., 2007; Hall, 2012). In addition, study on

geothermobarometry and the relationship between the granitic magmatism and the regional

metallogeny in this island has never been done despite its significance values. Furthermore,

regardless their large distribution, study on geochemistry of REE in the weathered crust of

granitic rocks in Sulawesi Island has never been conducted.

Given the importance of granitic magmatism to address above issues, it is essential

that the petrology, bulk geochemistry, isotope geochemistry, mineral chemistry,

geochronology and magnetic susceptibility of the whole granitic bodies in this island is well

understood. Accordingly, a more detailed and complete characterization of the granitic rocks

from this island is necessary for better understanding of this segment of the Cenozoic crust.

1.2. Objectives

This study is the first to study a single plutonic unit (granitic rocks) in Sulawesi and

aimed to contribute some insights to the significance of the Late Cenozoic granitic rocks in

Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. The main objectives of this thesis are to account for the following

four aspects:

1. Provide a new petrography, geochemistry, isotope geology (Sr-Nd-Pb and O), Ar-Ar

3
 age data, mineral chemistry and magnetic susceptibility of the granitic rocks from 11

plutons in Sulawesi.

2. Place constraints on the petrogenesis, origin and nature, geothermobarometry and

geodynamic significance of the granitic rocks in Sulawesi.

3. Report the geochemical behavior of rare earth element (REE) from the weathered

granitic crust, particularly from Mamasa and Palu Pluton.

4. Discuss the relationship of the granitic magmatism with regional metallogeny in

Sulawesi.

1.3. Structure of dissertation

This dissertation consists of 7 chapters in which each chapter contain a different

objective. The structure of this dissertation is as follow.

Chapter 1 introduces the background of this study and elaborates the objectives that

are intended to be achieved. The structural contents of the dissertation are also given. A list of

commonly used acronyms is also provided.

Chapter 2 consists of a review of previous works on tectonic setting and geology of

Sulawesi Island. This chapter compiles what we know about the tectonic setting and history

of the formation of Sulawesi Island. The chapter explains the characterization of each

province in term of its tectonic setting and lithology within the island. The chapter also

reviews the previous studies on the granitic rocks in this island and examines the field

occurrences of the granitic rocks from 11 areas that are studied. The condition of sample

locality, accessibility, variety of granitic rocks and relationship with surrounding lithology in

each studied locality in Sulawesi are reported.

Chapter 3 discusses the petrography and geochemistry of the granitic rocks from

Sulawesi. This chapter describes in detail the petrographical, geochemical characteristics of

4
the granitic rocks from 11 areas. The granitic rocks were classified according to their

geochemical characteristics and the results were used to determine the type (I- and S- type),

constrain their tectonic setting, petrogenesis and magma origin in Chapter 6. Three new Ar-Ar

dating ages and a new data set of Sr-Nd-Pb and O isotopic data on the granitic rocks were also

reported to place constraints on their nature and origin in Chapter 6. In addition, the granitic

rocks are classified according to their magnetic susceptibility (magnetite- and ilmenite-series).

The results are used to constrain the relationship between the granitic magmatism and

metallogeny province in this island in Chapter 6.

Chapter 4 focuses on geothermobarometry of the granitic rocks constrained from the

mineral chemistrical data and three new Ar-Ar dating ages data and previous age dating data.

The geothermobarometry condition at which the granitic rocks were crystllized was reported

and the implications on tectonomagmatic and exhumation processes were discussed.

Calculations of exhumation rate were also included.

Chapter 5 reports for the first time the REE geochemistry of the weathered granitic

crust from Mamasa and Palu regions. The mobility of REE in the weathering profile and the

mass transfer calculation during the weathering process are discussed.

Chapter 6 discusses the petrogenesis, origin and geodynamic significance of the

granitic rocks and the relationship between granitic magmatism and the regional metallogeny

systems based on data which has been acquired in the previous chapters.

Chapter 7 concludes what has been reported and discussed in the previous chapters

and contains final deductions that have been raised from this study. In addition some

suggestions for future works related with this study will be stated.

1.4 Notes

The chapters aim to accommodate the study on the granitic rocks using a different

5
approach. To avoid repetition, the geological setting of Sulawesi are largely described in

Chapter 2 and only briefly referred in other chapters. The analytical methods that are used in

this study are described in detail in each chapter. A large range of selected whole rock and

trace elements geochemistry are included in appendix 1.

A single reference list for the entire thesis is provided following Chapter 8

(conclusion). I organize this referencing method in order to considerably save space as many

publications are cited more than once. It also helps the reader to easily access individual

reference details.

The most commonly used acronyms used in this thesis are defined in Table 1.1

below.

Table 1.1 List of commonly used acronyms in this dissertation

T: Temperature Op: Opaque mineral

P: Pressure Ttn: Titanite

Plg: Plagioclase REE: Rare earth elements

Qtz: Quartz XRF: X-ray Fluorescence

Bio: Biotite XRD: X-ray Diffraction

Hbl: Hornblende EPMA: Electron Micro Probe Analysis

KFs: K-feldspar ICP-MS: Inductive Couple Plasma Mass

Spectrometry
Ap: Apatite LOI: Loss on ignition

Zrc: Zircon LILE: Large ion lithophile element(s)

HFSE: High field strength element(s) LREE: Light rare earth element(s)

HREE: Heavy rare earth element(s) PM: Primitive Mantle

Wt%: Weight % ppm: part per million

Sr: Strontium Nd: Neodymium

6
Pb: Lead HK: High-potassium

CAK: high-K calc-alkali CA: Calc-alkali

SW: South-west CW: Central-west

NW: North-west SE: South East

MS: Magnetic susceptibility Ar-Ar: argon-argon

7
 CHAPTER II

TECTONIC SETTING AND GEOLOGY OF SULAWESI AND FIELD

OCCURRENCES OF THE GRANITIC ROCKS

2.1 Historical background

Geological investigation on Sulawesi can be traced back to the early 19th century by

Dutch scientists. Since then, numerous investigations by local and international earth

scientists have accumulated much data on the geology of Sulawesi. Like other regions in a

highly-tectonized complex region, Sulawesi which is located in the junction of at least three

major plates (Fig. 2.1.), has its geology interpreted in different ways over the years.

Fig. 2.1 Tectonic map of the Southeast Asian region. Sulawesi is located in the central part of
the region which is surrounded by some plates interaction boundaries (inset).

8
 Dutch geologists, who carried out reconnaissance geological surveys in Western

Sulawesi between 1885 and 1930, observed Neogene leucite- and nepheline-bearing rocks

and trachytes in widely scattered localites, but in the absence of any geochemical and

geochronological data they were unable to determine the true extent of the potassic

magmatism in time and space. It was generally assumed at the time that among the Neogene

igneous suites potassic igneous rocks were subordinate to calc-alkaline rocks (e.g. Rutten,

1927). Plate tectonic models developed for the region during the 1970s were based on

similar assumptions. They envisaged that the Late Cenozoic potassic magmatism was

related to active subduction processes (Sukamto, 1975; Hamilton, 1979), indicating either a

normal volcanic arc polarity with alkalinity increasing across the Neogene arc (Katili, 1978)

or a shallow-dipping Benioff Zone (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994).

It was only in the late 1980s that the exclusive potassic nature of the Cenozoic

magmatism in Western Sulawesi was recognized as the result of a research programme

undertaken by a joint French-Indonesia team. This work included major element and limited

trace element analyses, petrographic studies and reconnaissance K/Ar dating (Yuwono, 1987;

Yuwono et al., 1986, 1988; Letellier et al., 1988; Priadi, 1987; Priadi et al., 1993, 1994; Polvé

et al., 1997, 2001). Following those pioneering works more detailed studies were

undertaken involving complete whole rock analyses Sr, Nd and Pb isotope analyses, and K/Ar

and fission track dating (Coffield et al., 1993; Bergman et al., 1996; van Leeuwen et al., 1999;

Elburg and Foden, 1999a & b; Elburg et al., 2002a, 2003). Both extrusive and intrusive

rocks were studied. The latter included granitoid samples collected from the Biru syenite in

SW Sulawesi (Elburg et al., 2002a), the Polewali, Mamasa and Palopo plutons in CW

Sulawesi (Bergman et al., 1996; Elburg and Foden, 1999a), and several stocks and the Dondo

batholith in NW Sulawesi (van Leeuwen et al., 1994; Elburg et al., 2003). The HK and CAK

igneous suites in CW-NW Sulawesi were shown to have distinctly higher radiogenic Sr and

9
less radiogenic Nd isotope ratios than the HK suites in SW Sulawesi, and different trend of Pb

isotope ratio.

Yuwono et al. (1988) and Leterrier et al. (1990) noting strong similarities between the

HK volcanic rocks in SW Sulawesi and those in the Roman Province, central Italy, proposed

a model involving partial melting of mantle sources of Sundaland origin, which had been

previously enriched in incompatible elements during one or more subduction events, with the

magmatism having taken place in a distensional, within-plate setting following cessation of

subduction. A similar origin and setting was proposed by Polvé et al. (1997) and

MacPherson and Hall (1999) for the HK suites in CW and NW Sulawesi, whereas Coffield et

al. (1993), Bergman et al. (1996), Elburg and Foden (1999b) and Elburg et al. (2003) favored

an old subcontinental lithospheric mantle source located within a sliver of Australian

continent underlying CW and NW Sulawesi. A different model was developed by Elburg

and Foden (1999b) and Elburg et al. (2002a) for the SW Sulawesi HK suites, aimed at

explaining their geochemical variability with time. Following the collision of the Buton

microcontinent with Western Sulawesi around 13-15 Ma, the rate of subduction beneath SW

Sulawesi decreased, resulting in an increase of temperature in the down going slab, which

gave rise to a more efficient melting of sedimentary slab components. This led to isotopic

ratios of the magmatism becoming somewhat more “continental” 4 m.y. after the collision

event. Elburg et al. (2003) were the first to find evidence for the presence of HK volcanic

and intrusive rocks in NW Sulawesi.

There is general agreement among the various authors that the CAK magmatism in

CW and NW Sulawesi CW and NW Sulawesi is related to melting of continental material of

igneous origin in a continental fragment of Australian origin underlying this region.

Opinions, however, differ as to whether this fragment was accreted to Sundaland during the

Late Mesozoic (Priadi et al., 1993; Elburg et al., 2003), or shortly before the onset of the HK

10
magmatism (Bergman et al., 1996). Melting of the crustal source rocks is thought to have

been the result of collision related lithospheric thickening, possibly involving delamination

(Bergman et al., 1996), with input from a mantle-derived magmatic heat source (Elburg and

Foden, 1999b), following detachment of the oceanic portion of the downgoing slab with

asthenosphere rising into the lithosphere break and inducing melting in the subcontinental

lithosphere mantle, and in turn causing melting in the continental crust by ascending HK

magmas (Polvé et al., 2001).

Compared to the HK and CAK suites in Western Sulawesi, the CA suites in Northern

Sulawesi have been studied in far less detail. However, due to the occurrence of some mineral

deposits, this suite has been extensively explored. It involved reconnaissance work by the

joint French-Indonesian team (Priadi, 1993; Polvé et al., 1999) and whole rock and radiogenic

isotope analyses carried out by Elburg and Foden (1998) on volcanic rock samples collected

from the northeastern part of the province.

2.2 Tectonic evolution

The tectonic history of Sulawesi began in the Cretaceous when several Gondwana

fragments accreted to the eastern Sundaland margin, now forming the present day basement

of a large part of Western Sulawesi (Hall, 2009). Western Sulawesi was subsequently

separated from east Borneo by rifting that began around the Middle Eocene (e.g. Calvert and

Hall, 2007) and led to the formation of the Makassar Strait. Calc-alkaline volcanism took

place along the length of Western Sulawesi, but appears to have been localized in both space

and time. It ceased by the end of the Eocene in SW Sulawesi but continued into the

Oligocene further north (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005; van Leeuwen et al., 2010). The

region became a passive margin on its east side bounded by a strike-slip fault that

accommodated the northward movement of the Australian plate (Hall, 2009). The plate was

11
subducted beneath what is now the Northern Sulawesi Province, started around the Middle

Eocene, in an intra-oceanic setting, which gave rise to the development of an oceanic island

arc dominated by tholeiitic basalts (Hall, 2002; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005).

The oldest tectonic event recorded in the Eastern Sulawesi region dates back to the

Late Oligocene when the East Sulawesi Ophiolite was detached in an intra-oceanic setting

and subducted soon afterwards.

Hall (2011) and Sevastjanova et al. (2011) proposed that in the early Miocene, the

Sula Spur, which formed a promontory of the Australian margin, collided with the Northern

Sulawesi volcanic arc. They noted that this is the first Australia – SE Asia collision. An

Early Miocene unconformity which separates the Paleogene oceanic volcanic arc sequence

from younger volcanic rocks in Northern Sulawesi (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005) may

be directly related to this event. It was followed by renewed volcanic activity that was

predominantly calc-alkaline in character (Polvé et al., 1997; Elburg et al., 2003). Between

25 and 15 Ma, convergence between the Australian plate and the Eurasian plate was absorbed

in several ways in the Sulawesi region: it involved counter-clockwise rotation of Western

Sulawesi (together with Borneo and Java), and contraction, uplift and erosion in East and SE

Sulawesi (Hall, 2011). Subduction roll back in the Banda Arc region, that began around

15-12 Ma (Hall, 2002, 2011; Spakman and Hall, 2010) caused widespread extension in the

Sulawesi region resulting, among others, in fragmentation of crustal fragments from the Sula

Spur and East and Southeast Sulawesi (Hall and Sevastjanova, 2012), development of a core

complex at Malino (van Leeuwen et al., 2007) and block-faulting accompanied by HK

magmatism in Western Sulawesi (see above).

Many parts of Sulawesi record rapid subsidence and uplift during the latest Miocene

and Pliocene. In CW and NW Sulawesi, and the North and East Arms mountains rise up

to 3 km above sea level within short distances from the coast. Deep crustal rocks such as

12
granulites and eclogites are exposed in the Palu Metamorphic Complex in Western Sulawesi

(Helmers et al., 1990; Kadarusman et al., 2004) together with CAK granitoids. Thick

syn-orogenic sedimentary deposits (Celebes Molasse) are widespread in the island. This

young tectonic event is commonly attributed to the collision of the Banggai-Sula fragment

with eastern Sulawesi. Hall (2011) has advanced an alternative model that envisages the

vertical movements to be the result of lithospheric flow in an overall extensional environment.

2.3 Tectonic Provinces

Based on the overall geological framework that has emerged from previous studies

(van Bemmelen, 1949; Katili, 1973; Sukamto, 1975; Hamilton, 1979; Elburg, 1998; van

Leeuwen, 1992; Simandjuntak and Barber, 1996; Villeneuve, 2002) and partly from regional

geological reviews of Taylor and van Leeuween (1980), Maulana (2009), and van Leeuween

and Pieters (2011), Sulawesi can be divided into four tectonic provinces, namely (1) the

Western Sulawesi Province, (2) the Eastern Sulawesi Province, (3) the Northern Sulawesi

province and (4) the Banggai-Sula and Tukang Besi Continental Fragments (Fig.1). The

detailed description is as follows:

2.3.1 Western Sulawesi Province

Previous reports on the geology of Sulawesi, the Western Sulawesi Province was

included in the Western-Northern Sulawesi Pluto-Volcanic arc (e.g. Kadarusman et al., 2004).

However, given the differences in their tectonic setting as suggested by Taylor and van

Leeuwen (1980) which has been verified by van Leeuwen and Pieters (2011), the western and

northern part of the island should be described separately as they have a distinct tectonic

setting, age, and geochemical characteristics.

13
 This province consists of a continental margin segment with pre-Tertiary

metamorphic basement rocks, originating from Sundaland overlain by Upper Cretaceous and

Tertiary volcanic-sedimentary sequences, which are intruded by volcanic and plutonic rocks

with various ages. The basement rocks were found in the southern, central and north western

part of the province. The basement rocks in the southern part of the province consist of

pre-Tertiary metamorphic basement rocks which can be divided into two different blocks;

Bantimala Block and Barru Block (Parkinson, 1998; Maulana, 2009). Metamorphic rocks

include high-pressure types, namely glaucophane schist (Parkinson, 1998),

albite-actinolite-chlorite schist, chlorite-mica schists, garnet-glaucophane rock,

garnet-glaucophane-quartz schist, garnet-chloritoid-glaucophane-quartz schist (Miyazaki et al.,

1996), quartzites, graphite phyllites (Berry and Grady, 1987; Sukamto, 1982) and blocks of

eclogite included in blueschist (Maulana, 2009; Miyazaki et al., 1996). The K/Ar ages on

muscovite-garnet and quartz-muscovite schists from the Bantimala basement complex range

from 124-112 Ma (Wakita et al., 1996). Mélange occurs as tectonic blocks, and includes

clasts of rock such as sandstone, shale, siliceous shale, chert, basalt, schist, and felsic igneous

rocks within a sheared matrix (Wakita et al., 1996). The middle Cretaceous (late Albian –

early Cenomanian, i.e. about 105 - 95 Ma) chert unconformably overlies the high-pressure

metamorphic rocks (Wakita et al., 1996). The ultramafic rocks are dominated by serpentinised

peridotite, which contain chromite lenses and are locally intruded by dacite and andesite (van

Leeuwen, 1981).

The basement rocks in the central and northern part of the province form a belt called

Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt. The belt is confined to the centre and northwest part of

the province, and assumed to have resulted from collision between fragments of Gondwana

and the active Asian margin in the Late Oligocene or Early Miocene (Villeneuve et al., 2002;

van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). They consist of the Palu, Karossa and Malino

14
Metamorphic Complex, which are composed of continental fragments derived from the

Australian-New Guinea margin (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005; van Leeuwen et al.,

2007).

The Palu Metamorphic Complex extends from the central portion of the province

(Palu Zone) to the neck of the island. It consists of biotite schist and gneiss, amphibolite,

amphibolite schist and locally higher-grade metamorphic rocks, including granulite, eclogite

and garnet peridotite (Helmers et al., 1990) which are present as tectonic slices, mostly along

the Palu-Koro Fault zone. The protolith of the metamorphic rocks were determined as

Permo-Triassic metasediments and metagranitoids of Australian-New Guinea derivation but

also metabasite of MORB affinity and possibly Sundaland derived rocks (van Leuween et al.,

2007). The Devonian to Early Carboniferous Malino Metamorphic Complex is located in the

western part of the North Arm. It consists of mica schists and gneisses which were interpreted

to be derived from proximal turbidite and granitoid protolith with intercalation of greenschist,

amphibolite, marble and quartzite. The isotopic signature and zircon age dating results

suggests that the complex was derived from the New-Guinea Australian margin of Gondwana

(van Leeuwen et al., 2007). A depth range of 27 – 30 km was estimated for the burial depth

from pressure and temperature estimation. The complex was exhumed during the Miocene.

The Karossa Metamorphic Complex is exposed in the southwest part of the Lariang region. It

consists dominantly of a metapelite unit and a metabasite unit which has MORB affinity (van

Leeuwen et al., 2007).

Tertiary sediments are found in the western part of the Walanae Graben in the

southern part of the island as the Mallawa Formation, and in the western part near Latimojong

Mountain as the Toraja Formation (Sukamto, 1982). They are composed of arkosic

sandstones, siltstones, claystone, marls and conglomerates, intercalated with layers or lenses

of coal and limestone. The Mallawa Formation unconformably overlies the Balangbaru

15
Formation and locally the Langi Volcanics, whereas the Toraja Formation overlies the

Latimojong Formation. In the northern part a thick sequence of Paleogene flysch-like and

other marine sediments and interbedded volcanics (Tinombo Formation in the west and

Papayato in the east) were deposited in a fore arc basin on a metamorphic basement. Tertiary

carbonates are found in some areas including the southern tip of the Western Sulawesi

Provinces (Selayar Formation), surrounding the Bantimala Complex (Tonasa Formation) and

in the middle part of the province (Makale Formation) (Sukamto, 1975; van Leeuwen, 1981;

Wilson and Bosence, 1996).

At the beginning of the Middle Miocene a major orogenic event took place,

accompanied by andesitic volcanism and granitic intrusion spanning from the southern tip to

the northern tip of the province to form Late Cenozoic volcanic and plutonic rocks. Polve et al.

(1997) divided the volcanic and intrusive rocks of this province into HK series and a felsic

CAK series. The HK rocks, which are mostly volcanic rocks, occur throughout the province

whereas CAK rocks (mostly granitoids) are restricted to the central and northern parts of the

province.

Quaternary sediments in this province are found in the Walanae Graben (van Leeuwen,

1981) and Palu area as Sulawesi Mollase (Sukamto, 1975).

2.3.2 Eastern Sulawesi Province

The Eastern Sulawesi Province extends from the Central Sulawesi Trough across to

the East and Southeast Arms, including Buton and Muna Islands. It consists of tectonically

dismembered and highly faulted ophiolite associated with Mesozoic metamorphic rocks,

ophiolitic mélange and sedimentary rocks (Hamilton, 1979; van Leeuwen and Pieter, 2011).

These form the basement of this region, which is overlain by Neogene to Quaternary

sediments (Kadarusman et al., 2004; Mubroto et al., 1994; Simandjuntak and Barber, 1996).

16
 Large masses of ultramafic and mafic rocks forming ophiolite complex are distributed

over most of the Eastern arm and the northwest part of the Southeast arm and also found are

Buton and Kabaena Island. The ophiolite covers over more than 15,000 km2 and is considered

as one of the three largest ophiolites in the world, known as the East Sulawesi Ophiolite

(ESO) (Monnier et al., 1995). The ophiolite is composed of residual mantle peridotite,

mafic-ultramafic cumulate and gabbro, sheeted dolerites and basaltic volcanic rocks. The

oceanic plateau component of the ophiolite has been interpreted as a product of the Southwest

Pacific Superplume (Kadarusman et al., 2004). The complete highly imbricated sequence has

been observed in the East Arm only. In other areas, only a lower portion of the ultramafic

sequences is present. A wide range of K/Ar age has been obtained from the ESO, varying

from Cretaceous to Miocene (Mubroto et al., 1994; Monnier et al., 1995; Simandjuntak and

Barber, 1996). Various origins have been proposed for the ESO. Based on whole-rock trace

element data, Monnier et al. (1995) suggested a subduction zone environment for their origin.

Mubroto et al. (1994) proposed from paleomagnetic measurement that the ophiolite in

Balantak area was formed in the southern hemisphere. Gravity data suggest that the ophiolite

thickens westward and dips beneath the schist along a major fault (Silver et al., 1983). The

belt is interpreted as a Neogene accretionary complex formed by westward dipping

subduction and by partial underthrusting of the Sula and Tukang Besi platforms.

The ophiolitic mélanges marked the contact zone between the metamorphic rocks and

the ophiolites in central Eastern Sulawesi (van Leeuwen and Pieter, 2011). It is composed of a

highly complex mosaic of tectonized and metamorphosed ophiolite fragments, schist

fragments and variably disrupted Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. The mélange was formed

during the middle to late Oligocene as shown by 32 – 28 Ma K/Ar age on biotite, resulting

from eastward subduction beneath the ophiolite terrane that was subsequently thrusted

westward over the metamorphic basement (Parkinson, 1996).

17
 The Mesozoic metamorphic and sedimentary rocks found as long as 400 km long and

80 km wide, including the Pompangeo Metamorphic Complex in Central Eastern Sulawesi

and the Mekongga Metamorphic Complex (Rusmana and Sukarna, 1985) and Mesozoic

clastic and carbonate sequences (Meluhu Formation) (Surono and Bachri, 2002). Some

metamorphic masses are also found at the southern tip of the SE Arm and at Kabaena Island.

The metamorphic rocks consist of blueschist and greenschist-amphibolite facies (Parkinson,

1998; Helmers et al., 1990). The metamorphic rocks in the northwest central Sulawesi are cut

by the Palu-Koro Fault, consisting of a prograde medium pressure-type metamorphic belt

ranging from the chlorite zone up to staurolite-kyanite zone. The degree of the metamorphic

crystallization increases from the east to west (Brouwer; 1947 in van Leeuwen and Pieter,

2011). The protoliths of the rocks were Jurassic sedimentary rocks, similar to the ones

exposed in small terrannes to the east.

Neogene and Quaternary sediments, known as Celebes Molasse (van Bemmelen,

1949) are found in the southern part of the province which consist of coarse- to fine-grained

clastic sequences with shallow marine carbonate sequences (Surono and Bachri, 2002).

2.3.3 Northern Sulawesi Province

Due to numerous and extensive mineralization found, geology of the Northern

Sulawesi Province has been described in detail by some previous workers (e.g. Lowder and

Dow, 1978; Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieries et al., 1992; Lubis et al., 1994; Perello, 1994; van

Leeuwen et al., 1994). The Northern Sulawesi Province consists of a Late Miocene to Recent

subduction-related volcanic arc (Elburg and Foden, 1998) built on an oceanic substrate

(Kavalieris et al., 1992; van Leeuwen et al., 2007). The oldest formation comprises a thick

sequence of basaltic rocks (pillow lava, spillite, etc.) with interlayered deep-sea sediments,

locally intruded by swarms of basic dyke. The age of this formation is Cretaceous and/or

18
Early Tertiary. A chain of intermediate and acid calc-alkaline volcanoes, known as Bilungala

Volcanics, was built on this oceanic basement during the Miocene, with reef limestone

fringing the volcanic island. Contemporaneous volcaniclastic, pyroclastic and lava flows

(Dolokapa Formation, Randangan Beds) were deposited in shallow basins flanking the

volcanic chain. Numerous bodies of plutonic rocks (known as Bone Diorite and Boliohutu

Diorite) range from granite to diorite in composition (Sukamto, 1975; Priadi et al., 1994;

Bergman et al., 1996; van Leeuween et al., 2007) intruded the volcanic pile. Results of limited

radiometric dating for the plutonic rocks (Lowder and Dow, 1978; Polve et al., 1997) suggest

that batholith-sized bodies were emplaced during the Early – Middle Miocene (16 – 12 Ma)

whereas irregular stock and dykes of diorite to monzodiorite composition during the Middle

to Late Miocene and small stock and plugs of quartz diorite composition during the latest

Miocene (van Leeuwen and Pieters, 2011).

Volcanism which occurred just after erosion of the plutonic rocks, produced andesitic

and acid tuff with minor lava during Pliocene to Recent, forming what is referred to as the

Pani Volcanic and Pinogu Volcanic Formation (Taylor and van Leeuwen, 1980). They are

mainly composed of basaltic to andesitic agglomerate, breccia pyroclastic and lava flow (Trail,

1947 in van Leeuwen and Pieter, 2011). This Cenozoic volcanism is also associated with

numerous gold mineralizations. Acid intrusive rocks were emplaced contemporaneously.

The centre of the volcanic activity was gradually shifted towards the east.

In the northern tip of the province some young stratovolcanoes are still active. The

volcanic rocks are characterized by Lower Miocene arc-related rock and Pliocene to active

Quaternary volcanism known as the Sangihe Arc. They are closely related with

post-collisional rifting and uplift of the arc and inception of subduction along the Sulawesi

Trench during late Miocene to Quaternary. Near Gorontalo area the north-west trending block

faults also show significant dextral wrench movement (Katili, 1971) which appear to be

19
Quaternary in age and still active.

2.3.4 Banggai-Sula and Tukang Besi Continental Fragments

These continental fragments are located in the eastern and southeastern parts of

Sulawesi, respectively. The Bangai-Sula microcontinent is represented above sea level by a

group of islands, including Peleng, Banggai, Taliabu and Mangole Islands (Garrard et al.,

1988) whereas the Tukang Besi microcontinent comprises Buton, Muna and surrounding

smaller islands. Banggai–Sula has a metamorphic basement which was intruded by Late

Paleozoic granitoids and overlain by Triassic felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks (Pigram

and Panggabean, 1984). The region is interpreted to have originated from New Guinea in the

Late Cenozoic (Pigram et al., 1985) and to have been transported by extension of the Sorong

Fault during the Neogene (Audley-Charles et al., 1972). The Buton Islands, which consist of

metamorphic rocks associated with ophiolite, Mesozoic – Paleogene deep water limestone

with minor terrigenous clastic rocks (Smith and Silver, 1991), ultramafic and mafic rocks and

Neogene and Quaternary sediments, were rifted from the Australian-New Guinea Gondwana

margin during the Mesozoic and collided with Sulawesi in the Neogene (Davidson, 1991;

Hamilton, 1979). Most of the Tukang Besi Platform is submerged; the exposed part of the

platform is occupied by Upper Neogene and Quaternary reef limestone. Like other

microcontinents in the region, Buton and the rest of the Tukang Besi platform are interpreted

as an Australian continental fragment (Hinschberger et al., 2005). However, Fortuin et al.

(1990) suggested that Buton Island and the Tukang Besi Archipelago represent different

continental fragments which were formerly separated from each other by oceanic crust.

20
Fig. 2.2 Regional geology and tectonic provinces division of Sulawesi Island
(Sukamto, 1975; van Leeuwen and Pieters, 2011).

21
 Fig. 2.3 Distribution of granitic rocks in Sulawesi Island (modified from Sukamto,
1975).

2.4 Field occurrences of granitic rocks

Various type granitic rocks are found in eleven areas which are mostly exposed from

the southern part of the Western Sulawesi Province to the middle part of the Northern

Sulawesi Province (Fig. 2.3). In this study, I collected samples from the region where the

granitic rocks have been considered as Late Cenozoic in age. The location map of the studied

22
samples and field photographs are shown in Fig. 2.4 to 2.15. The location covers essentially

the area where the outcrops of the granitic rocks are freshly exposed and easily accessed. The

majority of the samples for this study were collected directly from the outcrops but few from

riverbeds or beaches. Main lithology and mineral assemblages of each area (pluton) are

shown in Table 2.1.

2.4.1 Barru Pluton

The Barru pluton is the southernmost of the plutons studied here, located in the

southern part of the West Sulawesi Province (Fig. 2.4). The pluton is the smallest of the

eleven plutons, covering only approximately 12 km2 subcircular/eliptic body. Van Leeuwen

(1981) reported the local geology of this area and proposed the so called Biru Complex to

accommodate a wide variety of lithology in this area and the Biru Granodiorite to express the

plutonic body. Elburg et al. (2002) renamed this plutonic body as the Biru Intrusives Complex.

The pluton is situated approximately 3 km in the eastern part of Bontocani area and can be

easily accessed by any means of vehicle. The pluton only consists of fine- to medium-grained

equigranular quartz monzonite which intruding the Tertiary volcanic and carbonate

sedimentary rocks. Some parts of the outcrops are covered by thick vegetation and show

moderate weathering processes which is indicated by thick horizon of covered soil. The fresh

rocks show greyish color, consisting of plagioclase and quartz as the dominant minerals,

whereas biotite and hornblende serve as major dark minerals in all the samples (Fig. 2.4b and

c).

23
 Table 2.1 Main lithology and mineral assemblages of the plutons in Sulawesi

Pluton/Region Shape/ orientation Petrographic facies Mineral Assemblages Accesory Series

Medium-grained porphyritic monzogranite Qtz+Plg+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Zrc+Ilm+Mag CAK

Emu-Lab Elongated/ NE-SE
Coarse-grained porphyritic quartz monzodiorite Qtz+Plg+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Ilm+Mag CAK
Coarse-grained porphyritic quartz monzonite Plg+Qtz+Hbl+Bio+Kfs Ttn+Ap+Zrc+Mag+Ilm HK
Lalos-Toli Elongated/N-S
Coarse-grained porphyritic granodiorite Plg+Qtz+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Mag+Ilm CAK
Coarse-grained equigranular monzogranite Qtz+Plg+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Zrc+Mag+Ilm HK
Sony Subcircular/eliptic
Medium grained porphyritic quartz syenite Qtz+Plg+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Mag+Ilm HK
Medium-grained granodiorite Plg+Qtz+Hbl+Bio Ap+Ttn+Zrc+Ilm+Mag CAK
Coarse-grained porphyritic monzonite Qtz+Plg+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ilm+Mag CAK
Parigi Subcircular
Medium- to coarse-grained quartz monzonite Qtz+Plg+Bio+Hbl Ttn+Ap+Ilm+Mag CAK
Diorite gabbro (enclave) Plg+Hbl+Bio+Px Ilm+Mag CAK
Coarse-grained monzogranite Plg+Qtz+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Zrc+Ilm+Mag CAK
West Palu Elongated/NE-SE Coarse-grained porphyritic granodiorite Plg+Qtz+Hbl+Bio Ap+Ilm+Mag CAK
Coarse-grained equigranular quartz monzonite Qtz+Plg+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Ilm+Mag CAK
Medium-grained inequigranular granodiorite Plg+Qtz+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Ilm+Mag Low-K toTho

24
Medium-grained equigranular quartz monzonite Plg+Qtz+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Zrc+Ilm+Mag HK
Mamasa Subcircular/eliptic
Porphyritic monzongranite Plg+Qtz+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Zrc+Ilm+Mag HK
Medium-grained syenite Kfs+Qtz+Plg+Bio+Hbl Fld+Ttn+Ilm HK
Medium-grained equigranular monzogranite Plg+Qtz+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Mag+Ilm HK
Polewali Subcircular/eliptic
Medium-grained granodiorite Plg+Qtz+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Zrc+Mag+Ilm HK
Coarse-grained granodiorite Plg+Qtz+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Zrc+Ap+Cal+Ilm Low-K toTho
Coarse-grained monzogranite Plg+Qtz+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Ilm+Mag CAK
Masamba Subcircular/eliptic Medium-grained monzogabbro Plg+Qtz+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Zrc+Ap Low-K toTho
Fine-to medium-grained equigranular quartz monzonite Plg+Qtz+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Ilm+Mag HK
Coarse-grained porphyritic granite Qtz+Kfs+Plg+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Zrc+Ilm+Mag HK
Latuppa Elongated/N-S Medium-grained equigranular granodiorite Plg+Qtz+Bio+Hbl Ttn+Ap+Zrc+Ilm+Mag CAK
Medium-grained tonalite Plg+Qtz+Bio+Hbl Ttn+Ap+Mag Low-K toTho
Coarse-grained porphyritic granodiorite Plg+Qtz+Bio+Hbl Ap+Ox+Mag Low-K toTho
Gorontalo Elongated/ W-E
Medium-grained monzogranite Qtz+Plg+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ox+Mag Low-K toTho
Fine-grained gabbro (enclave) Plg+Hbl+Bio+Px Ttn+Mag Low-K toTho
Barru Subcircular/eliptic Fine-grained equigranular quartz monzonite Qtz+Plg+Kfs+Hbl+Bio Ttn+Ap+Zr+Ilm+Mag HK
Mineral abbreviation: Qtz= Quartz, Plg= Plagioclase, Kfs= K-feldspar, Hbl= Hornblende+ Bio= Biotite, Ttn = Titanite, Ap= Apatite, Zrc = Zircon, Px= Pyroxene, Ilm = Ilmenite,
Mag = Magnetite
2.4.2. Polewali and Mamasa Plutons

To the north, a series of composite plutons, which are made of monzogranite and

granodiorite, quartz monzonite and syenite intruded the Upper Cretaceous Sediment

(Latimojong Formation) in Polewali and Mamasa areas, located approximately 400 km to the

north of Makassar (Fig. 2.5). The Mamasa Pluton constitutes a wider area located

approximately 60 km toward the northeastern part of the Polewali Pluton which consists of

smaller but widely distributed stocks. They have roughly circular shape which included some

of the highest peaks of the CW part of the Western Sulawesi Province (higher than 2000 m)

(Fig. 2.6a). The Mamasa Pluton is the least accessible area in the region, such that sampling

was limited to a few trails, river channels and roads, mostly in the southern part of the pluton.

It is very difficult to find good outcrops or exposures since most of the granitic rocks have

been highly weathered as shown by the thickness of the soil in these plutons. However, in

some parts, particularly in the riverbeds, some outcrops are freshly exposed as seen in Fig.

2.6b.and e. In Mamasa, the outcrops have been fractured due to intense faulting activity and

sometimes the fractures are filled by quartz vein (Fig. 2.6c). The Polewali Pluton consists of

mostly medium-grained granodiorite and monzogranite (Fig. 2.6d).

The geology of these two plutons has been reported by Djuri and Sudjatmiko (1998).

The general geology of this region consists of five sequences: (1) Pre-Tertiary

metasedimentary rocks including flysch deposits which were formed in a forearc basin setting,

and ophiolites of Lamasi Complex; (2) Miocene to Pliocene syn-rifting sequence composed of

siliciclastic, coal, volcanic and carbonate sedimentary deposits of the Toraja and Mallawa

Formation; (3) Tertiary post-rifting sequence including the Eocene to Middle Miocene

carbonate Makale and Tonasa Limestone; (4) Middle Miocene to Pliocene granitic to gabbroic

intrusive rocks (known as Mamasa Granitic Rocks); (5) Pliocene to Recent non -marine to

upper bathyal sedimentary deposits including Walanae Formation.

25
Fig. 2.4 (a) Sample locality map of the Barru Pluton. (b) and (c) Field photograph of fine- to
medium-grained equigranular quartz monzonite from the Barru Pluton.

26
Fig.2.5 Sample locality map of the granitic rock from the Mamasa and Polewali Plutons.

27
Fig. 2.6 Field photographs and outcrop of Polewali and Mamasa Plutons. (a) A
mountain range formed by granitic pluton in Mamasa. (b) Outcrop of granitic rocks
in Mamasa which has been fractured due to intense faulting. (c) Quartz vein filling
the fractured in the granitic rocks in Mamasa. (d) Medium- to coarse grained texture
of the granodiorite from Polewali Pluton and (e) Outcrops of granitic rocks in
Mamasa River.

28
2.4.3. Latuppa Pluton

To the eastern coast line of the central part of the Western Sulawesi Province, the

Latuppa Pluton intrudes the Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The local geology has

been reported by Djuri and Sudjatmiko (1998). The granitic rocks intruded the Toraja

Formation which consists of Tertiary sedimentary rocks and the pre-Tertiary Latimojong

Formation, which is composed of moderately metamorphosed rocks including slate, phyllite

and quartzite.

The plutons formed in a series of pulses of intrusion into the surrounding

sedimentary rocks, located approximately 12 km northwestward of Palopo City (Fig. 2.7a)

and can be accessed from Palopo City by using all modes of transportation. However, some

outcrops may only be accessed on foot due to thick vegetation.

The pluton can be divided into three elongate bodies, separated by

northeast-southeast liniament. It consists of mainly coarse- to medium-grained equigranular

granodiorite stocks (LA-71A and LA-71B) (Fig. 2.7b). Fine-grained aplite (LA-69B) is found

suggesting rapid loss heat of magma which formed aplitic texture (very fine-grained) (Fig.

2.7c). They show white to greyish in colour and massive structure. In the most coarse-grained

granodiorite, plagioclase occurs as phenocryst set in quartz, plagioclase, k-feldspar,

hornblende and biotite groundmass.

29
Fig. 2.7 (a) Sample locality map and (b) field photograph of granodiroite in Latuppa Pluton.
(c) Outcrop of granitic rocks cut by aplite (very fine-grained texture).

30
2.4.4. Masamba Pluton

In the northern part of the Latuppa Pluton (approximately 100 km northward from

Palopo City), a large, subcircular and composite granodioritic pluton with subordinate

monzogranite, monzogabbro, quartz monzonite and granite occur as the Masamba Pluton (Fig.

2.8). The pluton intruded into the Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Simandjuntak et

al., 1991). Although the region is almost completely covered by thick vegetation, accessible

exposure of fresh granitic rocks can be found in the river bank of Rongkong River and in

some small surrounding rivers (Fig. 2.9a). The area also shows intensive surface weathering

as shown by the thickness of weathered soil.

The granitic rocks (mostly granodiorite) show medium- to coarse-grained textures

with plagioclase as phenocrysts (Fig. 2.9b). However, fine- to medium-grained equigranular

quartz monzonite rocks are found in the river bank. The monzogranite usually contain some

mafic enclaves from 2 to 20 cm in size and shows a texture indicative of magma mingling

(Fig. 2.9c).

31
Fig. 2.8 Sample locality map of the Masamba Pluton

32
Fig. 2.9 (a) Field photographs of an outcrop of the granitic rocks in Rongkong River. (b) The
granitic rocks showing a light color with plagioclase, K-feldspar and quartz as the major
minerals. (c) Mafic enclaves found in the granitic rocks from Masamba Pluton.

33
2.4.5. West Sulawesi, Parigi and Emu-Lab Plutons

In the CW part of the Western Sulawesi Province, large plutons occur, namely West

Palu, Parigi and Emu-Lab which are separated by a regional strike-slip fault referred as the

Palu-Koro Fault (Fig. 2.10).

The West Palu Pluton is located to the west side of Palu City, and is predominantly

composed of monzogranite and granodiorite, with subordinate quartz monzonite and some

enclaves (Fig. 2.11a). It has an irregular shape; subcircular, and elongated along north-south

trend. The granitic rocks consist of coarse-grained porphyritic granodiorite with plagioclase as

the main phenocrysts set in a quartz, K-feldspar, biotite and hornblende groundmass (Fig.

2.11b). The western portion of the pluton is characterized by vertical walls up to more than

2,000 meter in height; accordingly movement of blocks towards lower elevation is expected

to be significant and the boulder size blocks were found at a large distance from the inferred

contact with the country rocks (Fig. 2.11d and e).

The Parigi Pluton crops out in the eastern side of the coastal line (approximately 70

km eastward of Palu City) and consist of medium-grained granodiorite to medium- to

coarse-grained quartz monzonite. It has a subcircular shape and part of a large pluton trending

northeast – southeast. Access to the interior of the pluton is only possible using trail and an

old local path, sampling points are mostly located in the northern periphery of the pluton.

Some outcrops show a coarse-grained texture in which plagioclases occur as phenocryst and

contain some mafic enclaves (Fig. 2.11c).

An isolated northeast-southeast elongated granitic pluton consisting of monzogranite,

quartz monzonite and quartz monzodiorite occuring in the central region (Emu-Lab Pluton). It

intruded into the Palu Metamorphic Complex which is mainly composed of low to medium

grade metamorphic rocks. The granitic rocks have been metamorphosed to at least

amphibolite facies to form gneissic rocks.

34
Fig. 2.10 Sample locality map of the West Palu (WP), Parigi (PAR) and Emu-Lab Plutons
(EMU).

35
Fig. 2.11 (a) Field photograph of quartz monzonite sample (WP-29B) in West Palu containing
some enclaves (b) Plagioclase occur as phenocryst in a coarse-grained granitic rocks in West
Palu. (c) Gabboric enclaves found in coarse-grained quartz monzonite (PAR-28ENC) at Parigi
Pluton. (d) Boulder of medium- to coarse grained granitic rocks in West Palu Pluton. (e)
Granitic body forming a mountain range which reached up to 2000 meters in West Palu.

36
2.4.6 Sony and Lalos-Toli Plutons

In the NW part of the province, particularly in the neck of Sulawesi Island, large

plutonic bodies comprised predominantly of monzogranite with subordinate granodiorite and

quartz syenite are exposed (Sony and Lalos-Toli Pluton) (Fig. 2.12). They are separated by a

thick sequence of weakly metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Tinombo

Formation (Leuween et al., 2007). In some areas the granitic rocks reach an altitude of about

3 km to form a wide plutonic complex of the Dondo Batholith (van Leeuwen, 1994) (Fig.

2.13a). The granitic rocks have intruded into the Tinombo Formation in the western part of

Toli-Toli region and are generally surrounded by contact metamorphic aureoles.

The Lalos-Toli Pluton is a north to south trending elongated plutonic body which

consists of two suites of rocks; coarse-grained porphyritic quartz monzonite and

coarse-grained porphyritic granodiorite. Plagioclase and K-feldspar occur as phenocrysts (Fig.

2.13b) with quartz, biotite and hornblende as the major minerals in coarse-grained porphyritic

quartz monzonite.

The Sony Pluton forms subcircular/eliptic body and consists mainly of

medium-grained equigranular monzogranite and medium- to coarse-grained porphyritic

quartz syenite (Fig. 2.13c and d). Access to the interior of the pluton is sometimes restricted

due to the extreme track and heavy vegetation in certain localities. Plagioclase, K-feldspar and

quartz occur as the major minerals in variable proportions, with hornblende and biotite as

major ferro-magnesian minerals. Sometime the outcrops have been fractured and filled by

quartz veins (Fig. 2.13e).

37
Fig. 2.12 Sample locality map of the Sony (SO) and Lalos-Toli (LA) Plutons.

38
Fig. 2.13 Field photograph and outcrops of the Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons. (a) Sony Pluton
reaches an altitude of more than 3000 m. (b) Close up picture of Lalos-Toli pluton
(LA-17AB) containing plagioclase as phenocryst. (c) Outcrops of Sony Pluton (SO-21B) and
(d) granodiorite surface of sample SO-25. (e) Highly fractured outcrops of Sony Pluton. Note
that some fractures have been filled by quartz vein.

39
2.4.7 Gorontalo Pluton

The samples from the Gorontalo region represent the granitic rocks in the Northern

Sulawesi Province (Fig. 2.14). They are composed of tonalite, granodiorite with subordinate

granite (monzogranite) which intruded into the volcanic rocks.

The outcrops are mainly collected from the port of Gorontalo at the southern part of

Gorontalo City, forming two elongated bodies separated by Gorontalo Bay trending west to

east (Fig. 2.15a and b). One sample (GR-3) was taken in the northern part of the region (near

Kwandang area).

Enclaves of diorite or fine-grained gabbro are common with sizes ranging from 3 to

10 cm (Fig. 2.15c). Plagioclase and quartz occur as the major minerals with minor K-feldspar,

whereas biotite and hornblende served as the major ferro-magnesian. They are massive and

coarse-grained but sometimes in certain places they have been altered to some degree (Fig.

2.15d). In the eastern part of the region, the granitic rocks are very loose and have been

utilized by local settlers as industrial materials (Fig. 2.15e).

40
Fig. 2.14 Sample locality map of the Gorontalo Pluton

41
Fig. 2.15 (a) Bird’s eye view of granitic rocks pluton in Gorontalo Gulf. (b) Granodioritic
outcrops (GR-2) along road near Gorontalo Port. (c) Enclave in fine- to medium grained
granitic rocks. (d) Outcrops of granitic rocks showing a weathering process and (e) Boulder of
granitic rocks used as industrial material.

42
 CHAPTER III

PETROGRAPHY, GEOCHEMISTRY, Ar-Ar DATING AGE AND

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE GRANITIC ROCKS IN
SULAWESI, INDONESIA

Abstract

Petrography, major element, trace element, Sr, Nd, Pb and O isotope ratios and magnetic

susceptibility for granitic rocks in Sulawesi Island, Indonesia were reported. The granitic

rocks consist of granodiorite, quartz monzonite, monzonite, monzodiorite, syenite through

granite with enclave of diorite. Major element composition (SiO2 and K2O) indicates that the

plutons can be classified as high-K or shoshonitic (HK), which are concentrated in the

southern and central-western part of the Western Sulawesi Province, high-K calc-alkaline

(CAK) which are found in the central and northeastern part of the province and low-K to

tholeiitic series which are dominated in the central part of the Northern Sulawesi Province.

However, some rocks from Masamba and Mamasa Plutons which are located in the

central-western of the Western Sulawesi Province show a low-K to tholeiitic affinity. Most of

the granitic rocks are metaluminous I-type granitic rocks. With an exception of tonalitic rocks

in Gorontalo area in the northern part of the island, all granitic samples resemble the upper

continental crust pattern in their trace and rare earth element pattern. Enrichment of large ion

lithophile elements (Rb and Sr) and depletion of high field strength elements (especially Nb

and Ta) suggests an arc magmatic affinity. Negative Eu anomaly in most of the samples shows

plagioclase fractionation during magmatic differentiation. Most of the rocks show high
87
Sr/86Sr values but low 143
Nd/144Nd, suggesting a strong upper crustal component source. In

addition, they have high 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb isotope ratios. However, microdioritic enclaves
87
and tonalitic rocks from Gorontalo show lower Sr/86Sr values but higher 143
Nd/144Nd and

relatively higher 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb values, suggesting more basic source. Whole-rock δ8O

43
values from the granitic rocks are in the range of +5.7 to +9.6 permil (outlier three samples

lower than +5.1 permil and two samples higher than +12 permil). The low δ8O value can be

attributed to the introduction of meteoric hydrothermal alteration whereas the higher δ8O

value indicates the significant involvement of high δ8O metasedimentary rocks in the melting
40
process. Ar/39Ar ages on hornblende and biotite separated from the granitic rocks in

Sulawesi range between 11.3 and 8.2 Ma suggesting that the cooling age occurred during Late

Miocene to Late Pliocene in the Western Sulawesi Province. A younger post-magmatic age of

3.1±0.1 Ma was recorded from biotite in monzogranite at Parigi Pluton in the eastern of CW

of the province may reflect localized effect of younger plutonism. The magnetic susceptibility

of the granitic rocks varies between 0.08 x 10-3 SI to 18.5 x 10-3 SI, corresponding

respectively to ilmenite-series (< 3x 10-3 SI; reduced type) which widely distributed in the CW

of the Western Sulawesi Province and magnetite-series (> 3x 10-3 SI; oxidized type) granite

which can be found in the NW part of the Western and Northern Sulawesi Province.
Keywords: Petrology, geochemistry, Ar-Ar dating, magnetic susceptibility, granitic
rocks, Sulawesi, Indonesia

3.1 Introduction

The origin of granites has been a subject of debate since the very beginning of

geochemical and isotopes studies (Clarke, 1992; Petford et al., 2000). To understand the

origin and evolution of the granitic rocks, we must first understand the initial magma

generation process (Brown, 1994). However, this task is not straightforward since the granitic

magmatism itself involves various processes including segregation, aggregation, ascent and

emplacement of final magma. Rocks of granitic family reflects continuum of composition

suggesting derivation from diverse and multiple sources as well as differentiation process.

Accordingly, detailed characterization on the granitic rocks either based on petrology or

geochemistry in one plutonic body is very important to unravel the origin and evolution of

44
granitic rocks. Recently, our understanding on the origin and evolution of the granitic rocks

has been changed due to application of isotope geochemistry. Despite their potential problems,

stable and radiogenic isotopes have much information to offer about both magmatic and

post-magmatic processes, as well as information about source rocks (Taylor, 1978; Ayuso,

1986; De Paolo, 1998; Clarke, 1992). Therefore, a combination of detailed petrology,

geochemistry coupled with stable and radiogenic isotopic data as well as magnetic

susceptibility could give significant information to their nature and origin as well as their

geodynamic process.

During the Late Cenozoic, Sulawesi witnessed widespread and voluminous

magmatic activity along a 1,600 km long belt that comprises the Western and Northern

Sulawesi Provinces. It produced three distinct magma series; a shoshonitic to ultrapotassic

series, a felsic high-K calc-alkaline series, and intermediate to felsic calc-alkaline to low-K

tholeiitic series, which were designated HK, CAK and CA series represented by both volcanic

and intrusive rocks. The three magma series show a distinct geographic distribution. HK

rocks are found throughout Western Sulawesi, CAK rocks are restricted to the central and

northern parts of this province, and Late Cenozoic CA rocks are present only in Northern

Sulawesi.

A number of studies on the Late Cenozoic igneous rocks have been undertaken

between 1986 and 2002 involving petrographic, geochemical, radiogenic isotope, and age

dating analyses (Yuwono et al., 1988; Letellier et al., 1988; Priadi et al., 1993, 1994; Bergman

et al., 1996; Polvé et al., 1996, 2001; Elburg and Foden, 1999a & b; Elburg et al., 2002a,

2003). These studies were based on reconnaissance-style sampling of various volcanic and

plutonic units. However, to date no detailed examinations of individual units have been

undertaken. The results of the various studies have given rise to several hypotheses on the

origin and tectonic setting of the Late Cenozoic rocks, which are discussed below.

45
 The present study focuses on the granitoid members of the three magma series. A

representative suite of samples were collected from 10 areas in Western Sulawesi and one

area in Northern Sulawesi (cf. Fig. 2.3). They were subjected to petrographic, geochemical

and radiogenic isotope analyses. In addition, I carried out limited Ar/Ar age dating analyses

in three samples from three plutons and measured magnetic susceptibility of the granitic rocks

from several plutons.

3.2. Analytical Method

Petrography, whole-rock major and trace element geochemistry, and Sr, Nd and Pb

isotope analyses were carried out in order to examine the tectonic setting and origin of the

granitic rocks. Over 110 granitic rocks samples including some enclaves were systematically

collected from various localities in eleven areas covering the entire granitic rock distribution

in Sulawesi Island. Of these, 80 thin sections were prepared and studied petrographically to

determine the rock types, mineral assemblages, fabric and textural relations.

Concentration of major and trace elements including rare earth elements of 84 fresh

samples were analyzed. Approximately 1 kg of each sample was crushed and milled to 200

mesh and then thoroughly mixed using a pulverizer. Major element compositions were

determined on fused disc and pressed powder using an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer

Rigaku RINT-300 at Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Kyushu University whereas

rare earth elements and trace elements were determined by the ICP-MS method following a

lithium metaborate/tetraborate fusion and nitric acid total digestion at ALS Chemex,

Vancouver, Canada.

Trace and rare earth elements shown in the spider diagram were normalized to

primitive mantle and to chondrite of Sun and McDonough (1989), respectively. Loss on

ignitions values were calculated after heating the sample powder to 100 º C for 2 hours and

46
weighed and reheated to 500 º C for 1 hour and finally to 900 º C for 1.5 hours.

Radiogenic isotope (Sr, Nd, and Pb) and stable isotope (O) of 12 samples were

determined using a Thermofisher Triton RPQ multicollector mass spectrometer at the

Research Institute of Human and Nature (RIHN), Kyoto and VG Optima mass spectrometer at

the isotope geology Lab. Glasgow University, respectively.

Radiogenic isotope ratio was analyzed by dissolving an approximately 100 mg of

each powder sample in a mixed acid of HF (1.0ml), HNO3 (0.7ml), and HClO4 (0.2ml).

Isolation of Sr, Nd, and Pb was made using a conventional ion-exchange chromatography.

Separated Sr was loaded with a Ta activator on pre-conditioned W-filament and was measured

in single-filament mode. Separated Nd was measured in Ta-Re double filaments mode. The

measured 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd ratios were normalized to 86Sr/88Sr = 0.1194 and 146Nd/144Nd
86
= 0.7219, respectively. The Sr/88Sr value of the NIST SRM 987 reference material

throughout the analyzes was 0.710247 ± 0.000014 (2σ, n = 8). The 143Nd/144Nd ratio of the La

Jolla reference material was 0.511856 ± 0.000016 (2σ, n = 14). Precision for the present

analyzes was better than ±0.000028 (2σ) for 87Sr/86Sr and ±0.00002 (2σ) for 143
Nd/144Nd. The

Pb isotope ratios were normalized to NIST SRM 981 values (206Pb/204Pb = 16.9390,
207
Pb/204Pb = 15.4963, 208
Pb/204Pb = 36.7206). The mean values of NIST SRM 981 throughout

this study (n = 26) were 206

Pb/204Pb= 16.889 ± 0.013 (2σ), 207
Pb/204Pb = 15.454 ± 0.017 (2σ),

and 208Pb/204Pb= 36.603 ± 0.033 (2σ).

For stable isotope (O) ratio, all whole-rock powders were analyzed using a laser

fluorination procedure, involving total sample reaction with excess ClF3 using a CO2 laser as

a heat source (in excess of 1500°C; following Sharp, 1990). O2 released from the total

fluorination of the samples was then converted to CO2 by reaction with hot graphite, then

analysed on a VG Optima mass spectrometer. Oxygen isotope (δ18O) values are reported in

the standard per mill (‰) notation relative to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water

47
(V-SMOW). Reproducibility is better than ±0.3‰ (1s) based on repeat analyses of

international and in-house standards run during these analyses - UWG2, SES and GP147 –

giving values of 5.9‰ (5.8‰), 10.2, 10.3‰ (10.2‰) and 7.1‰ (7.2‰) respectively, in very

good agreement with their accepted values (in brackets).

Hornblende and biotite were separated from crushed and size-fractioned samples by

standard magnetic and heavy-liquid techniques. It was then finalized by hand picking to get

the cleanest fraction sample under a binocular microscope. All the samples were chosen based

on their field and petrographic evidence which show confident assignment as primary igneous
40
origin. The grain sizes varied from 0.18 to 0.50 mm. The samples were run in the Ar/39Ar

geochronology laboratory in Lund University, Sweden, following the methodology depicted

in Hermansson et al. (2008). Measured isotopic ratios were corrected for total system blanks

and the effect of mass discrimination. The laboratory consists of a Micromass Mass

Spectrometer with a Faraday and an electron multiplier. A metal extraction line, which

contains two SEAS C50-ST101 Zr-Al getters and a cold finger cooled to ca. - 155°C by a
40
Poly-cold P100 cyrogenic refrigeration unit, is also present. Ar/39Ar incremental release

spectra allow cooling ages to be determined from K-bearing minerals. These ages recorded

the approximate time the minerals passed through their closure temperature. However, in the

case of rapidly cooled rocks, the crystallization and cooling age converge. Two types of ages,

plateau and total gas, are derived from the incremental release spectra. A plateau age is the

mean value of increments, which are concordant, based on 2 sigma analytical uncertainties,

excluding any uncertainty in J factor. A total gas age is determined by weighting each age and

associated uncertainty, based on the amount of 39Ar present, in each increment and averaging.

Magnetic susceptibility values of the rocks were measured in the field with a portable

device of KT-10 Magnetic Susceptibility Meter from Terraplus. The units of measurement in

volume susceptibility are the commonly used dimensionless SI units (International Standard

48
units) and the 10-3 units is used as measured values. The measurements were focused on 9

different granitic plutons in the island (cf. Fig. 1.3). The sites were chosen because of the

accessibility and the abundance of outcrop of fresh rocks for both geochemical sampling and

the collection of measurements. Several measurements (5 to 10 times) were normally taken

from each sample at different orientations and an average reading is recorded.

3.3 Results

3.3.1 Petrography

In the Barru Pluton, the quartz monzonite has a hypidiomorhic-granular texture and

is uniformly coarse grained. It composed of plagioclase (45%), quartz (25%), K-feldspar

(15%), biotite (5%), hornblende (8%) and some accessory minerals such as titanite, apatite

and minor zircon. Plagioclase crystals are subhedral to euhedral and commonly zoned and

show twinning. Some crystals contain inclusion of biotites and opaque oxides. The K-feldspar

appears to be dominated as microcline. The quartz contains inclusions of all other minerals in

the rocks and show little undulatory extinction.

To the north (Polewali), a series of small plutons consists of monzogranite and

granodiorite, intruded into the Upper Cretaceous Sediment (Latimojong Formation). A

monzogranite (sample POL-ST3) shows a porphyritic texture, containing plagioclase (45%),

as phenocrysts set in the groundmass of hornblende (25%), biotite (10%), quartz (10%),

K-feldspar (5%), with accessory minerals of titanite, apatite and opaque oxides. In

monzogranites (samples POL-ST1), plagioclase occurs as phenocrysts which can reach 8 mm

in length, showing polysynthetic twinning and containing abundant inclusions of quartz and

biotite. A granodiorite (sample POL-ST2) consists mainly of plagioclase (50%), quartz (15%),

hornblende (15%), biotite (10%), K-feldspar (<5%) and some accessory minerals (e.g. titanite,

zircon and opaque oxides).

49
 The Mamasa pluton is located approximately 60 km northeast of the Polewali pluton.

It is a composite pluton composed of granodiorite, quartz monzonite, monzogranite and

syenite. A granodiorite (sample MA-41BA) and a quartz monzonite (MA-45) were differed by

their K-feldspar content. The first (MA-41BA) consists of plagioclase (60%), quartz (10%),

hornblende (15%), biotite (10%) and accessory minerals (titanite, apatite and opaque oxides)

whereas the latter (MA-45) is granular, consisting of plagioclase (50%), quartz (15%)

hornblende (15%), biotite (15%) and K-feldspar (<3%) with some accessory minerals (e.g.

titanite, opaque oxides and zircon) (Fig. 3.1a). Monzogranite (samples MA-48 and MA-46) is

mainly composed of plagioclase (45%), quartz (30%), K-feldspar (10%) biotite (10%) and

hornblende (5%) with accessory mineral of titanite and opaque oxides. Most of biotite shows

a reddish brown color in thin section (plane polar) as seen in monzogranite sample (MA-41)

(Fig. 3.1b). Syenite (samples MA-38 and MA-38B) consists mainly of K-feldspar (25%),

plagioclase (35%), hornblende (10%), biotite (15%), quartz (10%), with titanite and opaque

oxides as accessory minerals.

To the eastern part of the region, the Latuppa Pluton intruded into the Tertiary

volcanic and sedimentary rocks. It consists mainly of granodiorite stock with aplite (sample

LA-69B, LA-71A and LA-71B). They consist predominantly of plagioclase (60%), quartz

(15%), biotite (20%), hornblende (5%) with titanite, apatite, zircon and opaque oxides as

accessory minerals.

In the northern part of this pluton, a composite granodioritic pluton with subordinate

monzogranite, monzogabbro, quartz monzonite and granite occurs as the Masamba Pluton.

Gabbroic enclaves are found in this pluton. Granodiorite (samples MST-3B, MST-3A and

MRF-4B) are composed of mainly sericitized plagioclase (60%), quartz (10%), hornblende

(15%), biotite (10%) with K-feldspar (less than 3%) and titanite as accessory minerals along

with apatite and opaque oxides (magnetite and ilmenite). Calcite veins are found in quartz

50
monzonite (M-1) that cross-cutting the sericitized plagioclase phenocrysts. Plagioclase rims

have been altered to carbonate and chlorite. Hornblende was often altered to chlorite and

calcite whereas biotite was commonly altered to chlorite (Fig. 3.1c).

In the central part to the northwestern part of the province, a series of large plutons

occur, namely West Palu, Parigi, Emu-Lab, Sony and Lalos-Toli. The West Palu pluton is

dominated by monzogranite and granodiorite with subordinate quartz monzonite. The

monzogranite (WP35, WP-32A, WP-31C) consists of plagioclase (45%) as phenocrysts,

quartz (25%), K-feldspar (<5%), biotite (10%), hornblende (10%) and titanite, apatite and

small zircon as well as opaque oxides as accessory minerals. The granodiorite (WP-32B)

consists of plagioclase (65%) and quartz (15%), with hornblende (10%), biotite (5%) and

accessory minerals (mainly titanite and opaque oxides). The plagioclases are strongly

sericitized whereas hornblende and biotite were intensely chloritized. The plagioclase in

monzogranite (WP-30B) occurs as a strongly zoned phenocryst (up to 6 mm) in the

groundmass of quartz, hornblende and biotite (Fig. 3.1d). Biotite shows pleochroism from

light yellow to light and dark shades of brown.

A large pluton consisting dominantly of granodiorite with subordinate monzonite and

quartz monzonite is exposed in Parigi at the eastern side of the region. The granodiorite

(PA-28 and PA-28C) contain plagioclase (60%), quartz (15%), hornblende (10%), biotite

(15%) whereas the quartz monzonite and monzogranite (PA-27E and PA-27B) are

distinguished by a lower portion of plagioclase (50-55%) but higher quartz (20%) with apatite,

titanite, zircon and opaque oxides as accessory minerals. Enclaves (PA-28E) are dioritic to

gabbroic in composition and generally fine-grained, equigranular, hypidiomorphic and

subophitic to ophitic in texture.

A composite granitic intrusion consisting of monzogranite (EMU-14), quartz

monzonite (EMU-13) and quartz monzodiorite (EMU-10A & 10B) occurs in the northern part

51
of the central region (Emu-Lab). It intruded into the Palu Metamorphic Complex which is

mainly composed of low to medium grade metamorphic rocks. The granitic rocks have been

metamorphosed to at least amphibolite facies to form gneissic rocks. The monzogranite and

quartz monzonite are characterized by high quartz content (20 – 25 %) but lower plagioclase

content (45 – 50%) compared to quartz monzodiorite which contains quartz (10-15%) and

plagioclase (up to 65%). Plagioclase was strongly sericitized whereas biotite and hornblende

were frequently chloritized.

In the northeastern region, two large plutons (Sony and Lalos-Toli) are exposed

separated by Tertiary sediments and volcanic rocks. The first is composed of monzogranite

(SO-20 and SO-20KF) and quartz syenite (SO-25, SO-23 and SO-21B) whereas the latter

consists of quartz monzonite (LA-18C and LA-18D) and granodiorite (LA-17AB and

LA-17B). In monzogranite and quartz syenite from Sony Pluton, quartz content is higher (20

– 25%) than those from Lalos-Toli. They also show higher modal composition of K-feldspar

(up to 8%). Biotites are greenish brown (Fig. 3.1e). Granodiorite in Lalos-Toli Pluton

(LA-17B) is coarse-grained and hypidiomorphic equigranular, gray-colored to pinkish. Quartz,

plagioclase, hornblende, biotite and small amount of alkali feldspar are found as major

minerals with titanite, apatite, zircon and opaque oxides as accessory minerals (Fig. 3.1f).

The rocks from the Gorontalo region which represent the Northern Sulawesi

Province are composed of tonalites, granodiorite with subordinate granite (monzogranite).

Enclaves of medium- to coarse-grained hypidiomorphic diorite up to 25 cm in size are

common. Aside from tonalities which have higher plagioclase abundance (60 - 70%), the

granodiorites are composed of plagioclase (50 - 60%), quartz (10 - 15%) with biotite (10%)

and hornblende (10%) as major minerals. Biotite and hornblende are commonly altered to

chlorite and epidote. Plagioclase is zoned and unzoned, frequently sericitized as shown in Fig.

3.1g. Sometimes the plagioclases contain fine-grained biotite, hornblende and quartz

52
inclusions. Quartz occurs as large grains (up to 4 mm) found interlocking with plagioclase in

the groundmass. Hornblende is closely associated with biotite and often found as inclusions in

plagioclase. Biotite is euhedral to subhedral and shows pale-yellowish brown to reddish

brown pleochorism and frequently chloritized as shown in Fig. 3.1h. Inclusions in biotite

include apatite and opaque oxides, quartz and titanite. Accessories are apatite, zircon, titanite

and magnetite. Titanite occurs almost in all granitic rocks. Diorite enclaves are largely

composed of plagioclase and hornblende with biotite.

53
Fig. 3.1a. Photomicrograph of granodiorite (MA-45) from Mamasa consisting mainly of
plagioclase, quartz, hornblende and biotite. Accesory of titanite and opaque oxide are
common (cross-polorized). b. Biotite in monzogranite (MA-41) showing reddish brown color
(plane-polarized). c. Calcite veins cross cut the highly sericitized plagioclase in quartz
monzonite (M-1) from Mamasa (cross-polarized). d. Plagioclase occurs as phenocrysts
showing oscillatory zoning in granodiorite (WP-30B) from West Palu (cross-polarized). e.
Biotite in quartz syenite (SO-25) from Sony Pluton showing greenish brown (plane-polarized).
f. Accessory minerals including zircon and titanite set in a groundmass of quartz, plagioclase,
hornblende and biotite in a granodiorite from Lalos-Toli (LA-17B) (cross-polarized). g.
Highly sericitized plagioclase along with quartz, hornblende and biotite in monzogranite (61
MAL) from Gorontalo (cross-polarized). h. Granodiorite from Gorontalo (62 GTL),
consisting of a quartz and plagioclase groundmass with hornblende and chloritized biotite.

3.3.2 Whole-rock major and trace elements geochemistry

Selected whole-rock major and trace element geochemistry of the granitic rocks in

Sulawesi are shown in Table 3.1. To constrain the geochemical characteristics, we used

K2O-SiO2 diagram of Pecerillo and Taylor (1976) to classify the studied samples for the

54
igneous province in this island. Based on this classification, the studied samples can be

grouped into three distinct series; HK, CAK and low-K to tholeiitic series. Combination of

more than one granitic rock series in one pluton is common as seen in Mamasa, Masamba,

Lalos-Toli, suggesting the multiphase intrusion within one pluton. The Total Alkali

(Na2O+K2O) vs SiO2 diagram of Cox et al. (1979), A/CNK (molar ratio of

Al2O3/[(CaO+Na2O+K2O)]) versus A/NK (molar ratio of Al2O3/[(Na2O+K2O)]) and

K2O-SiO2 diagram of Pecerillo and Taylor (1976) as well as trace and rare earth element

normalized diagrams of the granitic rocks are also shown in Fig. 3.3 to 3.6. Most of the

granitic rocks are plotted in the field of quartz diorite, granite, syenite, syenodiorite and

gabbro whereas the enclave in Parigi is plotted in the syeno-diorite field (Fig. 3.3).

a. HK (high-K or shoshonitic series)

HK rocks were restricted in the central and southwestern part of the Western

Sulawesi Province (Mamasa, Polewali, Masamba and Barru Plutons), consistent with

proposed regional magmatic suite features of the island. However, the granitic rocks in the

Sony Pluton, which is located in the NW part of the Western Sulawesi Province, also show

HK affinity (Fig. 3.5). In the Polewali Pluton, all rocks were plotted in the HK series (K2O

content range from 3.9 to 4.9 wt%) with only a quartz monzonite (POL-13) straddle between

HK and CAK border. The SiO2 content is broadly similar (64.3 to 65.4 wt%) except for

granodiorite (POL-ST3) which contains lower SiO2 content (56.6 wt%). Most of granitic

rocks from the Mamasa Pluton (except sample MA45 and MA41BA) show a strong

shoshonitic character with K2O range from 4.2 to 6.6 wt% and SiO2 range from 51.6 to 67.6

wt%. Two syenite samples (MA-38 and MA-38B) show an extreme of K2O (up to 10.4 wt%).

Barru quartz monzonite (DIO BR) contains 60.7 wt% SiO2 and 4.1 wt% K2O, which are also

plotted in the HK field. The granitic rocks in Sony Pluton are characterized by high K2O

55
(range from 3.7 to 5.5 wt%) and SiO2 which is only restricted between 62 to 65 wt% except

quartz syenite (SO-21) which show a relatively lower SiO2 content but extremely high total

FeO content. The K2O and SiO2 contents of the granodiorite (LA-18C and LA-18D) from the

Lalos-Toli Pluton are relatively similar.

ASI (Alumina Saturation Index = A/CNK) of granitic rocks from this series range

from 0.6 to 1.1. The A/NK versus A/CNK diagram (Fig. 3.4) shows that the granitic rocks

mainly belong to metaluminous (A/CNK<1.1) and therefore plotted as I-type granitic rocks

(White and Chappell, 1977).

Trace and rare earth elements were normalized to primitive and chondrite values of

Sun and McDonough (1989) (Fig. 3.6). Primitive-mantle normalized trace element patterns of

the HK series rocks generally show a regular trend. They show enrichment of large ion

lithopile elements (LILE) and depletion of high field strength elements (HFSE) including Nb,

Ta and Ti which resemble upper continental crust pattern of Rudnick and Gao (2003). They

are further characterized by the negative anomaly of Sr, suggesting plagioclase fractionation

during crystallization. However, Barru quartz monzonite (DIO-BR) and a dioritic enclave

(67-C2) show a positive Sr anomaly, suggesting plagioclase accumulation.

Chondrite normalized REE patterns of most of the HK granitic rocks series show

relative enrichment of light rare earth elements (LaN/YbN = 1.8 to 52) and negative Eu

anomalies [EuN/(SmN x GdN)0.5] (Eu* = 0.4 to 0.8) with flat heavy rare earth elements

(HREE) patterns. An extreme enrichment of LREE was shown by the high LaN/YbN ratio up

to 94 with a relatively flat HREE pattern from Masamba granitic rocks (67C-1). An enclave

(67C-2) presents a contrasting signature with low LREE enrichment (Fig. 3.7).

b. High-K calc-alkaline series (CAK)

The CAK granitic rocks series are mostly restricted in the central part until the

56
northwestern part of the Western Sulawesi Province. They are found in West Palu, Emu-Lab

Lalos-Toli, Parigi and Latuppa. SiO2 contents of the granitic rocks from this series range from

55 to 69 wt% whereas SiO2 contents of enclaves are lower (<55 wt%).

A/NK values of the granitic rocks are > 1 while the A/CNK ranges from 0.86 to 1,

implying that all granitic rocks are also metaluminous and has an I-type character. The

granitic rocks in this suite are relatively enriched in LILE such as Rb, Ba, Th, U but depleted

in HFSE (e.g. Zr, Nb, Ta, Ti, Hf) and REE as shown in the primitive mantle normalized trace

element pattern (Fig 3.6). Most of the rocks show negative anomalies Sr, except granodiorite

(PA-27E) and the enclave (PA-28E) from Parigi which displays a positive anomaly of Sr. The

positive Sr anomaly can be explained by the high CaO and Na2O content manifested by

plagioclase abundances, concordant with its petrographic analysis.

Chondrite normalized rare earth element patterns show enrichment of LREE with

LaN/YbN values up to 32 and relatively flat HREE (Fig. 3.7). Two groups of Eu anomaly were

found, the negative anomalies with Eu* range from 0.5 to 0.9 and the positive anomalies with

Eu* ranges from 1.1 to 1.3. Monzogranite (PA-27E) and the enclave (PA-28ENC) show a

slightly depleted LREE and positive Eu anomaly compared to other granitic rocks.

c. Low-K to tholeiitic series

The low-K to tholeiitic series granitic rocks are mostly found in Gorontalo area in the

Northern Sulawesi Province. However, some granitic rock from Mamasa Pluton (MA-45 and

MA41-BA) and Masamba Pluton (MST-3B, MRF-4B and MST-3A) also show relatively low

content of K2O which led them to be classified as low-K to tholeiitic field in SiO2 vs K2O

diagram (Fig.3.4). Compared to the other suites, the SiO2 contents of granitic rocks from these

units are relatively high. The A/CNK vs A/NK diagram (Fig. 3.4) shows that most of the

granitic rocks were plotted in the metaluminous field, while monzogranite (MAL 61) was

57
plotted in the transition between meta- and peraluminous field.

Enrichment of LILE, Th and U and depletion of HFSE are displayed in primitive

mantle normalized trace element diagram (Fig. 3.6) except for a tonalite (GR-1) and a

granodiorite (MA-41BA), which show depletion of these elements. Most of the granitic rocks

also show negative Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies, suggesting an arc-related geochemical signature.

Some of them also show negative Sr anomaly (MA41-BA and MST-3B).

Chondrite normalized rare earth element patterns (Fig. 3.7) display four distinctive

groups; the first (including MA-45, MST-3A, 61 MAL, 60 GTL, GR-3) with enrichment of

LREE (LaN/YbN = 2.9 to 8.3) and slightly negative Eu anomaly (Eu* = 0.66 to 0.76), the

second (MA-41BA and MST-3B) shows lower LREE but positive Eu anomaly (Eu* = 1.3 to

2.1) and very low HREE, the third (62 GTL and 55-GTL) with lower LREE (LaN/YbN = 1.7

to 2.7) and small negative Eu anomaly (Eu* = 0.72 to 0.82) which resembles enriched-MORB

and the last (GR-1) with depletion of LREE (LaN/YbN = 0.46) and positive of Eu anomaly

(Eu* = 0.96) which resembles the normal-MORB trend of Sun and McDonough (1989).

58
Fig. 3.2 Sample location map showing the distribution and classification of granitic
rocks according to their geochemical character in Sulawesi Island.

59
 Table 3.2 Selected major (wt%) and trace element (ppm) concentration of granitic rocks from Sulawesi.

Series HK (Shoshonitic)
Pluton BARRU MASAMBA POLEWALI MAMASA LALOS-TOLI SONY
Sample DIO BR MST-13 MRF-4 MRF-7 MA-67B POL-13 POL-ST1 POL-19 POL-11 MA-41 MA-41B MA-45B MA-47 MA-48 MA-49 LA-18C LA-18D SO-20 KF SO-20 SO-24C
Whole Rock (wt%)
SiO2 60.67 66.14 68.66 74.28 72.51 65.16 64.78 64.78 65.42 61.14 62.50 63.7 66.31 65.75 65.12 63.81 64.27 67.40 67.87 68.82
TiO2 0.52 0.54 0.51 0.13 0.21 0.52 0.63 0.56 0.4 0.71 0.65 0.61 0.61 0.65 0.62 0.44 0.46 0.52 0.50 0.47
Al2O3 15.52 14.54 14.41 13.57 13.63 15.18 14.19 14.68 14.2 14.62 14.40 13.21 13.45 12.72 13.16 14.93 14.92 13.63 13.54 12.46
FeOt 4.37 3.85 2.74 1.52 1.82 4.23 4.29 3.87 2.56 5.27 4.73 4.51 3.78 4.34 4.22 3.96 3.69 2.77 2.83 2.86
MnO 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.06
MgO 3.4 2.44 2.17 0.17 0.76 2.59 2.89 2.54 1.82 3.74 3.47 4.34 4.11 4.65 4.55 2.62 2.35 2.21 2.28 2.61
CaO 4.94 3.94 3.21 0.70 1.5 3.81 4.26 3.94 4.21 5.07 4.68 3.98 3.18 3.57 3.30 3.57 3.72 1.74 1.87 2.35
Na2O 2.92 2.49 2.37 3.30 3.99 2.61 2.39 2.42 1.15 3.21 3.11 2.88 2.23 2.42 2.68 3.13 3.21 3.26 2.88 3.61
K2O 4.06 4.59 4.85 5.82 4.96 3.93 4.31 4.98 4.43 4.03 4.35 4.52 4.99 4.20 4.71 4.85 4.87 4.76 5.02 4.71
P2O5 0.28 0.22 0.13 0.02 0.05 0.23 0.24 0.21 0.13 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.14 0.16 0.19 0.25 0.19 0.25 0.26 0.30
H2O 2.88 0.89 0.71 0.40 0.41 1.34 1.6 1.6 5.4 0.78 0.82 1.2 0.90 0.83 0.66 1.03 0.84 1.65 1.60 0.82
Total 99.65 99.72 99.81 99.94 99.89 99.67 99.67 99.65 99.79 98.98 99.08 99.26 99.77 99.36 99.29 98.66 98.58 98.28 98.76 99.07
Trace element (ppm)
Cr 42 30 30 12 20 38 33 40 45 40 30 270 210 200 240 30 30 50 50 70
Ni 28 11 6 13 21 25 20 36 24 10 8 53 48 38 59 16 14 35 31 41
V 113 103 46 5 16 85 94 87 34 151 122 81 77 72 76 111 89 75 77 67
Rb 131.5 179.5 233 158 184 177.5 185.5 207 227 172 220 65.8 210 230 236 199 214 185.5 201 186.5
Ba 1130 1645 747 26.9 244 1215 1540 2230 1020 1180 1165 496 727 551 632 1805 1965 917 2290 1095
Th 14.1 44.5 23 35.3 33.6 47 47.7 43.9 54.4 45.1 45.6 30.8 26.4 25.1 33.5 36.6 18.25 29.2 30.9 21.5
U 4.11 9.34 6.14 3.98 5.59 9.33 10.1 8.82 10.5 6.58 9.65 5.92 5.38 4.76 7.6 6.73 4.32 6.84 7.12 4.68
Nb 6.8 15.4 11.4 3.6 12.8 17.5 17.4 14.9 20.8 16 20.1 17.5 15 16.8 15.5 14.3 9.5 16.5 15.6 13.5
Ta 0.4 1.2 1 0.4 0.92 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.9 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.7 1.3 1 1.3 1.2 0.9

60
La 34.7 64.5 34.4 75.1 39 61 61 64 71.9 64.3 58.4 56.3 47.2 49.6 52.5 49.8 29.1 69.4 53.6 39.3
Ce 61.1 112 66.3 157 75.6 111 110 112 127.5 110 110.5 121 101.5 103.5 115 96.9 59.7 91.5 86.9 78.2
Pr 7.15 11.2 6.98 17.2 8.67 11.7 11.6 11.25 12.75 13.2 11.7 13.7 11.45 11.4 13.1 10.35 6.56 14.5 10.95 8.94
Sr 705 562 324 13.1 113.5 586 533 563 288 537 475 217 212 222 223 728 603 778 859 410
Nd 28.5 40.3 25.3 53 32.5 42.6 41.7 39.2 42.9 36.5 42.1 39.6 32.8 40 37.6 28.1 18.5 39.5 29.9 25.1
Zr 145 191 169 302 214 204 200 178 213 212 220 246 208 260 239 211 154 209 225 189
Hf 3.8 6.1 5.3 9.3 6.5 6.3 6.2 5.5 6.7 6.4 5.8 7.9 6.5 7 7.8 5.9 4.3 6.6 6.3 5.4
Sm 5.69 7.38 4.37 7.18 6.45 7.8 7.81 6.8 7.25 7.12 7.06 8.42 6.89 7.86 8.11 5.03 3.68 6.85 5.34 4.96
Eu 1.59 1.56 1.1 0.18 0.53 1.64 1.6 1.48 1.2 1.61 1.55 1.21 1.2 1.18 1.13 1.15 1.03 1.64 1.27 1.02
Gd 5.15 6.45 3.72 5.98 5.07 6.92 7.02 5.99 6.42 5.5 4.81 6.64 5.97 5.35 5.93 2.86 2.45 4.61 3.43 3.75
Tb 0.68 0.98 0.55 0.57 0.72 1.05 1.07 0.86 0.92 0.88 0.81 1.18 1.04 1.03 1.06 0.47 0.38 0.73 0.56 0.62
Dy 3.86 5.04 2.79 2.23 4.04 5.47 5.57 4.42 4.87 4.6 4.94 6.47 5.61 5.96 5.77 2.41 1.89 3.85 2.97 3.42
Y 23.9 25.7 13.8 10 25.2 27.8 27.5 23 26.1 29.6 26.7 43.2 36.2 35.5 37 15.5 11.9 24.6 19.9 23.6
Ho 0.78 0.95 0.51 0.39 0.84 1.01 1.01 0.82 0.89 0.9 0.94 1.34 1.17 1.19 1.15 0.46 0.36 0.77 0.6 0.69
Er 2.15 2.76 1.44 1.22 2.21 2.96 2.98 2.41 2.64 2.36 2.79 3.56 3.02 3.49 3.01 1.21 0.92 2.02 1.58 1.89
Tm 0.32 0.4 0.19 0.16 0.31 0.43 0.44 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.37 0.63 0.54 0.5 0.55 0.22 0.17 0.37 0.3 0.36
Yb 2.08 2.69 1.35 1.04 1.94 2.93 2.87 2.41 2.61 2.45 2.42 3.66 3.12 3.22 3.04 1.27 0.98 2.24 1.82 2.21
Lu 0.35 0.41 0.2 0.17 0.33 0.42 0.44 0.37 0.38 0.41 0.37 0.6 0.51 0.47 0.49 0.22 0.17 0.37 0.31 0.36
A/NK 1.69 1.60 1.58 1.16 1.14 1.78 1.65 1.57 2.12 1.52 1.46 1.37 1.48 1.49 1.38 1.44 1.41 1.30 1.33 1.13
(A/CNK) 0.85 0.90 0.96 1.04 0.93 0.98 0.87 0.89 0.99 0.78 0.79 0.78 0.91 0.85 0.85 0.88 0.86 1.00 1.00 0.81
(La/Yb)n 12.0 17.2 18.2 51.8 14.4 14.9 15.2 19.0 19.8 18.8 17.3 11.9 10.9 11.0 12.4 28.1 21.3 22.2 21.1 12.8
Ce* 3.88 4.17 4.28 4.37 4.11 4.15 4.14 4.17 4.21 3.78 4.23 3.92 4.37 4.35 4.39 4.27 4.32 2.88 3.59 4.17
Eu* 0.88 0.68 1.68 0.08 0.27 0.67 0.65 0.70 0.53 0.76 0.77 0.48 0.5 0.48 0.85 0.85 0.99 0.84 0.85 0.70
 Table 3.2. continue

Series High-K calc alkaline (CAK) Low-K to tholeiitic

Location MASAMBA EMU-LAB LALOS-TOLI PARIGI WEST PALU LATUPPA MASAMBA MAMASA GORONTALO
Sample M-1 MST-6 MRF-6 EMU-10A EMU-13 EMU-14 LA-17AB LA-17B PA-27E PA-28 PA-28C PA-28ENC WP-29 B WP-32 A WP-32B LA-69B LA-71A LA-71B MST-3A MST-3B MRF-4B MA-41BA MA-45 GR-2 GR-3 55 GTL 62 GTL
Whole Rock (wt%)
SiO2 63.89 64.33 57.57 60.59 65.05 62.85 64.50 65.31 62.21 62.69 65.40 55.05 57.95 68.80 63.50 64.44 66.29 68.4 76.59 71.67 71.40 66.356 63.86 78.38 70.79 76.31 72.37
TiO2 0.70 0.64 1.00 0.84 0.49 0.70 0.51 0.55 0.43 0.70 0.69 0.97 0.93 0.43 0.58 0.63 0.55 0.43 0.16 0.43 0.44 0.4 0.64 0.21 0.45 0.15 0.40
Al2O3 14.83 14.65 16.08 14.39 14.25 14.48 14.73 15.04 16.98 13.85 13.82 18.17 14.25 14.01 14.26 15.41 15.13 14.79 12.66 13.4 13.48 15.983 13.55 11.37 13.22 12.53 13.00
FeOt 4.53 4.59 6.04 6.16 3.55 4.56 4.06 3.93 3.26 4.96 4.38 7.29 6.35 2.62 4.41 3.91 3.42 2.43 1.45 3.25 3.57 2.857 4.7 2.00 3.57 1.45 3.33
MnO 0.11 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.13 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.14 0.11 0.035 0.15 0.03 0.12 0.05 0.09
MgO 3.15 2.99 5.46 4.01 2.73 3.68 2.75 2.67 2.62 3.78 3.48 4.43 5.46 2.13 3.91 3.24 2.72 2.21 0.73 1.58 1.42 2.438 4.79 0.59 1.31 0.54 1.33
CaO 5.03 4.58 6.84 4.58 3.24 4.76 4.31 4.34 4.44 4.47 4.43 3.85 6.14 2.68 4.37 4.66 4.42 3.37 1.87 2.95 3.65 4.031 3.18 2.28 3.21 2.08 3.31
Na2O 2.51 2.56 2.32 3.37 3.40 2.96 3.12 2.91 4.26 3.50 3.32 4.70 2.63 3.53 2.95 3.17 3.13 3.09 3.86 2.71 3.30 4.403 6.55 4.14 3.37 4.58 3.57
K2O 3.94 3.65 2.94 2.47 3.98 3.94 3.67 3.41 3.68 2.35 2.51 2.26 3.79 4.21 3.54 3.25 3.32 4.08 1.98 2.07 1.99 1.06 1.2 0.25 1.45 1.58 1.82
P2O5 0.24 0.24 0.27 0.18 0.27 0.26 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.41 0.18 0.30 0.18 0.17 0.13 0.04 0.09 0.10 0.118 0.16 0.04 0.10 0.03 0.09
H2O 0.82 1.33 1.14 2.91 1.91 0.97 1.22 1.31 0.14 3.14 1.45 2.53 0.99 0.64 1.30 0.83 0.56 0.82 0.58 1.63 0.46 2.01 1.05 0.70 2.33 0.61 0.60
Total 99.75 99.65 99.76 99.60 98.92 99.23 99.14 99.73 98.21 99.58 99.61 99.41 99.02 99.27 99.19 99.79 99.77 99.79 99.97 99.92 99.92 99.691 99.83 99.99 99.92 99.91 99.91
Trace element (ppm)
Cr 30 40 120 40 80 120 50 50 30 90 60 160 140 30 110 70 40 50 8 7 10 20 240 10 8 7 10
Ni 12 16 33 13 21 17 19 21 24 22 21 87 19 11 19 10 12 10 4 3 6 0 5 5 6 5 8
V 111 103 144 205 88 100 88 81 69 170 153 270 123 54 108 88 75 58 13 45 50 51 81 45 42 9 50
Rb 178 184.5 161.5 104.5 186 173.5 196 145.5 155.5 126.5 124 153.5 167 217 173.5 165.5 158 193 31.3 36.4 45 41.6 51.4 16.2 32.6 24.1 40.2
Ba 1125 1010 586 267 1255 839 970 961 2530 376 278 571 1185 800 880 689 891 667 141.5 344 288 152 428 115 340 131 275
Th 40.7 58.5 26.5 11.55 35.3 18.25 39.2 26.5 32.9 10.2 11.2 7.84 63.9 34 37.9 24.6 24.4 25.9 2.59 4.41 7.36 0.49 29.5 3.6 5.15 1.79 6.05
U 8.53 11.1 6.98 2.29 10.25 7.47 4.73 5.03 8.26 1.83 2.53 1.65 2.97 8.16 10.45 6.22 5.54 7.02 0.93 0.54 1.66 0.61 5.63 0.72 1.21 0.64 1.11
Nb 18.3 17.7 16.5 7.7 16.1 17.1 10.9 12.3 12.6 5.5 5.7 8 17.1 14 16.5 12.1 11.3 12.4 1.4 5.5 5.3 3.8 18.7 3.3 7 1.4 5
Ta 1.5 1.4 1.5 0.6 1.7 2.1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.7 1 1.5 1.7 1 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 1.6 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.3
La 74.6 108.5 53 20.4 43.6 20.9 70.1 43.2 47.1 16.3 13.3 16.6 173.5 50.7 49.6 45.8 44.7 44.7 7.6 6.2 15.4 3.5 59 9.5 19.8 8.1 10.2
Ce 133 181 102.5 47.1 89.2 49.3 119.5 83.7 87 38.4 31.3 35.4 316 102.5 97.7 81.8 78.9 77.2 16.6 12.7 31.1 7.5 111.5 20.1 40.4 17.9 19.2

61
Pr 14 18.05 11.2 5.71 9.83 6.51 12.85 8.83 9.31 4.71 3.92 4.07 32.8 10.85 10.4 8.9 8.5 8.39 2.11 1.62 3.99 0.94 12.7 2.69 4.81 2.51 2.42
Sr 504 542 493 256 747 437 519 537 1460 194.5 163.5 303 520 524 521 515 540 462 88.8 150.5 160.5 443 231 149 178 92.4 153.5
Nd 50.3 60.2 42 18.2 26.8 21.6 32.9 29.5 34.3 15 12.9 12.6 102.5 29.3 28.7 32.7 31.4 29.8 8.9 7.2 16.1 3.1 47.3 10.9 20.2 11.4 10.9
Zr 197 209 255 213 213 222 180 222 214 179 163 212 255 204 211 216 188 204 102 146 152 127 289 120 150 109 159
Hf 6.3 6.7 7.5 5.7 6.5 6.1 4.9 5.8 6.5 5 4.6 5.7 6.9 5.6 5.9 5.9 5.1 5.7 3.9 4.6 4.8 2.9 8 3.6 4.7 3.5 4.3
Sm 9.09 9.68 7.78 4.66 5.14 5.79 5.21 5.14 5.81 3.93 3.67 2.84 14.55 5.3 5.61 5.54 5.36 4.88 2.3 1.85 4.12 0.96 9.06 3.12 5.05 3.05 2.91
Eu 1.73 1.75 1.62 1.09 1.15 1.45 1.12 1.1 1.71 0.99 0.9 1.15 1.94 0.95 1.32 1.24 1.27 1.09 0.46 0.82 0.92 0.69 1.33 0.91 1.29 0.8 0.85
Gd 7.85 8.64 6.68 4.82 3.19 4.87 2.95 2.77 3.5 3.93 3.7 2.45 5.79 2.73 4.13 4.23 3.94 3.72 2.41 1.92 4.54 1.02 7.57 3.41 5.39 3.78 3.45
Tb 1.21 1.19 1.02 0.85 0.53 0.85 0.49 0.52 0.6 0.7 0.69 0.45 1.1 0.48 0.68 0.56 0.51 0.48 0.5 0.4 0.86 0.18 1.15 0.61 1.08 0.67 0.59
Dy 6.2 5.86 5.17 4.97 2.74 4.71 2.47 2.86 3.43 4.04 4.02 2.69 5.68 2.52 3.64 3.07 2.68 2.62 3.31 2.64 5.88 1 6.82 4 6.94 4.48 3.94
Y 31.1 29.5 25.8 33.7 18.3 31.9 16.7 16.7 18 27.4 28.3 20.4 29.6 17 24.6 19.7 16.7 17.9 20.3 16.6 38.2 6.9 44.3 24.9 40.6 32.6 28.7
Ho 1.13 1.1 0.95 1.06 0.53 0.97 0.49 0.54 0.64 0.87 0.85 0.6 1.11 0.48 0.74 0.61 0.53 0.54 0.7 0.6 1.31 0.2 1.39 0.84 1.45 1 0.89
Er 3.36 3.21 2.79 2.88 1.37 2.59 1.25 1.52 1.77 2.34 2.36 1.78 2.77 1.22 2.01 1.71 1.32 1.37 2.23 1.87 4.21 0.54 3.7 2.66 4.52 3.02 2.65
Tm 0.47 0.45 0.38 0.52 0.25 0.49 0.23 0.22 0.24 0.43 0.42 0.33 0.4 0.23 0.38 0.23 0.19 0.19 0.38 0.31 0.71 0.11 0.56 0.35 0.7 0.48 0.43
Yb 3.17 3.08 2.54 3.06 1.46 2.8 1.31 1.53 1.48 2.46 2.47 2.22 2.39 1.37 2.29 1.54 1.23 1.2 2.93 2.38 4.62 0.54 3.57 2.54 4.84 3.36 2.95
Lu 0.47 0.47 0.37 0.52 0.24 0.46 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.39 0.4 0.38 0.35 0.23 0.38 0.25 0.2 0.21 0.48 0.37 0.77 0.09 0.58 0.4 0.77 0.6 0.52
A/NK 1.77 1.80 2.30 1.75 1.44 1.59 1.62 1.77 1.54 1.67 1.69 1.79 1.69 1.35 1.64 1.77 1.73 1.56 1.49 2.00 1.78 1.91 1.12 1.61 1.86 1.36 1.66
(A/CNK) 0.85 0.89 0.83 0.87 0.90 0.82 0.87 0.92 0.89 0.84 0.85 1.06 0.73 0.92 0.86 0.90 0.90 0.95 1.06 1.11 0.95 1.02 0.76 1.01 1.02 0.96 0.94
(La/Yb)n 5.8 6.8 7.8 4.8 21.4 5.4 38.4 39.4 22.8 4.8 3.9 5.4 52.1 26.5 15.5 21.3 26.1 26.7 1.9 2.9 3.9 4.9 5.9 2.7 2.9 1.7 2.5
Ce* 4.12 4.09 4.21 4.36 4.31 4.23 3.98 4.29 4.15 4.38 4.33 4.31 4.19 4.37 4.30 4.05 4.05 3.99 4.15 4.01 3.97 4.13 4.07 3.98 4.14 3.97 3.86
Eu* 1.70 2.70 3.70 0.70 0.81 0.82 0.80 1.80 0.3792 0.77 0.74 1.31 0.54 0.68 0.80 0.76 0.81 0.75 0.60 1.60 2.60 3.60 4.60 0.96 0.72 0.63 0.82
Fig. 3.3 The granitic rocks from Sulawesi plotted in diagram of Cox et al. (1979).

Fig. 3.4 A/CNK [(Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O) molar] vs A/NK

(Al2O3/(Na2O+K2O) molar] diagram of granitic rocks from
Sulawesi. Symbols as in Fig. 3.3.

62
Fig. 3.5 SiO2 vs K2O (wt%) diagram of Pecerillo and Taylor (1979) which divided the
granitic rocks into three groups; HK, CAK and low-K to tholeiitic groups. Some plutons
show combination of more than one series (composite). Symbols as in Fig. 3.3.

63
Fig. 3.6 Primitive-mantle normalized trace element (Sun and McDonough, 1989) of
granitic rocks from Sulawesi. Symbols as in Fig. 3.3.

64
Fig. 3.7 Chondrite normalized trace element (Sun and McDonough, 1989) of granitic
rocks from Sulawesi. Symbols as in Fig. 3.3.

65
3.3.3 Sr-Nd-Pb and O isotope

Twelve (12) samples from six (6) plutons encompassing the full range of chemical

diversity and distribution of the granitic rocks were selected for Sr-Nd-Pb and O isotope

analyses. Analyses of Sr-Nd-Pb and O isotopes of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi are given

in Table 3.3. Regional variations in the isotopic compositions of the granitic rocks from

Sulawesi are strongly exhibited by the Sr and Nd data (Fig. 3.8).

The HK granitic rocks are represented by quartz monzonite (MA-45B) from the

Mamasa Pluton, monzogranite (SO-20KF), quartz syenite (SO-23 and SO-25) from the Sony

Pluton and quartz monzonite (LA-18C) from the Lalos-Toli Pluton. The quartz monzonite
143
(MA-45B) shows relatively higher 87
Sr/86Sr (0.7205) but lower Nd/144Nd (0.512198).

Meanwhile, monzogranite and quartz syenite from the Sony Pluton show a wide range of
143
87
Sr/86Sr (0.7106 to 0.7138) and Nd/144Nd (0.512194 to 0.512282). Quartz monzonite

from the Lalos-Toli Pluton (LA-18C) shows relatively higher 87Sr/86Sr (0.7195) but lower
143
Nd/144Nd (0.511790) than the monzogranite and quartz syenite from the Sony Pluton.

The CAK group is represented by 6 samples; granodiorite (LA-17B) from the

Lalos-Toli Pluton, granodiorite (PA-27B) from the Parigi Pluton, monzodiorite (WP-29B),

quartz monzonite (WP-31B and WP-32A) from the West Palu Pluton and dioritic enclave

(PA-28ENC) from the Parigi Pluton. They also show a wide range of show 87Sr/86Sr (0.7150 to
143
0.7178) and Nd/144Nd (0.511965 to 0.512144). An enclave (PA-28ENC) in granodiorite
87
from the Parigi Pluton shows a very low Sr/86Sr value (0.7063) and relatively high
143
Nd/144Nd (0.512638).

Tonalite from the low-K calc-alkaline to tholeiitic group (GR-1) from the Gorontalo

Pluton shows much lower 87Sr/86Sr (0.7049) but higher 143Nd/144Nd (0.513026).
143
Nd/144Nd and 87Sr/86Sr of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi are plotted in Fig. 8 with

respect to the field established for modern sediments (e.g. Celebes Sea Basement, Mariana

66
Trench and Solomon sediments), MORB (New Britain Volcanic Arc and Lamasi Complex)

and upper crust as well as the field for Miocene intrusive rocks from western Sulawesi. This

figure also shows isotopic ratios for GLOSS (global subducting sediment) of Plank and

Langmuir (1998).

Two granitic rocks from the HK series (MA-45B and LA-18C) are plotted near the

crustal field whereas the other two (SO-20KFS and SO-23) were plotted near the GLOSS area.

The CAK granitic rock series were mostly concentrated near GLOSS area. These isotopic

ratios are undistinguishable from the initial ratio reported from Miocene intrusive igneous

rocks in western Sulawesi (Bergman et al., 1996) and those from plutonic rocks at Polewali

and Mamasa areas in south Sulawesi (Elburg and Foden, 1999a) as well as the granitic rocks

from Tinombo Granite, Renangkali Granite, Dondo Batholith in Central part of Sulawesi

(Elburg et al., 2003). However, an enclave in granodiorite (PA-28 ENC) is plotted near the

field of bulk earth and inside the mantle array. The tonalite from the low-K to tholeiitic group

(GR-1) on the other hand is plotted at the lower end of the mantle array. It is also plotted near

the field of the Celebes Sea Basement, Mariana Trench and that of Solomon sediments as well

as volcanic rocks from the New Britain Volcanic Arc field (Woodhead et al., 1993; 1998).

The relatively higher 87Sr/86Sr of most HK and CAK granitic rocks suggest derivation

from crustal sources. The relatively low 143Nd/144Nd of these groups also reflects the presence

of continental basement with a different composition beneath the Western Sulawesi Province.
206
The Pb/204Pb of granitic rocks ranges from 17.5825 to 19.0138, 207
Pb/204Pb from

15.5247 to 15.6937, and 208Pb/204Pb from 38.3932 to 39.1815. Plots of 206Pb/204Pb isotopic ratio
143
against 207
Pb/204Pb, 208
Pb/204Pb and Nd/144Nd are shown in Fig. 3.9 along with the fields for

Indian MORB (Simonetti et al., 1998), GLOSS (Plank and Langmuir, 1988), Pacific MORB

and volcanic rocks from the New Britain Arc Volcanic (Woodhead et al., 1993; 1998).

Isotopic ratios of various units from the Australian-derived microcontinent and sediments

67
 206
from the Pacific Ocean, Sulawesi and East Indonesia are also plotted. In the Pb/204Pb vs
207
Pb/204Pb and 208
Pb/204Pb diagrams, quartz monzonite (MA-45B) from HK series is plotted

near the north Australian basement field whereas most of other HK rocks are plotted in the

field of East Indonesia Sediments except a quartz monzonite from the Lalos-Toli Pluton

(LA-18C) which is plotted outside this field. This diagram shows that the quartz monzonite

from the Lalos-Toli area (LA-18C) is plotted at the least radiogenic part of the broad trend

and the quartz monzonite (MA-45B) from Mamasa Pluton plots at the highest end. The CAK

granitic rocks are mainly plotted in East Indonesian Sediments and near some microcontinents

(e.g. South and North New Guinea) and modern sediments from the Pacific Ocean, as well as

GLOSS. The low-K to tholeiitic granitic rocks series (GR-1) from Gorontalo Pluton shows
208
relatively lower Pb/204Pb isotope value and was plotted near New Britain Arc Volcanic
206
Rocks and also I-MORB fields. A similar isotopic pattern can be seen on Pb/204Pb and
143
Nd/144Nd plots, except the quartz monzonite (LA-18C), the granodiorite (LA-17B) and the

tonalite (GR-1) which plotted outside the established field of some microcontinents and

modern sediments. It is also interesting to note that the tonalite (GR-1) which has high Nd

isotope values consistently plotted near the I-MORB field.

The whole-rock δ18O data of the granitic rocks show a wide range value (Table 3.3).

The values of majority of the samples (7 out of 12) fall in the range +5.7 to +9.9 permil,
18
excepting three δ O-poor samples from Sony Pluton (SO-25) at 1.6 permil, West Palu
18
Pluton (WP-32) at +4.0 permil, Lalos-Toli Pluton (+5.0 permil) and another two O-rich

samples from an enclave in Parigi Pluton (PA-28 ENC) and Mamasa Pluton (MA-45B) at

+12.0 permil and 10.5 permil, respectively. These majority values can be considered `normal`

as opposed to `low δ18O` of Taylor (1978) as they are above the MORB value of 5.7 permil
18
(Ito et al., 1987). The three δ O-poor samples obviously have suffered hydrothermal
18
alteration by meteroric water whereas the relatively higher δ O value (more than +10

68
 87
Table 3.3 Sr, Nd, Pb and O isotope data of granitic rocks in Sulawesi

87 143
Rock series Pluton Sample No Rb (ppm) Sr (ppm) Sr/86Sr Nd/144Nd 206Pb/204Pb 207Pb/204Pb 208Pb/204Pb d18O smow
Mamasa MA-45B 428 231 0.720505 0.512198 19.0138 15.6937 39.1815 10.5
Lalos Toli LA-18C 1805 728 0.719530 0.511790 17.5825 15.5247 38.8074 7.8
Shoshonitic Sony SO-20KFS 917 778 0.710616 0.512282 18.7983 15.6480 39.0585 5.7
Sony SO-23 2260 846 0.711093 0.512268 18.8121 15.6519 39.0859 9.6
Sony SO-25 1870 765 0.713810 0.512194 18.8979 15.6358 39.1191 1.6
Lalos Toli LA-17B 961 537 0.716345 0.511965 18.0983 15.5565 38.9247 5.1
reset during melting process.

Parigi PA-27B 1475 803 0.715206 0.512125 18.7406 15.6386 38.9301 6.9
High-K calc- West Palu WP-29B 1185 520 0.716645 0.512120 18.8397 15.6347 39.1317 8.6
alkaline (CAK) West Palu WP-31B 1070 600 0.715040 0.512140 18.8208 15.6452 39.1473 9.9
West Palu WP-32A 800 524 0.717864 0.512144 18.8973 15.6515 39.0004 4.0
Parigi PA-28 ENC 571 303 0.706372 0.512638 18.6913 15.6410 38.8673 12.0
Low-K to tholeiitic Gorontalo GR-1 37.8 96.8 0.704963 0.513026 18.3534 15.5651 38.3932 8.6

69
Sr/86Sr composition (Fig. 3.10), suggesting that the feature of original magma have been
permil) indicates contamination by sedimentary rock. Despite the large range of whole-rock

δ18O values, there are no obvious correlations of O isotope composition with SiO2 and initial
Fig. 3.8 (a) 87Sr/86Sr vs 143
Nd/144Nd; (b) SiO2 vs 143
Nd/144Nd and (c) SiO2 vs and 87Sr/86Sr of
granitic rocks from Sulawesi with respect to the field of Lamasi Complex and Miocene
intrusive igneous rocks and volcanic rocks (Bergman et al., 1996), Mariana Trench
sediments (Woodhead, 1989), Solomon sediments (Woodhead et al., 1998), Celebes Sea
basement (Serri et al., 1991), Volcanic rocks from New Britain volcanic arc (Woodhead et
al., 1998), mantle array (Nelson and DePaolo, 1985), GLOSS (Langmuir and Plank, 1998)
and Upper crust (De Paolo and Waaserburg, 1979).

70
 206
Fig. 3.9 Pb/204Pb isotope plot against 207
Pb/204Pb, 208
Pb/204Pb and 143
Nd/144Nd of granitic
rocks from Sulawesi compared with those of Pacific Ocean sediments (Kay et al., 1978),
East Indonesia sediments (Vroon et al., 1996), Sulawesi sediments (Elburg et al., 2003),
North and South New Guinea Basement (Bergman et al., 1996), Volcanic rocks from the
New Britain Arc volcanic rocks (Woodhead et al., 1998). Also shown are value from
Indian-MORB (Simonetti et al., 1998), Pacific-MORB (White et al., 1987), and GLOSS
(Plank and Langmuir, 1998). NHRL value is from Hart (1998). Symbols as in Fig. 3.8.

71
Fig. 3.10 (a). δ 18O vs 87Sr/86Sr values and (b) δ 18O vs SiO2 diagram of granitic rocks in
Sulawesi. Symbol as Fig. 3.8.

3.3.4 40Ar/39Ar Geochronology

Pure hornblende concentrates were extracted from quartz monzonite (MA-45B) from

fresh outcrops in the Mamasa Pluton and quartz monzonite (LA-18C) from the Lalos-Toli

Pluton whereas biotites were prepared from monzogranite (PA-27B) from Parigi area.
40
Ar/39Ar analytical data are listed and portrayed as incremental age and apparent Ca/K

spectra in Figure 3.11.

The concentrates from quartz monzonite (MA-45B) from Mamasa Pluton display an
40
internally discordant Ar/39Ar age spectrum in which variable apparent ages are recorded at

high experimental temperatures (Fig. 3.11a). These ages are matched with fluctuations in

apparent Ca/K ratios which suggest that a change of argon isotope ratios occurred from

compositionally distinct and relatively non-retentive phases. The Ar-release pattern of the

biotite from this sample (Fig. 3.11a) indicates considerable secondary loss of radiogenic Ar

(52%) which results in a total gas age of 11.1±0.3 Ma and plateau age of 9.5±0.3. An

Ar-release pattern of the hornblende concentrates from quartz monzonite at Toli-Toli area, in

the NW of the Western Province indicates that 40% radiogenic Ar was lost. The age spectrum

72
for this sample has a plateau age of 8.2 ± 0.2 Ma and a total gas age of 8.29±0.19 Ma. The six

increments define a 8.2 ± 0.2 Ma plateau age and is considered as a postmagmatic cooling age.

The biotite separated from coarse-grained monzogranite at Parigi Pluton, in the CW part of

the Western Sulawesi Province yielded a concordant plateau and total gas dates of 3.12±0.04

and 3.10±0.10, respectively. The biotite concentrates show an internally discordant apparent

age and apparent Ca/K spectra. The increments comprise almost 98% of the gas evolved from

the concentrates and are characterized by broadly similar apparent Ca/K ratios. The six

increments define a 3.12 ± 0.04 Ma plateau age and is considered to date postmagmatic

cooling age.

Fig. 3.11 40Ar/39Ar apparent age and apparent Ca/K spectra for (a) Hornblende concentrate from
granodiorite (MA-45B) at Mamasa area, Western Unit. (b) Biotite separate from monzogranite

73
(PAR-27B) at Parigi area and (c) Hornblende separate from quartz monzonite (LA-18C) at
Toli-toli. Analytical uncertainties (2σ, intralaboratory) are represented vertical width of bar
whereas horizontal width of bars show % Ar released during each successive heating stage.
Experimental temperatures increase from left to right.

These results show that the HK granitic rocks in the Mamasa Pulton in the CW of the

Western Sulawesi Province were cooled at 9.5 Ma, whereas the CAK granitic rocks in the

Lalos-Toli in the NW of the Western Sulawesi Province show a younger post-magmatic

cooling age of 8.2 Ma. Interestingly, the CAK granitic rocks from the Parigi Pluton, located in

the central part of the Western Sulawesi Province show a much younger post-magmatic

cooling age (3.12 Ma), suggesting the younger plutonism in the eastern part of the province.

3.3.5 Magnetic Susceptibility

Summary of magnetic susceptibility (MS) measurements of granitic rocks in

Sulawesi are depicted in Fig. 3.12 and Table 3.4. The magnetic susceptibility of the granitic

rocks varies between 0.081 × 10-3 to 18.5 × 10-3 SI units, which corresponds to both

ilmenite-series (< 3 × 10-3 SI; reduced type) and magnetite-series (> 3 × 10-3 SI; oxidized

type) granite.

Magnetic susceptibility of granitic rocks in the Emu-Lab, Parigi, West Palu, Mamasa,

Polewali and Masamba Pluton Pluton, which are located in CW of the Western Sulawesi

Province, ranges from 0.14 to 4.33 × 10-3 SI units. These values correlate the ilmenite- series

granitic rocks. Conversely, the MS of the Lalos-Toli and Sony Pluton which are situated in

the NW of the province ranges mostly from 1.88 to 18.58 × 10-3 SI units, suggesting the

magnetite-series granitic rocks. MS value of the granitic rocks samples in Gorontalo area

(located in the Northern Sulawesi Province) is ranging from 3.78 to 5.33 × 10-3 SI units which

correspond to magnetic-series. Distibution of the granitic rocks in Sulawesi based on their MS

value are depicted in Fig. 3.13.

74
 Fig. 3.12 Result of magnetite susceptibility measurement from the granitic rocks in
Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Table 3.4 Magnetic Susceptibility (MS) measurement results from the granitic rocks

Pluton No of sample Range (10-3 SI Units) Average Comments

Emu-Lab 6 0.148-4.616 2.316 ilmenite-series
Lalos-Toli 6 1.663-1.820 1.744 ilmenite-series
Sony 6 3.595-16.99 9.092 magnetite-series
Parigi 5 0.303-2.264 1.41 ilmenite-series
West Palu 5 0.232-0.373 0.282 ilmenite-series
Mamasa 8 0.254-0.366 0.324 ilmenite-series
Gorontalo 4 3.225-4.117 3.669 magnetite-series
Polewali 4 0.146-2.355 0.156 ilmenite-series
Masamba 6 0.112-0.192 0.116 ilmenite-series
Total 50

75
Fig. 3.13 Distribution of granitic rocks in Sulawesi based on their magnetic susceptibility
values.

3.4 Conclusions

1. The granitic rocks in Sulawesi show geochemical affinity from HK, CAK and low-K to

tholeiitic series and include a wide range of rock types (granite, monzonite, quartz

76
 monzonite, monzodiorite, monzogranite, granodiorite, syenite, quartz syenite, diorite and

tonalite). The granitic rocks belong to I-type granitic rocks and the metaluminous group.

2. The geochemical series pattern of the granitic rocks seems to be consistent with the

regional geochemical pattern of the igneous rocks in the island. The HK are concentrated

in the south (Barru Pluton) and central-west (Polewali, Mamasa and Masamba Pluton) of

the Western Sulawesi Province whereas the CAK are more confined to the central (West

Palu, Emu-Lab, Parigi and Latuppa Pluton) north-western part (Lalos-Toli and Sony

Plutons) of the province. The low-K to tholeiitic series granitic rocks were found in the

Gorontalo Pluton, in the central part of the Northern Province. Some of the plutons

(Mamasa, Masamba, Lalos-Toli) show a composite pattern (combination of HK, CAK and

low-K to tholeiitic), suggesting that multiple granitic magmatism occurred in these areas.
87
3. Most of the rocks show high Sr/86Sr values but low 143
Nd/144Nd, suggesting a strong

upper crustal component source. In addition, they have high 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb isotope

ratios. However, microdioritic enclaves and tonalitic rocks from Gorontalo show lower
87
Sr/86Sr values but higher 143Nd/144Nd and relatively higher 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb values,

suggesting more basic source. Whole-rock δ8O values from the granitic rocks are in the

range of +5.7 to +9.6 permil (outlier four samples at lower than +5.1 permil and two

samples at higher than +10 permil). The low δ8O value can be attributed to the

introduction of meteoric hydrothermal alteration whereas the higher δ8O value indicates

the significant involvement of high δ8O metasedimentary rocks in the melting process.

4. The new Ar/Ar age data present an additional geochronological framework for the

post-magmatic cooling age of the granitic rocks, which ranges between 9.5 to 3.12 Ma.

The HK granitic rocks in the Mamasa Pluton were cooled at 9.5 Ma, whereas a younger

post-magmatic cooling age of 8.2 Ma and 3.12 Ma were recorded from CAK granitic

rocks in Lalos-Toli Pluton and Parigi Pluton, respectively.

77
5. The granitic rocks in Sulawesi consist of ilmenite- and magnetite-series and show a

space-dependant distribution. The granitic rocks in CW part of the Western Sulawesi

Province generally belong to ilmenite-series whereas those from the Northern Sulawesi

Province belong to magnetite-series.

78
 CHAPTER IV

GEOTHERMOBAROMETRY OF THE SULAWESI GRANITIC ROCKS,

INDONESIA: IMPLICATION ON EXHUMATION PROCESS

Abstract
Geothermobarometry of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi, Indonesia were estimated to

determine the condition at which the granitic rocks were crystallized and to constrain the

implication to exhumation processes. 5 different plutons; including the Mamasa and the

Masamba Plutons from CW of Western Sulawesi Province; the Lalos-Toli and the Sony

Pluton from NW of Western Sulawesi Province and the Gorontalo Pluton from Northern

Sulawesi Province were studied. Pressure and temperature of crystallization estimation were

based on the Al-in-hornblende geobarometry whereas the temperature of formation were

calculated using the hornblende and plagioclase geothermometry. The results show that the

granitic rocks were crystallized at pressure of 0.91 to 1.2 kbar and temperature of 677 to

729 °C for the Mamasa Pluton and 2.3 to 2.8 kbar at temperature of 756 to 774°C for the

Masamba Pluton. The Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons were crystallized at 3.1 to 3.3 and 3.2 to

3.4 kbar at temperature of 731 to 736°C and 601 to 609°C, respectively whereas the

Gorontalo Pluton were crystallized at pressure of 2.6 to 2.7 kbar and temperatures of 662 to

668°C. The crystallization depths were estimated from the pressure of crystallization and the

results coupled with the Ar-Ar age were used to calculate the exhumation rate. Crystallization

depth of 3.2 to 4.3 km and 8.2 to 10 km were estimated from the Mamasa and Masamba

Pluton respectively whereas the Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons show deeper crystallization

depth (11.3 and 11.6 km, respectively). The Gorontalo Pluton shows an average

crystallization depth of 9.4 km. The exhumation rate estimation shows that the Mamasa and

Masamba Plutons were exhumed at a rate of 0.39 and 1.68 mm/year respectively, whilst the

79
Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons at 1.69 and 2.69 mm/year, respectively and the Gorontalo Pluton

was exhumed at 0.51 mm/year. The rapid exhumation rate of the Sony Pluton is attributed to

the active vertical movement of the Palu-Koro Fault Zone. The oxygen fugacity calculation

show that the Mamasa, Masamba and Lalos-Toli Pluton were classified as reduce-I type to

granitic rocks whereas the Sony and Gorontalo Pluton were akin to normal-I type granitic

rocks. The exhumations of the granitic rocks in the Western Sulawesi Province were mainly

triggered by the collision of the Banggai-Sula microcontinent with eastern Sulawesi in the

Late Miocene to Pliocene whereas the exhumation of the granitic rocks in the Northern

Sulawesi Province was attributed to the subduction of the Celebes Sea Basin. The

emplacement depth estimates refute the low-angle extensional type of emplacement model.
Keywords: geothermobarometry, mineral chemistry, exhumation, granitic rocks,
Sulawesi, Indonesia

4.1. Introduction

Late Cenozoic granitic rocks (granodiorite to monzogranite in composition) are

widely distributed from the southern to the central part of the island (Sukamto, 1986) whereas

granodiorite to tonalitic rocks occur in the northern portion of the island (Maulana et al.,

2011). The occurrences of the granitic rocks were resulted from deformation processes which

brought the rocks to the surface, forming high mountain ranges. The occurrences of these

relatively young granitic rocks at a relatively high altitude (up to 3000 m) are very astonishing

and have attracted much attention (e.g. Hall, 2011). To understand the process which is

responsible for the exhumation of the granitic rocks, investigations on the

geothermobarometry condition of the granitic rocks are essential. Although much research

has been done on the petrology and geochemistry as well as on the geochronology of the

granitic rocks from this island (e.g. Priadi et al., 1994; Elburg and Foden, 1999; Polve et al.,

1997; Bergman et al., 1996; Elburg et al., 2003; Maulana et al., 2011), investigations on the

80
geothermobarometry as well as exhumation process of these rocks have not been reported yet.

Hornblendes and biotites are the most abundant ferro-magnesian minerals in granitic

rocks. Geothermobarometric studies using hornblende is very useful to estimate

crystallization depth of intrusive rocks, especially for calk-alkaline intrusive rock where

hornblende is abundant (Tulloch and Challis 2000; Moazzen and Droop 2005; Zhang et al.,

2006). This mineral is stable over a wide range of pressure (1 – 23 kbar) and temperature (400

- 1150°C) (Blundy and Holland, 1996; Stein and Dietl, 2001) and hence frequently used for

geothermobarometry estimation. Biotite composition has been used as a petrogenetic and

tectonomagmatic indicator in granitic rocks (Albuquerque, 1973; Lalonde and Bernard, 1993;

Abdel-Rahman, 1994). This mineral is the most important host of any excess of alumina in

granites and hence could be used to indicate the oxidation state.

In this study, we present for the first time a data set of mineral chemistry of the

granitic rocks from Sulawesi in order to estimate the geothermobarometric condition. We

discussed the crystallization depth estimation and a model for the emplacement of the granitic

rocks. Coupled with previous and current geochronological data we calculated the

exhumation rate and process to shed a light in resolving the exhumation process.

4.2 Analytical Method

Five samples were selected for hornblende thermobarometry, comprising 2 samples

from the central part of the Western Sulawesi Province (Mamasa and Masamba Plutons), 2

samples from the northeastern part of the West Sulawesi Provinces (Lalos and Sony Plutons)

and 1 sample from the Northern Sulawesi Province (Gorontalo Pluton) (Figure 4.1).

81
Fig. 4.1 Sample and granitic rocks distribution map for EMPA analysis.

Electron microprobe analysis was carried with JEOL JXA-8800R at Beijing

University. The quantitative analyses for the rock-forming minerals were performed with a 15

kV accelerating voltage, 10 nA beam current and a 2-5 µm beam size. The counting time at

each peak was 20-30s.

82
 Mineral assemblages of all selected samples have a typical assemblage of quartz,

plagioclase, hornblende, K-feldspar and biotite which is an important prerequisite for

aluminium-in-hornblende barometry as suggested by many workers (e.g. Hollister et al.,

1997; Schmidt, 1992; Anderson and Smith, 1995; Stein and Dietl, 2001).

4.3 Results

4.3.1 Whole rock composition

The whole rock composition of the studied samples and their CIPW normative

mineral assemblage are shown in Table 4.1 respectively. The SiO2 contents of the samples

range from 62 to 65 wt% except sample from the Northern Unit which show high SiO 2

content (up to 72 wt%). The Al2O3 and CaO contents are relatively similar for all samples,

ranging from 13 to 15.4 wt% and 3.31 to 4.41 wt% respectively. The MgO and FeO total

contents show a large variation in which quartz monzodiorite (MA-45) shows the highest

MgO and FeO values and decrease in monzogranite (62GTL). The Na2O and K2O of the

samples also show a wide variation. The quartz monzodiorite (MA 45) and monzogranite

(62GTL) contain high Na2O but very low K2O whereas granodiorite (LA-17B), quartz

monzonite (SO-25) and granodiorite (LA-67D1) show the opposite. The LoI contents of the

Western Sulawesi Province samples are relatively higher than the Northern Sulawesi Province.

The A/CNK (molecular Al2O3 / CaO + Na2O + K2O) ranges from 0.68 to 0.94 whereas the

A/NK (molecular Al2O3 Na2O + K2O) ranges from 1 to 1.77.

The Cross-Iddings-Pirsson-Washington (CIPW) norm calculations were done using

Fe2O3 as 15% of total iron. The normative assemblage showed that the rocks contain

normative quartz, K-feldspar, albite, anorthite, diopside and hypersthene among others.

The AFM diagram (Irvine and Baragar, 1971) shows that the rocks have

calc-alkaline affinity (Fig. 4.2a). The plot of A/CNK vs A/NK classifies the rocks as

83
metaluminous and plots in the I-type field of Chappell and White granite classification (Fig. 4.

2b).
Table 4.1 Whole rock composition and CIPW normative mineral assemblage of the
granitic rocks from the studied area
Sample MA-45 LA-67D1 LA-17 B SO-25 62GTL
Pluton Mamasa Masamba Lalos-Toli Sony Gorontalo
Whole Rock (wt%)
SiO2 62.2 65.0 65.3 62.6 72.4
TiO2 0.63 0.60 0.55 0.61 0.40
Al2O3 13.2 14.8 15.0 13.6 13.0
FeOt 5.1 3.7 3.9 4.2 3.3
MnO 0.19 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09
MgO 5.1 3.4 2.7 3.9 1.3
CaO 3.3 4.4 4.3 3.5 3.3
Na2 O 7.1 3.3 2.9 3.2 3.6
K2 O 1.4 3.5 3.4 5.5 1.8
P2 O 5 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.45 0.09
LOI 1.0 0.97 1.3 0.91 0.6
Total 99.5 99.8 99.7 98.6 99.9
CIPW Norm
K-Fs 7.1 20.5 20.2 32.4 10.8
Qtz 6.4 17.2 20.1 9.3 33.6
Ab 55.4 27.5 24.6 27.2 30.2
An 4.0 15.4 17.9 6.4 14.1
Ap 0.38 0.45 0.43 1.1 0.21
Ilm 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.2 0.8
Dio 8.9 4.5 2.3 7.2 1.6
Hy 15.4 12.2 12.0 13.1 8.1
A/CNK 0.75 0.90 0.92 0.77 0.94
A/NK 1.11 1.62 1.77 1.21 1.66

Fig. 4.2. a. AFM diagram of the studied samples. All samples were plotted in calc-alkaline
field. b. A/CNK vs A/NK diagram of the granitic rocks. All samples were classified as I-type
and metaluminous granitic rocks.

84
4.3.2 Mineral Chemistry

Representative analytical data of plagioclase and K-feldspar from the granitic rocks

is listed in Table 4.2. Structural formulae of plagioclase and K-feldspar were calculated on the

basis of 8 oxygens and 5 cations. In the ternary diagram of Ab-Or-An (Fig. 4.3), the

plagioclases are mainly plotted in the albite, oligoclase and andesine field whereas

K-feldspars are plotted in the field of orthoclase. The An contents of plagioclase from the

granitic rocks in the Mamasa and Masamba Plutons ranges from 0.4 to 44.6 mol%. The core

of the plagioclase has a lower An content (25.6 mol%) compared to the rim (An = 38 mol%).

The An contents of the plagioclase in the granitic rocks from the Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons

varies from 6.1 to 40.1 mol%. However, quartz monzonite (SO-25) shows an almost pure

albite composition (An content = 0.1 mol%). The An content of the granitic rocks from the

Gorontalo Pluton (62GTL) ranges from 9.9 to 26.8 mol%. These An contents indicate that the

two end-members (anorthite and albite) are essentially present in the plagioclase composition

of the granitic rocks. K-feldspar is found mainly in the granitic rocks from Masamba Pluton

(LA-67D1). It has no detectable CaO (An) content, whereas the Ab content is 5.8 mol%

(Or94.2). The low Ab content of the feldspar further indicates that they are nearly pure

K-feldspar.

Structural formulae for amphibole were calculated on the basis of 23 oxygens and 15

cations following the method outlined in Holland and Blundy (1994). Representative analyses

of amphiboles are given in Table 4.3. Using classification of Leake et al. (1997) the

amphibole are classified as magnesiohornblende and edenite (Fig. 3.4) and identified as calcic

amphibole. The Si content of the amphibole in the granitic rocks from the Mamasa and

Masamba Plutons varies from 6.8 to 7.1 a.p.f.u (atom per formula unit) whereas the Mg#

(Mg/(Mg+Fe2+)) from 0.69 to 0.73. The Si content of the amphibole in the granitic rocks from

the Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons is relatively lower (6.6 to 6.8 a.p.f.u.) whereas the Mg#

85
ranges from 0.58 to 0.71. The Si content of the amphibole from the granitic rocks in

Gorontalo Pluton shows relatively higher values (7 to 7.2 a.p.f.u) but contains lower Mg#

(0.55) compared to those from other plutons. The amphiboles in all these plutons are of

igneous origin, since their Si values do not exceed the 7.5 a.p.f.u. of the limit for igneous

amphibole (Leake 1971; 1997).

Representative analyses of biotites are given in Table 4.4. Structural formulae were

calculated on the basis of 22 oxygens. Biotite from the granitic rocks contain 8.8 – 9.49 wt%

K2O, 10.9 – 13.7 wt% MgO, 17.2 – 21.4 wt% FeO Total and 13.6 – 14.8 wt% Al2O3. The

biotites are Fe-rich with Fe# (Fe/(Fe+Mg)) ranging from 0.413 to 0.523. The biotite analyses

indicate composition lying approximately midway between the four endmembers, i.e;

phlogophite, annite, siderophyllite and eastonite (Fig. 4.5). Biotites in the granitic rocks from

Sulawesi were plotted in the calc-alkaline field in the discrimination diagram of

Abdel-Rahman (1994) (Fig. 4.6). This is concordant with the calc-alkaline affinity showing

by the whole rock composition in AFM diagram.

Fig. 4.3. Ternary diagram of feldspar for granitic rocks from Sulawesi

86
 Table 4.2 Representatives feldspar composition of the granitic rocks in Sulawesi

Sample MA-45 LA-67D1 LA-17B SO-25 62GTL

Spots 1 2 rim core 3 4 1 2 1 2 1 2
Pluton Mamasa Masamba Lalos Sony Gorontalo

SiO2 56.8 55.9 58.7 62.4 66.2 65.1 59.4 58.9 67.9 69.0 61.5 66.6
TiO2 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.01
Al2O3 27.3 26.9 25.7 23.9 18.9 18.5 26.0 27.0 20.4 19.5 24.6 21.5
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
FeO 0.21 0.17 0.11 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.14 0.19 0.03 0.41 0.12 0.04
MnO 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
MgO 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CaO 9.4 9.4 8.0 5.4 0.1 0.0 7.5 8.6 1.3 0.02 5.9 2.2
Na2O 6.3 6.5 7.0 8.4 2.9 0.61 7.6 6.9 11.2 11.4 8.5 10.7
K2 O 0.25 0.27 0.27 0.52 11.93 15.10 0.36 0.24 0.12 0.00 0.42 0.39

87
Totals 100.3 99.1 99.8 100.7 100.1 99.4 101.0 101.9 101.0 100.3 101.0 101.4
Number of ion on the basis of 8 oxygens
Si 2.55 2.54 2.63 2.75 3.00 3.01 2.63 2.59 2.95 3.00 2.71 2.89
Al tet 1.44 1.44 1.36 1.24 1.01 1.01 1.36 1.40 1.05 0.00 1.28 1.10
Al oct 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fe 2+ 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00
Mn 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.45 0.46 0.38 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.41 0.06 0.00 0.28 0.10
Na 0.55 0.57 0.61 0.72 0.25 0.05 0.65 0.59 0.94 0.96 0.73 0.90
K 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.69 0.89 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.02
Total 5.01 5.03 5.00 5.00 4.96 4.96 5.03 5.01 5.00 4.98 5.03 5.02
Ab% 54.0 54.7 60.5 71.5 26.9 5.8 63.5 58.5 93.3 99.9 70.9 88.0
An% 44.6 43.9 38.0 25.6 0.4 0.0 34.6 40.1 6.1 0.1 26.8 9.9
Or% 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.9 72.7 94.2 2.0 1.3 0.6 0.0 2.3 2.1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Fig. 4.4 Amphibole composition diagrams according to nomenclature of Leake et al. (1997)
of granitic rocks from Sulawesi.

Fig. 4.5 Diagrams showing the classifications of biotite in granitic rocks from Sulawesi,
according to the nomenclature of Speer (1984) (left) and Deer et al. (1986) (right).

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Table 4.3 Representative amphibole composition of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi
Sample MA-45 LA-67D1 LA-17B SO-25 62GTL
Spots 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Pluton Mamasa Masamba Lalos Sony Gorontalo
wt%
SiO2 48.2 49.1 46.6 48.5 45.2 45.8 46.9 46.8 48.4 47.6
TiO2 0.99 0.86 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.4 0.65 0.95
Al2O3 5.8 4.8 7.9 6.9 8.7 8.2 7.3 7.6 5.1 6.2
FeO 14.3 12.8 14.5 14.4 18.1 18.1 14.4 14.3 20.7 20.9
MgO 14.6 15.5 13.4 14.3 10.8 11.2 14.0 13.6 10.3 10.2
MnO 0.46 0.53 0.42 0.43 0.50 0.50 0.34 0.35 1.5 1.5
CaO 11.8 11.8 12.0 11.8 11.9 11.7 12.0 11.9 10.3 10.0
Na2O 1.3 1.1 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.0 1.4
K2 O 0.52 0.43 0.83 0.64 0.92 0.91 0.77 0.83 0.40 0.45
Total 98.0 96.9 98.1 99.4 98.6 99.3 98.6 98.4 98.4 99.1
Formulae per Holland and Bundy (1994)
T-sites
Si 7.027 7.190 6.806 6.938 6.675 6.719 6.809 6.817 7.191 7.032
Aliv 0.973 0.810 1.194 1.062 1.325 1.281 1.191 1.183 0.809 0.968
Sum T 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000
M1,2,3 sites
Alv i 0.027 0.015 0.160 0.105 0.185 0.146 0.062 0.118 0.092 0.105
Ti 0.108 0.095 0.119 0.113 0.139 0.136 0.133 0.153 0.073 0.106
Fe 3+ 0.377 0.273 0.462 0.559 0.571 0.526 0.504 0.416 0.493 0.571
Mg 3.170 3.384 2.909 3.048 2.383 2.459 3.034 2.956 2.290 2.246
Mn 0.057 0.065 0.052 0.052 0.063 0.062 0.042 0.043 0.191 0.190
Fe 2+ 1.261 1.167 1.298 1.123 1.659 1.670 1.225 1.314 1.862 1.782
SUM M1-35.000 5.000 5.000 5.000 5.000 5.000 5.000 5.000 5.000 5.000
M4 site
Fe 0.107 0.128 0.007 0.034 0.005 0.022 0.019 0.015 0.215 0.225
Ca 1.844 1.844 1.871 1.813 1.875 1.839 1.867 1.853 1.643 1.580
Na 0.050 0.029 0.122 0.153 0.120 0.139 0.114 0.132 0.142 0.196
SUM M4 sites
2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000
A site
Ca 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Na 0.305 0.281 0.302 0.209 0.238 0.305 0.329 0.321 0.145 0.191
K 0.097 0.079 0.154 0.116 0.173 0.170 0.143 0.153 0.077 0.084
Sum A 0.402 0.361 0.456 0.324 0.410 0.475 0.472 0.475 0.222 0.276
Sum cations
15.402 15.361 15.456 15.324 15.410 15.475 15.472 15.475 15.222 15.276
Al (Total) 1.000 0.826 1.354 1.166 1.510 1.427 1.253 1.301 0.901 1.074

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Table 4.4 Representative biotite composition of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi.

Sample no MA-45 LA-67D1 LA-17B SO-20

SiO2 36.9 36.8 37.5 37.2 37.6 38.1 37.9 37.2 37.0 37.6 37.6
TiO2 4.2 4.4 4.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.9 4.0 3.9 3.8 4.0
Al2O3 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 14.3 14.0 13.9 14.8 14.5 14.1 13.6
Cr2O3 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.13
FeO 17.2 17.8 18.3 18.4 17.5 18.1 17.2 21.3 21.5 17.2 17.6
MnO 0.25 0.27 0.32 0.27 0.17 0.30 0.25 0.33 0.44 0.26 0.24
MgO 13.3 13.4 13.4 13.4 13.4 13.8 13.3 10.9 11.0 13.7 13.6
CaO 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.01
Na2O 0.16 0.08 0.16 0.05 0.02 0.17 0.14 0.17 0.15 0.10 0.13
K2 O 8.8 9.1 9.0 9.0 9.2 9.1 8.9 8.8 9.1 9.1 9.0
Totals 94.6 95.8 97.1 96.0 96.1 97.4 95.6 97.6 97.6 95.9 95.9
Si 5.600 5.554 5.583 5.604 5.631 5.638 5.684 5.573 5.569 5.629 5.649
Al tet 2.400 2.446 2.417 2.396 2.369 2.362 2.316 2.427 2.431 2.371 2.351
Al oct 0.090 0.021 0.021 0.069 0.149 0.088 0.145 0.194 0.136 0.117 0.059
Ti 0.481 0.500 0.501 0.428 0.427 0.420 0.440 0.451 0.440 0.430 0.447
Cr 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.009 0.011 0.006 0.005 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.016
Fe 2+ 2.181 2.246 2.278 2.313 2.197 2.244 2.165 2.674 2.704 2.160 2.205
Mn 0.032 0.035 0.040 0.034 0.022 0.038 0.032 0.041 0.055 0.032 0.030
Mg 3.009 3.019 2.975 3.003 2.987 3.036 2.984 2.434 2.473 3.067 3.053
Ca 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.005 0.001
Na 0.047 0.022 0.047 0.013 0.005 0.049 0.041 0.049 0.043 0.028 0.037
K 1.706 1.754 1.700 1.738 1.763 1.715 1.703 1.687 1.750 1.741 1.724
Total 15.549 15.600 15.569 15.607 15.561 15.596 15.515 15.534 15.603 15.581 15.572
Total Al 2.490 2.467 2.438 2.465 2.519 2.450 2.461 2.621 2.567 2.488 2.410
Fe 2+(Fe 2+/Mg) 0.420 0.427 0.434 0.435 0.424 0.425 0.420 0.523 0.522 0.413 0.419
2+
Biotite formulae normalised to 22 oxygens; all Fe = Fe

Fig. 4.6 Diagrams showing the classification of magmas based on biotite compositions, after
Abdel-Rahman (1994). A = alkaline, P = peralkaline, C = calc-alkaline.

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4.4 Geothermobarometry

4.4.1 Hornblende-Plagioclase thermobarometry

Since hornblende and plagioclase commonly coexist in calc-alkaline igneous rocks,

many workers have used these minerals for thermometry (e.g. Blundy and Holland, 1990;

Anderson and Smith, 1995; Stein and Dietl, 2001). Based on hornblende solid solution

models and well constrained natural and experimental systems, two hornblende-plagioclase

thermometers (thermometer A and B) were calculated by Holland and Blundy (1994).

Thermometer A is based on the edenite -tremolite reaction whereas thermometer B is based

on the edenite-richterite reaction as follows:

Edenite + 4 quartz = tremolite + albite…….(thermometer A)

Edenite + albite = richterite + anorthite…..(thermometer B)

Thermometer A is applicable to quartz-bearing igneous rocks and thermometer B is

for both quartz-bearing and quartz-free igneous rocks (Holland and Blundy, 1994).

Anderson (1996) further suggested that on the basis of different assessments of

Al-in-hornblende thermometric algorithm from plutonic rocks, the edenite-richterite

thermometer (thermometer B) is the most reliable calibration. Therefore, I used

edenite-richterite thermometer to calculate the crystallization temperature of the granitic rocks

from Sulawesi. Equilibration temperatures for the hornblende-plagioclase assemblage was

calculated based on iteration using the pressure derived from Al-in hornblende barometer of

Anderson and Smith (1995). Table 4.5 shows the type of thermometer used for estimation of

the temperature. From the analyzed rocks, the calculated temperatures are in the range of 677

to 729°C for the granitic rocks from the Mamasa Pluton and 756 to 774°C for the granitic

rocks in the Masamba Pluton. The granitic rocks from the Lalos-Toli Pluton and the Sony

Plutons show a temperature range of 731 to 736°C and 601 to 609°C, respectively. The

91
Gorontalo Pluton, which is represented by sample 62GTL, shows a temperature range from

662 to 668°C.

4.4.2 Al-in hornblende geobarometry

Hammarstrom and Zen (1986) and Hollister et al. (1987) showed that in the presence

of an appropriate buffer assemblage (amphibole + plagioclase + K-feldspar/quartz at medium

to high oxygen fugacity condition), the total Al content of calcic amphibole increases linearly

with crystalizing pressure. Field-based and experimental studies (e.g. Johnson and Rutherford,

1989; Schmidt, 1992; Anderson and Smith, 1995) have provided general confirmation of

increasing Al content of hornblende with increasing pressure. In addition, many workers have

utilized this barometer to estimates pressure of magmatic crystallization and to constrain the

emplacement depth (e.g. Stein and Dietl, 2001; Zhang et al., 2006; Ague and Brandon 1992;

Sepahi et al., 2012).

Several calibrations have been proposed for Al-in hornblende barometry.

Hammarstrom and Zen (1986) proposed an empirical correlation between estimated pressure

(P) of solidification of calc-alkaline plutons and the total content of Al in hornblende (23

oxygens basis) and expressed as follows:

P(±3 kbar) = -3.92+5.03 Al (total)

Hollister et al. (1987) proposed a relatively similar but more precise equation:

P(±1 kbar) = -4.67+5.64 Al (total).

Johnson and Rutherford (1989) provided a calibration, which is expressed as:

P(±0.5 kbar) = -3.46+4.23 Al (total).

Schmidt (1992) calibrated the amount of Al in hornblende in a natural tonalite and proposed

the expression:

P(±0.6 kbar) = -3.01+4.76 Al (total).

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Anderson and Smith (1995) provided a calibration with T range from 600 to 800°C:

P(kbar) = 4.76 Al (total) – 3.01 – [(T – 675)/85] x [0.53Al + 0.005294 (T – 675)]

In this study, we used the calibration of Anderson and Smith (1995) to calculate the

crystallization pressure of the amphibole in the granitic rocks from Sulawesi. This calibration

is more reliable for considering the influence of temperature on the pressure calculation than

the other methods (Stein and Dietl, 2001; Zhang et al., 2006).

Estimations of pressure and depth of crystallization of the granitic rocks from

Sulawesi are given in Table 4.5. The results indicate that the pressure varies from 0.91 to 1.2

and 2.3 to 2.8 kbar for the granitic rocks in the Mamasa and Masamba Plutons, respectively.

Pressure of 3.3 to 3.4 kbar and 3.2 to 3.3 kbar are estimated from the amphibole for the

granitic rocks in the the Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons, respectively. The pressure calculation

on the amphibole from the granitic rocks from Gorontalo Pluton gave a pressure range of 2.6

to 2.7 kbar.

4.5 Discussions

4.5.1 Crystallization depth estimations

To estimate the crystallization depth, we used the pressure from the calibration by

Anderson and Smith (1995). The pressure values were converted to crystallization depth on

the assumption that the average crustal density was 2.8 g/cm3. The correction factor of the

calibration (Anderson and Smith 1995) was ± 0.6 kbar.

The Mamasa and Masamba Plutons located in the CW of the Western Sulawesi

Province are represented by Mamasa quartz monzonite (MA-45) and Masamba granodiorite

(LA-67D1), which yielded an average crystallization depths of 3.7 km and 9.1 km,

respectively (Table 4.5). An average crystllization depths estimated from the granitic rocks in

the Lalos-Toli Pluton (LA-17) and Sony Pluton (SO-25) show a relatively similar depth (11.3

93
and 11.6 km, respectively) whereas average crystallization depth estimation for the

monzogranite from Gorontalo Pluton (62GTL) located in the Northern Sulawesi Province

ranges from 9.2 to 9.5 km (Av. 9.4 km). The Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons and the Gorontalo

Pluton are classified as intermediate crust granitoids which were emplaced at depth < 13 km,

whereas the Mamasa and Masamba Plutons are upper crust granitoids which were emplaced

at a depth of less than 9 km.

These results show that the depth of the crystallization seems to increase from the

Mamasa and Masamba Plutons which are located in the CW of the West Sulawesi Province to

the Sony and Lalos-Toli Plutons in the NW of the province but decrease towards the

Gorontalo Pluton which is located in the Northern Sulawesi Province.

4.5.2 Oxygen Fugacity

The oxygen fugacity (fO2) of magma is related to its source material. The I-type

granitic magmas are relatively oxidised, whereas the S-type granitic magmas are usually

reduced. The original oxygen fugacity of the primary magma of granitic rocks is difficult to

estimate since magnetite usually becomes Ti free during slow cooling and ilmenite undergoes

oxidation and exsolution. However, it is possible to get some inferences of the oxidation state

of magma using mineral assemblage and mineral chemistry. Wones (1989) showed that the

assemblages of titanite + magnetite + quartz in granitic rock allow us to estimate the relative

oxygen fugacity. The occurrence of Mg-rich hornblende in granitic rocks may suggest that the

magmas are relatively oxidised. The granitic rocks in Sulawesi are characterized by the

occurrence of Mg-rich amphibole (magnesiohornblende) as shown in Fig. 4.6. The log fO2

estimation from Wones (1989) was expressed by the equilibrium expression Log fO2=

-30930/T + 14.98 + 0.142 (P-1) T (where T is temperature in Kelvin and P is pressure in bars).

Temperatures and pressures estimated from hornblende-plagioclase thermometry and

94
aluminium in hornblende were used in these calculations. The results of oxygen fugacity

(Table 4.5) range from -14 to -17 for the granitic rocks from the Mamasa and Masamba

Plutons and from -15 to -19 for the granitic rocks in the Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons whereas

the oxygen fugacity of the granitic rocks from the Gorontalo Pluton is -17. All the results are

plotted in Fig. 4.7 and indicate that Sony and Gorontalo Pluton have lower value than those of

Masamba, Mamasa and Lalos-Toli Pluton. For example, the values of fO2 for the Sony Quartz

Monzonite are between -19.6 and -19.8 and for the Gorontalo Monzogranite between -17.5 to

-17.7 (Fig. 4.7), correspond to depositional condition of Porphyry Cu+Au and Mo deposit

from elsewhere (Yang et al., 2006). Interestingly, the fO2 values of the Lalos-Toli

Granodiorite, the Mamasa Quartz Monzodiorite and the Masamba Granodiorite are between

-14.2 to -17.4, relatively similar to reduced I-type and contaminated I-type rocks (Argue and

Brimhall, 1988; Candela, 1989). This is consistent with their low MS values, which suggest

ilmenite-series (reduced) granitic rocks value (cf. chapter 3) for the Lalos-Toli, Mamasa and

Masamba Plutons.

Table 4.5 Estimations of pressures, depth of emplacement, oxygen fugacity value (log fO2)
and exhumation rate estimation of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi

Predicted
Depth
T(ed-tr) T(ed-ri) P-Sch P-A&S Depth Age Exhumation
Sample Pluton (Av) log f O2
(°C) (°C) (kbar) (kbar) (km) (Ar-Ar) rate
(km)
(mm/year)
MA-45 Mamasa 850 - 810 677 - 729 0.92 - 1.7 0.91 - 1.2 3.2 - 4.3 3.7 (-15.70 to -17.44) 9.5 0.39
LA-67D1 Masamba 796 - 833 756 - 774 3.4 - 4.4 2.3 - 2.8 8.2 - 10 9.1 (-14.16 to - 14.73) 5.4 1.68
LA-17B Lalos-Toli 729 - 772 731 - 736 3.9 - 4.2 3.1 - 3.4 10.8 - 11.7 11.3 (-15.34 to -15.23) 6.7 1.69
SO-25 Sony 722 - 749 601 - 609 2.9 - 3.2 3.2 - 3.4 11.2 - 12 11.6 (-19.83 to -19.56) 4.3 2.69
62GTL Gorontalo 739 - 744 662 - 666 2.5 - 2.7 2.6 - 2.7 9.2 - 9.5 9.4 (-17.69 to -17.51) 18.5 0.51
P-Sch = Pressure calculated using Schmidt (1992); T(ed-tr) temperature calculated using plagioclase-hornblende geothermometer A (edenite-tremolite) of
Holland and Blundy (1994); P-As = the temperature corrected pressure, calculated using Anderson and Smith (1995) , T= T(ed-ri); Dept = crystallization
depth estimate from P-A&S (assuming average crustal density as 2.8 g cm -3; Dept (Av) = average depth of each sample)

95
Fig. 4.7 Temperature versus oxygen fugacity diagram for the granitic rocks from Sulawesi.
The solid line show the fO2 – T conditions for the redox buffer Hm-Mt (hematite and
magnetite), NiO-Ni, QFM (quartz, fayalite and magnetite), and CO2-CH4 (from Candela,
1989). I-SCR = strongly contaminated reduced I-type granitoid (after Ague and Brimhal,
1988). Oxidized, reduced and contaminated I-type rocks fields are from Yang and Lentz
(2005), S-type rocks, Mo deposit and porphyry Cu+Au deposit fields are from Yang et al.
(2006).

4.5.3 Magma typology

Biotite composition has been used to define the nature of magma from which they

crystallized and also give a clue about the tectonic environment of their host magma

(Abdel-Rahman, 1994). In addition, Nockolds (1947) showed that biotite is a good indicator

of the conditions of crystallization of magma. Albuquerque (1973) has demonstrated the

relationship between occurrence and geochemistry of this mineral from calc-alkaline granitic

rocks in northern Portugal. This paper showed that compositional variations in biotite

correlate with the occurrences of amphibole, primary muscovite and aluminosilicates in the

rocks, which in turn, provide information regarding the paragenesis.

Using the diagram of Abdel-Rahman (1994), the biotites from the granitic rocks in

96
Sulawesi belong to the calc-alkaline group. The calc-alkaline affinity is concordant with the

bulk rock and trace elements composition of the granitic rocks, which show a strong

calc-alkaline trend (Fig. 4.6). Biotites from the granitic rocks in Sulawesi can be divided into

Mg-rich biotite (MgO > 12 wt%) and Fe-Mg rich biotite (FeO >20 wt% and MgO > 9wt%)

with relatively low Al2O3 content (less than 14wt%). The Mg-rich, Fe-rich and Al-poor

biotites crystallized mostly from I-type and calc-alkaline magma where the role of Al is

limited (Chappell and White, 1974). The biotites were also plotted in the field I of the MgO –

Al2O3 – FeO Total diagram of Albuqurque (1973) (Fig. 4.8), indicating that the biotite

coexists with hornblende in the calc-alkaline plutonic rocks. This suggests that the granitic

rocks in Sulawesi were produced in a subduction environment. It has been widely argued that

calc-alkaline magma could be produced in subduction environments (Barbarin, 1990:1999;

Robert and Clement 1993; Altherr et al., 2000). The subduction-related magma origin is also

indicated by a negative Nb and Ta anomaly in the primitive-mantle normalized trace elements

spider diagram of the granitic rocks as reported in Chapter 3.

Fig. 4.8 Triangular diagram showing the relationship between the contents of MgO,
Al2O3 and Total FeO for biotite from granitic rocks in Sulawesi. Field I = biotite
associated with muscovite; II = biotite associated with pyroxene and garnet; III = biotite
associated with hornblende.

97
4.5.4 Exhumation rate estimation

Combination of geobarometers with geochronology can be used to define

time-pressure histories for granitic rocks. If reasonable assumptions are made to convert

pressure to depth of the crystallization below the surface, then the change in a rock beneath

the surface through time can be deduced and history of exhumation can be reconstructed. The

rate of exhumation can be defined simply as the rate of erosion or the rate of removal of

overburden by tectonic processes (England and Molnar, 1990). Exhumation rate estimation

can be calculated from at least three approaches using thermochronological data (Copeland et

al., 1987). The first method is by obtaining the ratio of the difference in elevation between

two identical minerals and the differences in their mineral ages while assuming the closure

temperature for both minerals. The second method of approach utilizes two minerals ages

from the same sample (either biotite/K-feldspar or K-feldspar/apatite) and dividing the ratio

between the differences in closure temperature and mineral ages. The third is by dividing a

known amount of exhumation or simply defined as depth by the duration over which the

exhumation took place or cooling age. In this case, we use the third method to estimate the

exhumation rate of the granitic rocks from the study area.

We combine our geobarometer data to get depth with geochronology using Ar-Ar

dating cooling age from our study (Chapter 3) and from previously reported data (e.g. Bellon

and Rangin, 1991; Bergman et al., 1996; Elburg and Foden, 1999; Elburg et al., 2003) to

calculate the exhumation rate of each pluton (Table 4.5). Our calculation suggested that the

Mamasa Pluton has been exhumed at 0.39 mm/year whereas the Masamba Pluton at 1.68

mm/year whereas the Lalos-Toli Pluton is 1.69 mm/year and the Sony Pluton is 2.69 mm/year.

Meanwhile, The Gorontalo Pluton has been exhumed at 0.51 mm/year. These exhumation

rates show strong and systematically regional variations which reflect the greater exhumation

in the central part (particularly the Sony Pluton) of the Western Sulawesi Province.

98
4.5.5 Tectonomagmatic implication

The granitic rocks in the Lalos-Toli and the Sony Plutons were crystallized at deeper

depths than other units and at the same time the Sony Pluton exhumed in a faster rate (2.7

mm/year). It is interesting to note that the Sony Pluton is located near a regional structure,

which is called the Palu – Koro Fault Zone, an active sinistral fault. The association of very

high depth crystllization (11.2 km) and rapid exhumation rate in the Sony Pluton (2.7

mm/year) can be attributed to the vertical movement of Palu-Koro Fault Zone which is still

active since Pliocene (Walpersdorf and Vigny, 1998) as triggered by collision between

Sundaland fragment and block of microcontinent.

During the Early Miocene, several tectonic processes occurred on the southern

margin of Sundaland. These processes include the collision of the Sula Spur which formed a

promontory of the Australian margin with the Northern Sulawesi Volcanic Arc (Hall and

Sevastjanova, 2012) and the convergence of the Australian Plate and Eurasia which caused

the counter-clockwise rotation of Western Sulawesi and contraction, uplift and erosion in East

and Southeast Sulawesi (Hall, 2011). In addition, subduction roll back in the Banda Arc

region which started around Middle to Late Miocene caused widespread extension in the

Sulawesi region, resulting fragmentation of crustal from the Sula Spur and East and Southeast

Sulawesi (Hall and Sevastjanova, 2012), formation of Malino Metamorphic Complex (van

Leeuwen et al., 2007) and block faulting accompanied by HK magmatism in Western

Sulawesi. In the Late Miocene to Pliocene, the region also recorded rapid subsidience and

uplift triggered by collision between Banggai-Sula continental fragments with the eastern

Sulawesi. I attribute the rapid uplift and exhumation of the granitic rocks in the Western

Sulawesi Province (esp. Sony Pluton) during the Late Miocene to Pliocene to the above

tectonic process.

99
 Most researchers proposed a large-scale crustal extension for emplacement model of

Miocene granitic rocks (Stouraiti et al., 2010). This model refers to a deduction of an

intrusion depth between a brittle-ductile transition zones which can be found in the middle to

lower crust (Ramsay, 1980) in a depth of 15 to 20 km (Brichau et al., 2007). The

crystallization depth estimation from this study implies that the maximum crystallization

depth of the granitic rocks is less than 15 km. This suggests that the crystallization depth

never reached the depth of the transition zone between elastic-fractional (ductile) and

quasi-plastic (brittle) where low-angle extension-related mechanism might be triggered.

Therefore, the crystallization depth estimates of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi severely

confined the crustal-scale extension model which requires deep-seated melt injection at about

15 – 20 km into the footwall of a regional detachment fault.

4.6 Conclusions

1. The biotite composition showed that the granitic rocks have a calc-alkaline character,

concordant with the calc-alkaline affinity shown by the whole rock composition. The

biotite composition also indicated a strong association with hornblende, suggesting

typical I-type granitic rock character.

2. Geothermobarometry calculation indicate that the granitic rocks from the Mamasa and

Masamba Pluton were crystallized at temperatures of 677 – 774°C and pressures of 0.91

to 2.3 kbar and crystallization depth of 3.7 to 9.1 km and exhumation rate at 0.39 and

1.68 mm/year respectively, whereas the Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons were crystallized at

temperature of 601 – 736°C and the pressure varies from 2.6 to 3.6 km which equals to

11.3 - 11.6 km crystallization depth with exhumation rate of 1.69 and 2.69 mm/year

respectively. The granitic rocks in the Gorontalo Pluton were crystallized at temperature

100
 of 662 – 668°C with a pressure range from 2.6 to 2.7 kbar, equivalent to 9.4 km depth and

exhumed at a rate of 0.51 mm/year.

3. The Mamasa, Masamba and Lalos-Toli Pluton are characterized by reduced- and

contaminated- I type feature, exhibiting wide range of fO2 (-14.2 to -17.4) at given

temperature whereas the Sony and Gorontalo Pluton show lower fO2 (-17.51 to -19.8) at

given temperature correspond to depositional condition of Porphyry Cu+Au and Mo

deposit.

4. The significant vertical displacement of the Sony Pluton was actively controlled by the

tectonic regime (e.g. fault). The crystallization depth estimates of the granitic rocks from

Sulawesi severely confined the crustal-scale extension model which requires deep-seated

melt injection at about 15 – 20 km into the footwall of a regional detachment fault.

101
 CHAPTER V

GEOCHEMISTRY OF RARE EARTH ELEMENTS (REE)

IN WEATHERED CRUSTS FROM THE GRANITIC
ROCKS IN SULAWESI ISLAND, INDONESIA

Abstract

The geochemistry of rare earth elements (REE) in the weathered crusts of I-type and
calc-alkaline to high-K (shoshonitic) granitic rocks at Mamasa and Palu region, Sulawesi
Island, Indonesia were reported. The weathered crusts can be divided into horizon A (lateritic
profile) and B (weathered horizon) in the Mamasa region with the present of horizon C
(weathering front) in the Palu region. Both weathered profiles show that the total REE
increased from the parent rocks to the horizon B but significantly decreased toward the upper
part (horizon A). The total REE content of the weathered crust are relatively elevated
compared to the parent rocks, particularly in the lower part of horizon B in Mamasa profile
and in horizon C in Palu profile. This suggests that REE-bearing accessory minerals may be
resistant against weathering and may remain as residual phase in the weathered crusts. The
mass transfer illustration using an isocon diagram shows a different transfer trend from
Mamasa and Palu weathering profile. The positive Ce anomaly in horizon A of Mamasa
profile indicated that Ce is rapidly precipitated during weathering and retained at the upper
soil horizon, suggesting the occurrence of redox-controlled processes which lead to the CeO2
precipitation.
Keywords: Rare earth elements, geochemistry, weathered crust, granitic rocks,
Sulawesi, Indonesia

5.1 Introduction

Rare earth elements (REE) are defined as members of Group IIIA in the periodic

table which consist of lanthanum to luthetium (57La to 71Lu), including Yttrium (39Y) and

Scandium (21Sc) (Henderson, 1984). They can be divided into light rare earth elements (La to

Eu) and heavy rare earth elements (Gd to Lu) which are commonly abbreviated as LREE and

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HREE, respectively. For many years, rare earth elements have been geochemically considered

immobile during alteration and metamorphism and therefore very useful in geological

interpretation (Pearce and Cann, 1973; Condie and Baragar, 1974; Winchester and Floyd,

1976). Nevertheless, recent studies have shown that the abundance of REE is subjected to

change during alteration and weathering process, particularly in the upper crust (Alderton et

al., 1980; Henderson, 1984; Braun et al., 1990; Gouveia et al., 1993; Nesbitt and Markovics,

1997; Bao and Zhao, 2008). One of the most prominent studies on REE behavior during

alteration and weathering in the upper crust is in granitic rocks since these rocks contain an

abundance of REE compared to other crustal rocks (Hu and Gao, 2008).

The granitic rocks are widely distributed in Sulawesi Island in the central part of the

Indonesian Archipelago (Sukamto, 1979). They occupy the western part to the northern part

of the island, encompassing for more than 400 km. The island is situated in the equatorial line

and hence is located in a tropical climate, causing the surface of the rocks to be susceptible to

weathering and alteration processes. It has been reported that REE are mobile and tend to be

enriched during weathering of granitic rocks in some sub tropical areas (Bao and Zhao, 2008;

Ishihara et al., 2008). In addition, enrichment of REE in weathered granitic crusts from

tropical areas were also reported (Sanematsu et al., 2009; Sanematsu et al., 2011). Therefore,

investigation on REE enrichment on the granitic rocks in this island is of particular interest in

order to shed a light on their geochemistry.

However, regardless their large distribution, study on geochemistry of REE in the

weathered crust of granitic rocks in Sulawesi Island has never been conducted. This study

reports for the first time, the REE geochemistry in weathered crust of granitic rocks in

Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, particularly from Mamasa and Palu regions.

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5.2 Regional Geology

The Mamasa and Palu regions are located in the Western and Central Sulawesi

(Fig.5.1a), respectively. They are separated by mountainous topography consisting of Tertiary

and Quaternary volcanic and plutonic rocks.

General geology of Mamasa region, located in the central western of the Western

Sulawesi Province is shown in Fig. 5.1a. It consists of five sequences (Djuri and Sudjatmiko,

1998): (1) Pre-Tertiary metasedimentary rocks including flysch deposits which were formed

in a forearc basin setting, and ophiolites of Lamasi Complex; (2) Miocene to Pliocene

syn-rifting sequence composed of siliciclastic, coal, volcanic and carbonates sedimentary

deposit of the Toraja and Mallawa Formation; (3) Tertiary post-rifting sequence including the

Eocene to Middle Miocene carbonate Makale and Tonasa Limestone; (4) Middle Miocene to

Pliocene granitic to gabbroic intrusive rocks (known as Mamasa Granitic Rocks); (5) Pliocene

to Recent non marine to upper bathyal sedimentary deposits including Walanae Formation.

Palu region is included in the central part of the Western Sulawesi Province (Fig.

5.1b), located between Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt in the east and Lariang-Karama

Basin in the south (Hamilton, 1979; Parkinson, 1998). The area is cross cut by a regional fault

structure, referred to as the Palu – Koro Fault, trending from northwest to southeast (Fig.1b).

The regional geology consists of five units namely; (1) Pre-Tertiary metamorphic rocks, (2)

Paleogen – Neogen volcanic rocks, (3) Miocene granitic intrusion, (4) Tertiary sediments and

(5) Quaternary sediments.

Metamorphic rocks in this area are mainly assigned to the Palu Metamorphic

Complex (Parkinson, 1998) in the central portion and Malino Metamorphic Complex in the

north (Van Leeuwen et al., 2007). They consist of metabasic rocks metamorphosed to

greenschist - amphibolite facies. The Paleogene – Neogen volcanic rocks are exposed in the

southern and middle part of the terrane. They consist of andesitic tuff, lithic tuff and felsic

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crystal tuff as well as laminated sandstone (Sukamto, 1996). The granitic suites in this terrane

consist of quartz monzonite to quartz dioritic rocks (Priadi et al., 1996). The Tertiary sediment

includes large amount of mollase sediment, conglomerate, sandstone which are poorly

consolidated. Quaternary sediments are exposed along the coastline of the terrane, consisting

of alluvium, coastal deposit, gravel, sand, mud and coral reef (Sukamto, 1996).

Fig. 5.1 Geologic map and location of studied area of (a) Mamasa and (b) Palu.

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5.3 Description of the parent rocks and weathering profile

5.3.1 Mamasa Granites

The Mamasa granitic rocks have been moderately to heavily weathered. They consist

of granite, granodiorite, diorite and quartz monzonite (Elburg and Foden, 1999; Maulana et al.,

2011). The petrography of the parent rocks reveals that mineralogy and textures of the granitic

rocks are fairly uniform but different in ratio throughout all samples. The freshest granitic

rocks show equigranular texture, coarse to medium grained and sometimes show porphiritic

texture with plagioclase as phenocryst (Maulana et al., 2011). Quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar,

biotite and hornblende commonly occur with accessory minerals of titanite, apatite, zircon,

allanite, magnetite and ilmenite whereas chlorite occurs as a secondary mineral. Some

enclaves have mafic composition. K -Ar dating on whole rock quartz monzodiorite yielded a

range from 7.0±0.3 to 7.7±0.2 Ma (Bergman et al., 1996) whereas an age range from 4.6±0.3

to 14.1±0.1 on K-feldspar and biotite were reported in quartz diorite from Mamasa intrusive

rocks (Elburg et al., 2003). Most of the granitic rocks are classified as high calc-alkaline

(CAK) to high-K or shoshonitic group. Based on the alumina saturation index (ASI) the

granitic rocks belong to I-type granitic rocks (ASI ranges from 0.95 to 1.0) (Maulana et al.,

2011).

The weathered crusts in Mamasa range from 1 to 4 meters in thickness (Fig. 5.2a).

Overall, weathered crusts show a brown to yellowish color, are highly oxidized, poorly

compacted and enriched in clay minerals. Rock forming minerals were decomposed except

quartz as shown in XRD results. One section (ML-50) of the weathered crusts in Mamasa

region shows weathering profile and can be divided into horizon A (lateritic profile) and

horizon B (weathered horizon) (Fig. 5.2) with the absence of horizon C. The horizon A

belongs to the upper part of the profile (from 0 to 0.7 meters depth), which is characterized by

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a dark brown color, abundant organic matter and poorly compacted. The horizon B is found in

the lower part of the section (from 0.7 – 3.4 meters depth), reddish brown in color and

composed mainly of clay minerals and lesser amounts of organic matter.

5.3.2 Palu Granites

The Palu granitic rocks range from monzonite to granodiorite with gabbroic enclaves.

Quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspar found as major minerals and sometimes occur as

phenocrysts. Quartz is medium to coarse grained showing undulose extinction. Plagioclase is

tabular, ranging from oligoclase to labradorite, showing typical polysynthetic twinning and

oscillatory zoning. Alkali-feldspar occurs as microcline, showing characteristic cross-hatched

twinning which account for less than 10% of the rocks, sometimes formed mymerkitic texture.

Biotite and hornblende are always present with relatively more biotite than hornblende. Kink

banding in biotite is commonly observed. Titanite, apatite, zircon and opaque (ilmenite and

hematite) mineral served as accessory mineral. Based on the SiO2 and K2O content the

granitic rocks are mainly classified as calc-alkaline to high calc-alkaline (CAK) series. ASI

values range from 0.94 to 1 suggesting that the I-type granitic rocks (Maulana et al., 2011).

Age data on granodiorite in Palu area using K-Ar method yielded 31 Ma (Sukamto,

1996). Similar results were reported on granitoid near Palu area ranging from 29 to 31 Ma

(Priadi et al., 1994) and 33.4±0.2 Ma (Elburg et al., 2003). However, a largely younger age on

granitic intrusion was reported near Palu-Koro Fault, Gimpu and Kulawi region (5.08±0.11

Ma) northern part of Palu (Polve et al., 1997).

The weathered crusts in Palu granites are relatively thicker and well-developed than

those in Mamasa area. They range from 3 to more than 6 meters and can be divided into 3

horizons; horizon A, B and C (Fig. 5.2b). The horizon A (lateritic profile) occur in the upper

part of the profile, 0.5 m in thickness, very loose, heavily oxidized, dark brown and contain

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abundant organic material. Horizon B (weathered horizon) is underlain with horizon A and

horizon C (weathering front) in the lower part. The Horizon B shows a relatively dark brown

color whereas horizon C is lighter brown to yellowish. Horizon B contains lesser amount of

organic material but abundant clay minerals whereas horizon C shows a more compact texture

and contains clay minerals with visible original texture of the parent rocks (Fig. 5.2b).

Fig. 5.2 Profile of weathered crust in (a) Mamasa and (b) Palu granitic rocks. Note the
weathering profile of Palu granite (b), consisting of horizon A, B and C whereas Mamasa
profile only consists of horizon A and B.

5.4 Analytical Method

Twenty-two samples were taken from the outcrops of weathered crusts of granitic

rocks in Mamasa and Palu regions. Approximately 1 kg of samples were crushed and

pulverized to 200 mesh and then thoroughly mixed using a pulverizer. Major element

compositions were determined on fused disc and pressed powder using an X-ray fluorescence

spectrometer Rigaku RINT-300 at Dept. of Earth Resources Engineering, Kyushu University

whereas rare earth elements were analysed at ALS Chemex, Vancouver, Canada using the

inductively couple plasma mass spectrophotometry (ICP-MS) method.

XRD analysis was conducted in order to determine the mineral composition and clay

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mineral in the weathered samples. Samples were prepared for XRD analyses by disaggregated

in distilled water and the <2µm fraction was mounted on glass slide and then analyzed using a

RIGAKU FKOD 10-015 X-ray diffractometer (XRD) in Dept. of Earth Resources

Engineering, Kyushu University.

5.5. Results

5.5.1 XRD identification of minerals

Representative powder X-ray diffraction patterns (Cu Kα radiation) are shown in Fig.

5.3 and 5.4. Weathered crust of granitic rocks from Mamasa region is composed mainly of

quartz, kaolinite and montmorrilonite. Quartz was found in all horizons while kaolinite is

mainly concentrated in horizon B, showing sharp peaks near 12.2°(7.27Å) and 19.9°(4.45Å).

Montmorillonite was detected in sample ML-43.

Weathered crust at Palu region consists of kaolinite, quartz, albite K-feldspar and

halloysite. It is also characterized by the occurrence of quartz in all horizons. Kaolinite was

detected in all horizons except in horizon C (Fig. 5.4) whereas halloysite is only found in

horizon B. Quartz and albite were detected in horizon C. The occurrences of these rock

forming minerals explains the high content of most major oxide and low contents of LOI in

the whole rocks composition (Table 5.2).

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Fig. 5.3 Representative X-ray diffraction pattern of weathered crusts of Mamasa granites. K=
kaolinite, Qtz = Quartz, Mon = montmorillonite

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Fig. 5.4 Representative X-ray diffraction pattern of weathered crusts of Palu granites. K=
kaolinite, Qtz = Quartz, Alb = Albite, Hal= halloysite

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5.5.2 Geochemistry of parent rocks and weathered granitic rocks

Concentration of major elements, trace elements and REE of weathered crust from

granitic rocks at Mamasa and Palu region are shown in Table 5.1 and 5.2, respectively.

a. Major elements

The parent rock in Mamasa profile contains of 65 wt% SiO2, 13 wt% Al2O3, 2,6 wt%

Na2O, 4,7 wt% K2O, 3.3 wt% CaO and less than 1 wt% TiO2 and P2O5. In relation to this, the

weathering profile shows a high content Al2O3 and LOI, and lower content of other oxides.

The total FeO content in horizon B however is higher than the parent rock. The chemical

differences are pronounced for the weathering profile where the K-feldspar, plagioclace,

biotite and hornblende were transformed into kaolinite and hematite.

Overall, most major elements (particularly SiO2) from Palu weathering profile are

significantly depleted to their parent granites, however Al2O3, total FeO and LOI are

significantly enriched. TiO2 and P2O5 tend to immobile during weathering process. An

exception is shown in horizon C in which the SiO2, MgO, FeO total and CaO content increase

and steadily decreased toward the horizon A.

b. Trace and rare earth elements

As compared to their parent rocks, Th and U content are lower whereas Zr and Hf are

relatively constant in Mamasa profiles but increase in the Palu profile. These represent that

the weathering resistant mineral (zircon) is strongly concentrated in horizon B and C both

weathering profiles. Rb and Sr relatively decreased (except in the horizon C in Palu profile)

toward the upper profile.

The concentrations of the rare earth elements vary in each horizon (Fig. 5.5). The

total REE contents of the weathered crusts at the Mamasa region range from 58 to 398 ppm

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whereas those of fresh (parent) rocks are 248 ppm. The total LREE content of the weathered

samples ranges from 46 to 343 ppm whereas the total of HREE content ranges from 13 to 54

ppm.

The total REE in the weathered crusts at Palu region ranges from 124 to 314 ppm

(223 ppm in average) whereas the total REE in the parent rock ranges from 196 to 251 (200

ppm in average). The total REE+ Y in the weathered crust ranges from 220 to 337 ppm and

198 to 267 ppm in the parent rocks. The enrichment of REE occurred mainly in the horizon C,

where the total REE is up to 314 ppm (REE + Y = 337 ppm).

It is shown that the REE are significantly depleted in the horizon A in both profiles

but showed approximately 70 to 85% larger than the parent rocks in horizon B and horizon C

in Mamasa and Palu weathered crust, respectively. This result indicated that the enrichment of

REE occurred in horizon B in Mamasa profile and in horizon C in Palu profile.

Fig. 5.5 Total LREE, HREE and Y of weathered crusts at Mamasa and Palu.

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Table 5.1 Concentration of major elements, trace elements, REE and Y of parent rocks and
weathered crust from granitic rocks at Mamasa area
SAMPLE ML-35 ML-38 ML-41 ML-43 ML-44 ML-46 ML-49 ML-52 Parent Rock ML-50B ML-50A
Major element (wt%) Parent Rock Horizon B Horizon A
SiO2 62.0 65.7 57.7 51.1 56.1 55.2 57.4 60.4 65.1 55.7 59.2
TiO2 0.67 0.34 0.71 0.6 0.85 0.73 0.76 0.73 0.62 0.51 0.43
Al2O3 15.3 14.3 15.7 14.6 19.0 19.9 18.1 18.5 13.2 25.1 22.4
FeOt 4.5 2.1 5.1 3.7 5.5 5.3 3.9 4.8 4.2 4.5 3.9
MnO 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.03 0.03
MgO 1.3 1.9 2.9 5.3 1.7 2.7 1.8 2.6 4.5 0.9 1.2
CaO 0.72 0.71 2.93 7.92 1.01 0.05 0.09 0.05 3.3 0.02 0.02
Na2O 0.86 1.48 1.43 0.46 0.36 0.07 0.21 0.32 2.7 0.04 0.06
K 2O 4.7 5.3 3.9 3.0 3.5 3.1 4.0 4.4 4.7 0.03 1.2
P2O5 0.08 0.05 0.34 0.17 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.19 0.03 0.04
LOI 7.9 7.5 9.1 11.9 9.0 10.8 9.7 5.4 0.66 12.1 9.6
Total 98.2 99.3 99.8 98.8 97.0 97.9 96.0 97.3 99.3 99.0 98.2
Trace element (ppm)
Co 11.5 8.1 14.3 7.1 10.2 32.9 9.6 24.9 17.2 5.1 3.7
Cr 30 20 40 40 180 280 140 210 240.0 50.0 70.0
Cs 13.5 10.2 10.3 10.1 6.3 20.0 8.5 19.3 13.7 15.0 1.9
Ga 18.4 17 18.9 14.4 24.8 23.4 19.3 22.8 20.8 21.8 22.8
Hf 9 7.3 4.5 5.4 7.5 8.3 12 9.5 7.8 5.7 5.4
Mo 2 <2 <2 6 <2 <2 <2 <2 2.0 <2 <2
Nb 21.9 24.6 18.9 15.7 26.1 23.6 20.2 21.6 15.5 13.0 14.6
Rb 249 283 203 147.5 128.5 132 194 279 236.0 75.1 2.6
Sn 4 5 4 4 13 16 6 8 6.0 5.0 6.0
Sr 207 194.5 301 237 41 56 74.1 88.4 223.0 9.9 2.1
Ta 1.6 1.9 1.5 1.4 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.7 0.9 1.0
Th 41.7 44.4 36.8 39.9 29.3 29.9 30.5 31.7 33.5 13.1 15.7
Tl 1.3 1.2 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 <0.5 <0.5
U 9.9 10.4 6.4 6.3 3.9 6.8 5.6 6.8 7.6 2.8 4.2
V 127 53 127 73 83 86 71 65 76.0 57.0 61.0
W 10 9 6 18 3 5 4 3 3.0 5.0 3.0
Zr 357 255 161 186 292 311 444 343 239.0 215.0 204.0
La 84.7 66.4 72.4 53.2 50.4 110.5 58 103.5 52.5 88.6 8.5
Ce 147 106 129 115.5 133.5 165.5 128 97.2 115.0 149.0 25.6
Pr 13.9 13.5 13.9 11.0 10.8 22.9 12.25 23.1 13.1 19.1 2.1
Nd 47.3 47.7 49.7 36.9 40.0 84.7 45.5 85.7 37.6 70.6 8.2
Sm 7.3 8.1 8.6 6.4 7.0 16.6 7.4 16.8 8.1 14.5 2.0
Eu 1.4 1.3 1.6 0.9 1.0 2.8 1.0 2.5 1.1 2.1 0.1
Gd 3.9 5.0 5.3 3.7 4.4 12.3 3.8 13.5 5.9 12.2 2.1
Tb 0.78 0.86 0.94 0.57 0.81 2.3 0.7 2.3 1.1 2.4 0.5
Dy 4.8 5.1 5.8 3.0 5.0 14.6 4.1 14.4 5.8 16.4 3.6
Ho 0.93 0.98 1.12 0.52 0.99 2.83 0.78 2.8 1.2 3.3 0.8
Er 2.8 2.8 3.2 1.3 2.9 8.2 2.3 7.9 3.0 9.9 2.8
Tm 0.39 0.39 0.45 0.22 0.4 1.09 0.31 1.08 0.6 1.4 0.4
Yb 2.6 2.6 2.8 1.4 2.5 6.6 2.0 6.6 3.0 8.1 2.8
Lu 0.42 0.41 0.45 0.2 0.4 0.98 0.32 0.95 0.5 1.2 0.4
Y 28.1 29.2 32.7 14.8 27.5 80.7 24.5 76.4 37.0 94.4 23.2
LREE 301.6 243.0 275.2 223.8 242.7 403.0 252.2 328.8 227.4 343.8 46.5
HREE 16.7 18.1 20.1 10.9 17.5 48.8 14.3 49.5 21.0 54.9 13.4
Total REE 318.3 261.1 295.3 234.7 260.2 451.8 266.5 378.2 248.4 398.7 59.9
REE+Y 346.4 290.3 328.0 249.5 287.7 532.5 291.0 454.6 285.4 493.1 83.1
Ce/REE 0.46 0.41 0.44 0.49 0.51 0.37 0.48 0.26 0.46 0.37 0.43
(La/Yb)N 32.2 25.2 25.6 39.1 19.9 16.7 29.0 15.7 12.4 7.8 2.1
Ce/La 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.6 1.5 2.2 0.94 2.2 1.7 3.0
Eu/Sm 0.19 0.16 0.19 0.14 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.06

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Table 5.2 Concentration of major elements, trace elements, REE and Y of parent rocks and
weathered crust from granitic rocks at Palu area

SAMPLE PL-13 PL-14 PL-15B3 PL-15C1 PL-17 PL-19A PL-21B PL-15B2 PL-15B PL-15A Parent Rock
Major element (wt%) Hor-C Hor-B Hor-A Parent rock
SiO2 57.9 56.8 52.9 63.6 65.0 67.8 65.5 65.2 53.3 55.5 66.1
TiO2 0.67 0.54 0.86 0.59 0.69 0.56 0.74 0.67 1.6 0.74 0.49
Al2O3 14.3 15.7 19.3 15.3 14.6 14.3 13.3 14.2 23.0 20.0 14.3
FeOt 4.0 6.9 7.5 4.8 4.8 3.2 4.1 4.1 9.5 6.2 3.6
MnO 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.1 0.03 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.05
MgO 2.8 1.7 3.0 2.5 2.7 1.6 3.4 3.2 2.5 2.8 2.7
CaO 2.8 1.6 0.67 0.99 3.7 0.11 3.5 4.0 0.25 0.47 3.2
Na2O 1.8 2.2 0.4 0.73 2.1 1.5 3.1 2.5 0.23 0.34 3.4
K 2O 4.7 3.5 2.7 2.2 4.0 4.3 4.4 3.5 1.0 2.2 4.0
P2O5 0.34 0.21 0.16 0.08 0.23 0.11 0.41 0.30 0.11 0.09 0.27
H2O 3.2 8.6 6.7 7.9 1.8 3.3 1.1 2.2 8.2 9.5 1.1
Total 92.6 97.7 94.2 98.8 99.7 96.8 99.6 99.9 99.9 98.0 99.1
Trace element (ppm)
Co 11.2 8.3 10.3 13 12.1 7.8 13.7 12.7 21.2 13.4 10.7
Cr 80 69.3 120 80 60 60 110 90.0 20.0 90.0 80.0
Cs 11.5 10.8 3.45 3.77 5.16 6.51 1.96 18.85 8.94 4.06 5.26
Ga 19.4 22.0 18.3 16.3 20.8 17.6 18 20.1 24.3 19.8 18.9
Hf 5.8 4.7 5 4 4.5 5.6 3.8 5.5 6.8 4.2 6.5
Mo <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2
Nb 18.6 17.4 9.5 8.4 14.3 16.8 11.4 22.5 10.9 8.4 16.1
Rb 280 278.3 99.1 96.2 182.5 207 153 250.0 58.1 103.5 186.0
Sn 5 4.0 2 1 3 3 2 6.0 2.0 1.0 4.0
Sr 587 468.2 157 127.5 435 228 758 515.0 29.8 73.1 747.0
Ta 1.8 1.9 0.7 0.5 1.1 1 0.6 2.3 0.70 0.60 1.7
Th 29.6 34.5 12.8 9.8 24.5 20.1 9 50.6 4.6 11.1 35.3
Tl 1.4 2.7 <0.5 <0.5 0.8 1 0.7 1.2 <0.5 <0.5 1.1
U 14.5 18.6 2.6 1.8 4.5 4.9 2.3 11.5 1.1 1.9 10.3
V 124 102.3 166 126 106 83 105 97.0 166.0 152.0 88.0
W 2.0 2.0 10.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0
Zr 219 186.5 176 153 144 234 146 186.0 279.0 160.0 213.0
La 61.6 55.7 32.1 27.9 48.8 40.3 45.8 80.0 28.2 23.8 43.6
Ce 114.5 106.3 69.4 58.2 90.3 75.3 93.4 145.5 61.3 53.5 89.2
Pr 12.0 9.3 7.9 6.31 9.47 8.02 10.85 14.8 9.2 6.0 9.8
Nd 41.3 38.9 28.9 24.4 33.7 28.3 40.9 51.1 43.0 22.6 26.8
Sm 6.6 6.7 6.22 4.76 5.69 4.98 7.45 7.8 10.6 4.6 5.1
Eu 1.3 1.2 1.33 0.96 1.17 0.99 1.57 1.4 2.8 0.8 1.2
Gd 3.3 4.2 5.19 4.16 3.22 2.95 4.64 3.5 9.9 3.5 3.2
Tb 0.64 0.66 0.89 0.78 0.60 0.56 0.8 0.67 1.58 0.60 0.53
Dy 3.65 3.85 5.31 5.1 3.42 3.42 4.92 4.11 10.15 3.54 2.74
Ho 0.68 0.58 1.03 1.09 0.68 0.69 0.94 0.75 2.0 0.69 0.53
Er 1.89 1.8 2.9 3.25 2 2.09 2.72 2.1 6.0 2.0 1.4
Tm 0.27 0.22 0.48 0.46 0.28 0.29 0.36 0.30 0.82 0.31 0.25
Yb 1.83 2.0 2.8 2.81 1.68 2.04 2.3 1.9 5.1 1.9 1.5
Lu 0.27 0.36 0.46 0.45 0.28 0.33 0.34 0.30 0.80 0.31 0.24
Y 20 19.8 27.2 29 19.7 20.1 26.8 23.0 57.8 20.4 18.3
LREE 237.3 218.1 145.9 122.5 189.1 157.9 200.0 300.6 155.1 111.3 175.7
HREE 12.5 13.6 19.1 18.1 12.2 12.4 17.0 13.7 36.4 12.8 10.3
E REE 249.8 231.7 164.9 140.6 201.3 170.3 217.0 314.3 191.5 124.1 186.0
REE+Y 269.8 251.5 192.1 169.6 221.0 190.4 243.8 337.3 249.3 144.5 204.3
Ce/REE 0.46 0.46 0.42 0.41 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.46 0.32 0.43 0.48
La/Yb 33.7 28.4 11.5 9.9 29.0 19.8 19.9 30.0 4.0 8.8 7.1
Ce/La 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.0 1.8 2.2 2.2 2.0
Eu/Sm 0.20 0.18 0.21 0.20 0.21 0.20 0.21 0.17 0.26 0.18 0.22

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5.6. Discussion

5.6.1 Distribution of REE in the weathering profile

(La/Yb)N and Eu/Sm decreased toward the upper part of the Mamasa profile whereas

Ce/total REE is relatively constant and Ce/La shows insignificant changes vertically. The

LREE and HREE increased from the parent rock to horizon B but decreased significantly to

horizon A, suggesting that there was prominent enrichment of REE in horizon B of the

Mamasa profile. This reinforces the suggestion that LREE and HREE have been mobilized,

removed from the parent rocks, and concentrated in horizon B.

The weathered profile at Palu also shows a vertical variation in which total LREE

increased from the parent rocks to horizon C but decreased toward horizon B and finally

increased in horizon A. The LREE are enriched in horizon C from the parent rocks but

drastically depleted toward horizon B and A (Table 5.2). This suggests that a prominent

enrichment of LREE occurred in horizon C. It is interesting to note that the HREE are

significantly increased in B profile (Fig. 5.6), indicating that the HREE are enriched toward

horizon B but significantly decreased in horizon A.

Ce/La, Ce/total REE and Eu/Sm are steadily constant toward the upper part of the

profile but the values are relatively higher than those of the Mamasa profile.

Chondrite-normalized (Sun and McDonough, 1989) REE patterns (Fig. 5.7) of the

weathered crust are relatively higher to their parent rocks in both profiles. The total REE

content of the weathered crust are relatively elevated compared to the parent rocks. These

suggest that REE-bearing accessory minerals (e.g zircon, apatite and allanite) may be resistant

against weathering and may remain as a residual phase in the weathered crusts, particularly in

the lower part of horizon B in Mamasa profile and in horizon C in Palu profile. The

occurrences of zircon, apatite and allanite as major REE-bearing accessory minerals have

116
been reported in the parent rocks in both areas (Maulana et al., 2011). The relatively similar

Zr concentration between the parent rocks and the weathered crust also support this idea. It is

interesting to note that horizon B in the Palu profile shows relatively higher HREE content

compared to other horizons. The enrichment of HREE is concordant with the high Zr content

indicating the role of zircon. Alternatively, the higher content of HREE in this horizon may be

due to the abundance of clay minerals (e.g. kaolinite and halloysite). However, the

relationship between clay minerals and HREE enrichment should be verified by extraction

test in order to determine the ion adsorption process.

Both weathered and fresh granitic rocks from the study area show significant

negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*< 1), indicating plagioclase fractionation during magmatism.

These anomalies appear to be inherited from their parent rocks.

5.6.2 Mass transfer during weathering process

In order to evaluate mass transfer during the weathering process in the granitic rocks

in both regions, we applied isocon method calculation as suggested by Grant (1986). The

normalization solution method was taken from Guo et al. (2009) and the results are expressed

in the isocon diagram (Fig. 5.8). The scaling used in these diagrams are the same as those

employed by Grant (1986) and Guo et al. (2009) with some modification particularly for

REE.

In the normalized isocon diagram, the mass changes of any components in each

horizon within the weathering profile can be evaluated by reading the corresponding data

points. The isocon diagram for Mamasa profile shows that from horizon B to horizon A Al2O3,

FeOt, MgO, K2O and SiO2 were gained, whereas CaO and Na2O were relatively immobile

and LREE, HREE and total REE were lost. The trend of mass transfer shows a trend of initial

gain of LREE, HREE and total REE in horizon B which was followed by a progressive loss in

117
trend toward horizon A. The isocon for Palu profile shows a slightly different trend. For

example, from horizon C to horizon A, LOI, FeOT and Al2O3 were gained, whereas other

oxides, LREE, HREE and total REE were lost. K2O, CaO, Na2O, LREE and total REE

underwent an initial gain in horizon C but then progressively lost toward the upper part of the

profile. Meanwhile, after having been gained in the horizon B from the parent rock, HREE

were progressively lost to horizon A.

5.6.3 Ce anomaly

During chemical weathering, cerium (Ce) tends to behave differently from other REE

(Henderson, 1984; Bao and Zhang, 2008). Cerium in an oxidizing environment occurs as Ce4+,

highly insoluble as CeO2 whereas the other REE maintain in their 3+ ionic states and are

leached by circulating water (Marsh, 1991). Positive anomaly of Ce (Ce/Ce*) occur in the

horizon A in the weathering profile of granitic rocks (e.g. south China and Laos) (Bao and

Zhao, 2006).

A Ce anomaly of the samples in Mamasa and Palu profiles ranges from 1.6 to 5.7,

except that from the horizon B in Mamasa profile (Ce/Ce* = 6). The weathered crusts from

the horizon A in Mamasa profile have positive Ce anomaly whereas horizon B shows a

negative anomaly (Fig. 5.8). The positive anomaly of Ce in the weathered crust suggests that

Ce is fixed as Ce (IV) due to oxidation in the aqueous phase after being dissolved initially as

Ce (III). The positive Ce anomaly in horizon A in the Mamasa profile indicated that Ce was

rapidly precipitated during weathering and retained at the upper soil horizon. This suggests

that there is redox-controlled processes, leading to CeO2 precipitation which seem to have

occurred in horizon A in the Mamasa profile but absent in any horizon in the Palu profile.

118
Fig. 5.6 Variation in major element oxides, trace element and REE in Mamasa and Palu
weathering profile.

119
Fig. 5.7 Chondrite normalized rare earth element patterns of parent rocks and weathered
granitic rocks from Mamasa and Palu.

Fig. 5.8 Normalized isocon diagrams for the weathering profile in the granitic rocks from
Mamasa and Palu regions using the normalization solution. The thick line indicates the
unified isocon defined by TiO2 and the number before the oxide and REE symbol represent
the scaling coefficients.

5.7 Conclusions

The weathered crusts in Palu are relatively thicker and well-developed compare to

that of Mamasa region. In both areas, the enrichment of REE mainly occurred in horizon B

120
(Mamasa) and C (Palu). XRD results show that the weathered crust from Mamasa and Palu

granitic rocks composed mainly of quartz, kaolinite, montmorillonite and halloysite whereas

in the weather front (Horizon C) albite was found.

The mass transfer illustration using isocon diagram shows a different transfer trend

from Mamasa and Palu weathering profiles.

The positive Ce anomaly in horizon A indicates that Ce is rapidly precipitated during

weathering and retained at the upper soil horizon suggesting a redox-controlled process has

occurred, leading to CeO2 precipitation in horizon A of Mamasa profile.

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 CHAPTER VI
DISCUSSION

6.1 Tectonic discrimination of granitic rocks

The granitic rocks in Sulawesi are mainly plotted in the I-type granitic rock field as

their ASI value range from 0.61 to 1.1. An I-type character is also shown in the classification

of granitic rocks from Frost et al. (2001) (Fig. 6.1). Calc-alkaline to CAK, metaluminous and

only weakly peraluminous character, the widespread occurrence of hornblende and the

absence of muscovite in all granitic rocks also strongly suggest that these rocks were derived

from an igneous source or I-type granitic rock in the classification of Chappell and White

(1974).

Fig. 6.1 Diagram of Frost et al. (2001) showing an I-type character of granitic rocks in
Sulawesi. Symbols as in Fig. 3.3

The origin of I-type granitic rocks ranges from continental margin to oceanic island

arc (Pitcher, 1983, 1993; Barbarin, 1990, 1999). In order to determine the tectonic setting of

the granitic rocks, some discrimination diagrams using particular trace elements can be used.

One of the most common discriminations used is the tectonic discrimination of Pearce et al.

(1984) using Rb, Yb, Ta, Y and Nb contents of the granitic rocks (Fig. 6.2).

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Fig. 6.2 Tectonic discrimination of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi plotted based on
diagrams of Pearce et al. (1984). The granitic rocks have been classified as HK (blue color),
CAK (green color) and low-K to tholeiitic series (red color). The samples are mostly
clustered into the volcanic arc granitoid field. WPG: within plate granites, VAG: volcanic arc
granites, ORG: oceanic ridge granites, syn-COLG: syncollisional granites. Symbol as in Fig.
3.3

In these discrimination diagrams, the granitic rocks were clustered into their series in

order to get a better view of the element behavior in each series. Almost all plots fall into the

border line between VAG (Volcanic Arc Granite) and Syn-COLG (Syn-Collisional Granite)

fields, particularly the HK granitic rocks (blue-colored). The CAK granitic rocks

(green-colored) were also plotted within this border line whereas most of the low-K to

123
tholeiitic (red-colored) granitic rocks were only plotted in the VAG field.

(Th/Yb) versus (Ta/Yb) (Fig. 6.3a) and Yb versus (Th/Ta) discrimination diagrams

(Fig. 6.3b) show that most of the HK and CAK granitic rocks were plotted in the active

continental margin field. The spread of data from the HK and CAK granitic rocks in Fig. 6.3

probably reflect fractionation or contamination.

Fig. 6.3 a. Th/Yb vs Ta/Yb diagram for the granitic rocks in Sulawesi. Most of HK and CAK
granitic rocks are plotted in the active continental margin field. b. Yb vs Th/Ta diagram for
the granitic rocks in Sulawesi. The boundaries of active continental margin, oceanic arc and
within plate volcanic zones are from Gorton and Schandl (2000). Symbols as in Fig. 3.3 and
colour pattern as in Fig. 6.2.

6.2 Petrogenesis of the granitic rocks: Fractional crystallization and crustal

contamination

Compositional trends of the major and trace element of the studied granitic rocks

show a limited but distinct range. Except the enclave, the variation diagrams of major and

trace elements (Fig. 6.4 and 6.5) for the granitic rocks from Sulawesi show a coherent trend,

suggesting fractional crystallization exhibited by negative correlations between Al2O3, CaO,

P2O5, MgO, FeOT, MnO, TiO2 and SiO2. Meanwhile, K2O show a somewhat scattered pattern,

while Na2O are relatively constant.

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 Fractionations of apatite and ilmenite were also evidenced by the systematic decrease

of P2O5, TiO2 and total FeO with increasing SiO2, respectively. The absence of pyroxene in all

samples suggests that fractionation of hornblende was likely dominant in the magmatic

evolution. I-type and calc-alkaline granitic rocks were characterized by the fractionation of

hornblende (Hine et al., 1978; Lee, 1997). The hornblende fractionation is also shown by the

gradual decrease of Y contents with increasing SiO2. Zr contents decrease as SiO2 content

increases, which is probably due to zircon separation from the melt. Ba & Sr however did not

show any clear relationship, suggesting the absence of plagioclase and K-feldspar

fractionation. It is interesting to note, however, that the major and trace element trend of the

studied samples show clear reverse at about 59 to 60 wt % of SiO2 content (Fig. 6.4 & 6.5).

This suggests that the fractionation of hornblende, apatite, ilmenite and zircon did not take

place during the early stage of magma evolution. Fractional crystallization processes are also

clearly shown by Zr vs (Zr/Nb) discrimination diagram (Fig. 6.6). Most of the high-K

shoshonitic and high-K calc-alkaline samples are concentrated in the fractional crystallization

trend whereas low-K to tholeiitic samples are mainly plotted near the partial melting trend.

125
Fig. 6.4 Variation diagrams of major oxides with respect to SiO2 content (in wt%) for the
granitic rocks in Sulawesi Island. Symbols as in Fig. 3.3 and colour pattern as in Fig. 6.2

126
Fig. 6.5 Variation diagrams of trace elements (in ppm) with respect to SiO2 content (in wt%)
of the granitic rocks in Sulawesi Island. Symbols as in Fig. 3.3 and colour pattern as in Fig.
6.2

127
Fig. 6.6 Zr/Nb versus Zr diagram of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi. Note that most of
high-K to shoshonitic and high-K calc-alkaline samples followed fractional crystallization
trend whereas most of low-K to tholeiitic samples were mainly concentrated around partial
melting trend.

However, the distinct range of composition of trace element and differences in

regional variation of isotope ratio of the granitic rocks in Sulawesi cannot be simply explained

by crystal fractionation processes alone. For example, whilst the major and most trace

elements of the granitic rocks show a coherent trend, some of the elements (e.g. U, Th and Sr

contents) of the high-K or shoshonitic samples are relatively higher than the other units. The

granitic rocks also display a wide range of Sr-Nd(t) isotopes, SiO2-Nd and SiO2-Sr isotopes

(Fig. 3.8), different fO2 and magnetic susceptibility which suggest that they are not derived

from one source and that crustal contamination was possibly involved in magma genesis.

Based on trace element and isotopic studies in some previous works, it has been

128
considered that crustal contamination is one of the main petrogenetic processes responsible

for variation of granitic composition (e.g. Hildreth and Moorbarth, 1988; Leake, 1990; De

Paolo, 1991). Moreover, many studies revealed that source rock composition is important (e.g.

Flood and Shaw, 1975; White and Chappell, 1977; Clemens and Wall, 1981). In addition,

restite, magma mixing or wall-rock assimilation and hydrothermal alteration may potentially

explain the compositional variation (Yang et al., 2004).

Despite their obvious crystal fractionation trends, the isotopic ratios of the granitic

rocks strongly suggest contribution from crustal derived material. In fact, the extremely

higher 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratio of the granitic rocks from sample MA-45B only can be best

explained by crustal contamination. De Paolo (1981) argued that a negative correlation plot of
143
Nd/144Nd against 87Sr/86Sr is best interpreted as mixing of largely crustal-derived material

with varying amounts of melted-crust. This is also supported by the trace and rare earth

element spider diagrams (see Fig. 3.6 & 3.7) which display a typical pattern of upper

continental crust suggested by Rudnick and Gao (2003). The low content of HFS element

such as Nb and Ta indicates the continental crust signature and hence confirms the crustal

contamination process (Fig. 6.7).

The high Sr isotope ratios of the rocks from some high-K shoshonitic series and

high-K calc-alkaline (CAK) series (ranging from 0.7106 to 0.7205) are consistent with

previously reported Sr and Nd isotopic data for Miocene plutonic rock from Masamba area in

the (Bergman et al., 1996) and granodiorite and syenite from Polewali (Elburg and Foden,

1999a). Such isotopic features suggest contribution of crustal material, particularly an upper

crustal component. The whole-rock δ8O values from the granitic rocks, particularly from the

Mamasa Pluton (MA-45B) and Parigi Pluton (PA-28ENC) are relatively high (more than +10

permil), suggesting the significant involvement of high δ8O metasedimentary rocks in the

melting process.

129
 The crustal contamination is also supported by the magnetic susceptibility

measurements. Takahashi et al. (1980) reported that magnetite- and ilmenite- series granitic

rocks in Japan are comparable to I- and S- type granitic rocks, respectively. The close

relationships of these classifications were also reported from other areas such as the Sierra

Nevada Batholith (Ishihara, 1998). The low Alumina Saturation Index (< 1.1.) of most

samples allows them to be classified as I-type granitic rocks and hence grouped into

metaluminous group. At the same time, the magnetic susceptibility value showed two

contrasting groups, in which the granitic rocks from the southern and CW part of the Western

Sulawesi Province belong to ilmenite-series granitic rocks (reduced I-type granitic rocks)

whereas those from the NW part of the province (Sony and Lalos-Toli) and the granitic rocks

from the Gorontalo Pluton in the Northern Sulawesi Province belong to magnetite-series

(normal I-type granitic rocks). Finally, the oxygen fugacity values of the granitic rocks in the

Western Sulawesi Province, particularly the Mamasa, Masamba, and Lalos-Toli Pluton, show

that the granitic rocks are strongly contaminated and and can be classified as reduced-I type

granitic rocks.

The occurrence of the ilmenite-series with I-type (reduced I-type) granitic rocks in

the S and CW of the West Sulawesi Province may be explained by the model that proposed by

Ishihara (1998). It is reported that the sedimentary layers from the continent contain abundant

carbon as a reducing agent. Interaction between magma and this reducing agent eventually

reduced the magma and hence produced I-type granitic rocks with ilmenite-series character or

what is so-called reduced I-type. It is very likely that the magma that formed reduced I-type in

south and CW part of the Western Sulawesi Province may have been modified while

ascending to the surface through the continental crust by assimilation processes with crustal

material that contained various quantities of reducing C- and S-bearing sediments.

The reduced I-type granitic rocks in the CW and NW of the Western Sulawesi

130
Province intruded the tertiary metasedimentary sequences which are widespread in the

Western Sulawesi Province known as Celebes Molasse (van Leeuwen et al., 2007).

The Sony Pluton in the NW of the Western Sulawesi Province and the Gorontalo

Pluton in the Northern Sulawesi Province exhibit lower redox condition than other plutons

which may reflect their different petrogenesis as is also shown in their distinctive

geochemistry. The granitic rock of the Gorontalo Pluton which shows low-K to tholeiitic

series (GR-1) showed much lower 87Sr/86Sr (0.7049) but high 143
Nd/144Nd (0.513026) values.

The low content of K, Rb, Ba and Sr of the samples show that the crustal contamination is

less significant. Hence, it is suggested that the Sony and Gorontalo Pluton might have been

derived in part from partial melting of amphibolite rocks within the crust and then the magma

may have experienced extensive fractionation with low crustal contamination. The low crustal

contamination is also supported by the magnetic susceptibility measurement that shows that

the granitic rocks belong to magnetite-series granitic rocks (normal I-type).

6.3 Nature of possible source materials

6.3.1 High-K and CAK samples

Previous workers (e.g. Wang et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2011) have proposed that

high-K or shosonitic intrusives rocks were originated from a metasomatized subcontinental

lithosphere mantle source in an extensional setting. However, the relatively high Sr isotope
206
ratio (0.7205) with relatively low 143
Nd/144Nd (0.5121) and very high Pb/204Pb (19.0138)

isotopic ratios and high oxygen isotope value of the high-K or shoshonitic samples (e.g.

MA-45B) and high-K calc-alkaline samples ruled out the mantle-origin idea and more likely

accommodated the crustal source signature. Furthermore, the high-K or shoshonitic and

high-K calc-alkaline samples show low HFS (Nb and Ta) (Fig. 6.7) and rare earth element

composition with high Th and U content (> 20 ppm and 4 ppm, respectively) similar to those

131
described by Bitencourt and Nardi (2004) from Itapema, Brazil which originated from

melting of lower crust. Based on these facts, I therefore propose that the source of these

granitic series could be derived from partial melting of lower crustal sources with arc-type

chemical signature. Melting likely occurred due to crustal thickening and underplating of

basaltic magmas. Large-scale interaction between the hot, ascending mafic magma and

overlying crust latter provide the significant contribution of crust to the final liquid. The

magma then went through crystal fractionation of hornblende, biotite and accessory minerals

such as apatite and oxides, and underwent crustal contamination on their ascent to the surface.

The best source candidate for their ancient crustal signature in high-K to shoshonitic and

high-K calc-alkaline series is the Malino Metamorphic Complex (MMC) in the northern part

of this unit. The MMC consists of metamorphic rocks ranging from gneiss to

epidote-amphibolite and dated as Devonian – Early Carboniferous (van Leeuwen et al., 2007).

The isotopic values of this complex show a similar range with most of high-K calc-alkaline

(CAK) series. Van Leeuwen et al. (2007) reported that this complex was derived from the

New Guinea- Australian margin of Gondwana. Isotopic compositions of the high-K

calc-alkaline (CAK) series are comparable with this potential contaminant (Vroon et al.,

1996; Elburg et al., 2002a). Vroon et al. (1996) reported the low 143Nd/144Nd ratio (≈0.51190 to
206
0.51200) and high Pb/204Pb ratio (up to 19.57) for the basement rocks of the northern

Australia mainland and low 206Pb/204Pb ratio (≈18.6 to 19.0) and high 143Nd/144Nd (≈0.51218 to

0.51225) ratio for Paleozoic/Mesozoic complexes of New Guinea.

6.3.2 Low-K to tholeiitic samples

The low -K to tholeiitic samples are found in Mamasa and Masamba plutons are

characterized by a LREE- depleted pattern and relatively flat REE (Fig. 3.6 & 3.7). These

geochemical characters are similar to the Lamasi Complex, an ophiolite sequence found to the

132
east of Mamasa and Masamba pluton (Bergman et al., 1996) which is identical to ocean floor

basalts and tholeiitic subduction-related and back-arc basalt. This suggests the extension of

the Lamasi Complex to the western part of the island as suggested by Silver et al. (1983).

The relatively primitive isotopic signature (Nd isotope ratio = 0.513026 and Sr

isotope ratio = 0.704963) of the granitic rocks of the low-K to tholeiitic series from the

Gorontalo Pluton share a similarity with that of Pacific-domain rock assemblages, such as the

basement of the Celebes Sea, Mariana Trench sediments, volcanic rocks from Britain volcanic

arc and Solomon sediments. It is interesting to note that the geochemical character of this

sample shows a similarity to the Tanzawa plutonic rocks of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc as

reported by Kawate and Arima (1998). For example, the Tanzawa plutonic rocks are

characterized by low abundance of K2O, LIL elements, and rare earth elements (Kawate and

Arima, 1998). The plutonic rocks were interpreted to be derived from the parental magma

generated by partial melting of amphibolite of the lower crust. Nakajima and Arima (1998)

showed experimentally that tonalitic rocks, which have metaluminous to peraluminous low-K

tholeiitic affinity, could be produced from partial melting of lower crust material

(amphibolite). The granitic rocks from the low-K to tholeiitic series were characterized by

low-K tholeiitic, metaluminous, low abundance of REE and LILE and dominated by tonalitic

rocks which are similar to the Tanzawa Plutonic rocks. Based on these, we suggest that the

granitic rocks from the Gorontalo Pluton were originated from amphibolite in the lower to

mid crust which partially melted and mixed with a crustal source producing low Sr and high

Nd isotopic values. This is also consisten with the oxygen fugacity constrain which show that

the Gorontalo Pluton might have been derived from partial melting of lower crust rocks (i.e.

amphibolite or quartzofeldspathic rocks). The whole-rock oxygen isotope value of the

Gorontalo Pluton also show a normal value (+8.6 permil), suggesting partial melting of deep

seated rocks of the lower crust or direct differentiation from basaltic or andesitic magma.

133
Fig. 6.7 Nb versus Nb/Ta diagram of the granitic rocks in Sulawesi. Chondritic, average
MORB and average continental crust (Schmidt et al., 2004) and average GLOSS (Plank and
Langmuir, 1998). Most of the samples are concentrated near average continental crust field
and average GLOSS.

6.4 Geodynamic Setting: Spatial and temporal contrasting granitic series

One of the most enigmatic features from the igneous rocks series in Sulawesi is a

series of igneous suites which are spatially and temporally contrast to each other (Polve et al.,

1997; Elburg et al., 2003). They reported there was a global increase in geochemical

characteristic from low-K to shoshonitic series temporally.

The spatial and temporal contrasting features of the granitic rocks are also shown by

the granitic rocks in this study. The Barru Pluton, which is located in the southern arm of the

Western Sulawesi Province, show a HK or shoshonitic series consistent with the geochemical

data of syenite in Biru area reported by Elburg et al. (2002a). Age reported for this rock

ranges from 10.8 to 8.4 Ma (Elburg et al., 2002a). In the CW of the province, all Polewali

samples and most of Mamasa and Masamba samples show HK series. However, two samples

134
from Mamasa (MA-45 and MA-41BA) and three samples from Masamba (MST-3B, MRF-4B

and MST-3A) show low-K to tholeiitic affinity.

Newly obtained Ar-Ar dating ages show that the Mamasa Pluton was cooled down to

677°C around 9.5±0.3 Ma. This is comparable to the age of the Polewali and Mamasa

Pluton which range from 9.8 to 5.6 Ma as reported by Elburg et al. (2003) whereas the

Latuppa Pluton shows older ages (12.5 to 6 Ma).

The CW part of the Western Sulawesi Provinces (Parigi, West Palu, Emu-Lab and

some of Masamba samples) are dominated by high-K calc-alkaline (CAK) series. The Ar-Ar

dating suggests an age of 3.1±1 Ma from the monzogranite at Parigi Pluton, indicating a much

younger post-magmatic cooling age from the high-K or shoshonitic sample.

Interestingly, the NW part of the province (Sony and Lalos-Toli Pluton) shows the

combination between high-K calc-alkaline (CAK) and shoshonitic series. All Sony samples

and two samples from Lalos-Toli show high-K or shoshonitic series. The occurrence of the

HK or shoshonitic series in the NW part of the West Sulawesi Province is not common. Van

Leeuwen et al. (1994) reported analytical data from the Dondo Batholith which include Sony

Pluton and showed that they are high-K calc-alkaline (CAK) series. They also reported that

the granitic rocks belong to the magnetite-series based on Fe ratio and limited magnetite

susceptibility measurements but have a Fe/Cl ratio > 3 and contain reddish brown coloured

biotite in thin section, features that suggest more typical of ilmenite-series granitic rocks as

proposed by Ishihara (1994). However, biotite from sample SO-25 (see Fig. 3.1e) shows a

greenish brown color which suggest that this mineral is rich in Mg and Fe3+ but poor in Fe2+.

In addition, the high value of magnetic susceptibility measurements from this pluton further

suggests a magnetite-series granitic rock. This characteristic shows a typical of

magnetite-series granitic rocks according to Ishihara. Based on these, we proposed that Sony

Pluton may be a relatively small body within the Super Dondo Batholith which is a large

135
high-K calc-alkaline (CAK) series as reported by previous workers. Age data reported from

this batholith is concentrated at 3.4. Ma (van Leeuwen et al., 1994). However, Ar-Ar dating in

this study suggests a quite older age (8.29±0.19 Ma) for the pluton in Lalos-Toli.

These features show that the granitic emplacement seems to have continuously taken

place from the Middle Miocene to Pliocene in the southern part to the NW part of the Western

Sulawesi Province. It is also shown that the potassium content tend to decrease trough time.

The high-K or shoshonitic series show older age (11 – 5.6 Ma) relative to high-K calc-alkaline

(CAK) series samples (8.29 to 3.5 Ma).

It is also suggested by this study that the geochemical characteristic also changes

spatially. The southern and CW parts of the Western Sulawesi Province are occupied by

high-K or shoshonitic series (e.g. Barru Pluton, Polewali, Mamasa and Masamba) and

gradually change into high-K calc-alkaline (West Palu, Parigi, Emu-Lab, Sony and Lalos-Toli

Plutons) whereas the Gorontalo Pluton which is located in the central portion of the Northern

Sulawesi Province shows low-K to tholeiitic series.

The temporal and spatial geochemical transition of the granitic series in Sulawesi

suggests corresponding change in tectonic environment. The generation of the high-K or

shoshonitic series in the southern and CW part to the more dominant high-K calc-alkaline

series in the central and NW part of the Western Sulawesi Province is genetically linked to the

geodynamic evolution of the southern margin of Sundaland from collision to convergent

subduction during the Late Cenozoic. The isotopic similarity with the North Australian

segment indicates the collision between Australian-derived microcontinent and eastern part of

Sundaland was responsible for granitic magmatism, particularly for the high-K or shoshonitic

series samples.

Meanwhile, the granitic rocks in the geodynamic setting of the Gorontalo Pluton are

still continuously debated. Hall (2011) and Sevastjanova et al. (2011) has suggested that the

136
granitic rocks in the Northern Sulawesi Province were also related with the Early Miocene

collisional event involving Australian-derived microcontinent. However, this study has

indicated that the granitic rocks in the Gorontalo Pluton show a different geochemical

characteristic, suggesting a different tectonic setting. While the granitic rocks from the

Western Sulawesi Province show high potassium, some syn-collisional geochemical signature

and high isotopic values, the granitic rocks from the Gorontalo Pluton are low-K to tholeeitic,

low Sr and Nd isotope values and show typical of VAG. Their low-K to tholeiitic

characteristic is more akin to the development of arc produced by the southward subduction

of the Celebes Sea. Their magnetic susceptibility values further suggests the difference source

between this pluton and others.

The geochemical similarity of some low-K to tholeiitic samples in Masamba and

Mamasa with the Lamasi Complex suggest that they might be derived from the melting of this

segment.

6.5 Regional Metallogeny Province

The different partitioning of Fe among silicates and oxides in granitic rocks is

controlled by oxygen fugacity or f(O2) and explain the ilmenite- and magnetite-series

(Ishihara, 1977). In addition, f(O2) also plays an important role in ore mineralization process

within granitic rocks since it controls redox state of magma (Blevin and Chappel, 1995).

The reduced-I type (ilmenite-series) granitic rocks in Sulawesi which are located in

the CW of the Western Sulawesi Province are associated generally with Au and base metal

(Pb-Zn-Cu) mineralization in Sassak, north of Toraja district (Taylor and van Leeuwen, 1980),

Mangakaluku, Latuppa, and south Palopo. Recently, preliminary study on the occurrence of

Au-Cu mineralization was reported from granodiorite stock in Mallawa area south Sulawesi

(Erasmus, 2011). It is interesting to note that potential Sn and W occurrence associated with

137
this reduce I-type and ilmenite-series granitic rocks in Sulawesi have not been reported yet.

This is in contrast with the occurrence of Sn and W mineralization which associated with

ilmenite-series granitic rocks in Sumatera and Tin Island as reported by some previous

workers (e.g. Gasaparon and Varne, 1995). The absence of the Sn and W in the ilmenite-series

mineralization could be explained by the oxidation state of the magma. Lang and Baker

(2001) reported the low oxygen fugacity values of the Sn-W related granitic rocks. The

reduced-I type and ilmenite-series granitic rocks in the Western Sulawesi Province show a

relatively high oxygen fugacity. In addition, Blevin (2006) showed that the Sn-W mineralized

granitic rocks contain low FeO and Rb/Sr content as shown in Fig. 6.8. The reduced I-type

(ilmenite-series) and normal- I type magnetite-series granitic magmas in Sulawesi Island

contain relatively high FeO and Rb/Sr content and were mainly plotted in the increasing

oxidation trend which corresponds to Cu-Mo related magma. Alternatively, the absence of

Sn-W mineralization is due the low Al content of biotite. Uchida et al. (2007; 2012) reported

Sn and W mineralization in Japan and Korea are associated with the reduced granitic rocks

which contain high total Al content of biotite.

The normal- I type, magnetite-series granitic rocks which are distributed mainly in

the Northern Sulawesi Province (but also in the NW part of the Western Sulawesi Province;

i.e. Sony Pluton), are associated with various deposit types, including porphyry Cu-Au

mineralization associated with tourmaline in Bulagidun (Lubis et al., 1994), porphyry Cu-Au

and epithermal Cu-Au-Ag mineralization in Tumbalalito (Perello, 1994), high sulfidation

mineralization in Motomboto (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994) and fracture disseminated Au

mineralization at Gunung Pani (Kavalieris et al., 1992). In addition, the granitic rocks are also

related with porphyry Mo mineralization in Malala (van Leeuween, 1994). The close relation

between the granitic rocks in these areas and the porphyry Cu-Au is shown in the oxygen

fugacity and temperature diagram (Fig. 4.7). In this figure, granitic rocks from the Sony

138
Pluton were plotted in the field of Mo deposit whereas the granitic rocks from the Gorontalo

Pluton were plotted close to the field of porphyry Cu-Au deposit. The close relation with the

Cu-Mo mineralization of the normal I-type magnetite-series granitic rocks in this island is

also shown in Fig. 6.8.

Distribution of metallogenic provinces which are associated with granitic rocks in

Sulawesi is shown in Fig. 6.9.

Fig. 6.8 Diagram of Fe2O3/FeO vs. Rb/Sr (Blevin, 2006) showing the igneous metallogenesis
correspond to magma properties

139
Fig. 6.9 Proposed metallogenic province associated with a granitic rock map in Sulawesi.

6.6 Conclusion

1. Geochemical data show that the petrogenesis of the granitic rocks was controlled not

only by fractional crystallization processes but also by crustal contamination,

particularly for the HK and CAK granitic rocks in the Western Sulawesi Province.

2. Radiogenic isotopic data suggests that the HK and CAK granitic rocks were derived

from partial melting of lower crustal sources with an arc signature. Low-K to tholeiitic

140
 series in the granitic rocks from Gorontalo Pluton originated from amphibolite in the

lower to mid crust which partially melted and mixed with a crustal source producing

low Sr and high Nd isotopic values.

3. Geochemical and geochronological data suggest that the granitic rock occurrences were

linked to the geodynamic setting of collision to subduction of the plate particularly in

the Western Sulawesi Province. The low-K to tholeiitic granitic rocks in Masamba and

Mamasa pluton share a similarity with the Lamasi Complex. The subduction of a lower

crustal segment of the Celebes Sea was responsible to form the granitic rocks in the

Northern Sulawesi Province.

4. This study shows that the granitic rocks in Sulawesi consist of reduced- I type ilmenite-

and normal I-type magnetite-series and show a space-dependant distribution. The

granitic rocks in the Northen Sulawesi Province belong to normal- I type

magnetite-series whereas those in the southern and CW part of the Western Sulawesi

Province generally belong to reduced- I type ilmenite-series. These two magmatic series

are considered to represents different redox condition, source rock composition, country

rocks and petrogenesis.

5. Both reduced- I type ilmenite- and normal-I type magnetite-series granitic rocks in

Sulawesi are associated with ore mineralization (e.g. Cu, Au, Ag, sulfide, base metal,

and Mo). The normal-I type magnetite-series rocks distributed in the Northern Sulawesi

Province show more intense ore mineralization than the reduced-I type ilmenite-series

rocks in the Western Sulawesi Province. The absence of Sn-W mineralization in the

reduced-I type ilmenite-series is due to the high oxygen fugacity or low total Al content

in biotite which correspond to shallow solidification depth. It is suggested from this

study that redox condition play an important role in regional metallogeny systems in

Sulawesi.

141
 CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSIONS

This dissertation is aimed to study the petrogenesis, nature and origin and

geodynamic significance of the Late Cenozoic granitic rocks in Sulawesi, Indonesia and their

implication to the regional metallogeny.

This study has identified the granitic rocks from 11 areas in Sulawesi according to

their petrographical and geochemical (including their radiogenic and stabe isotope)

characteristic and provided the new mineral chemistry data to put constraints on the

geothermobarometric conditions at which the granitic rocks were emplaced. This study also

classified the granitic rocks according to their magnetic susceptibility. The study has also

sought to investigate the geochemical behavior of REE in the weathered crust from Mamasa

and Palu regions.

The granitic rocks range from granite through diorite and tonalite and were classified

into three groups based on their geochemical characters; high-potassium (HK) or shoshonitic,

high-K calc-alkaline (CAK) and low-K calc-alkaline to tholeiitic group. They belong to I-type

granitic rocks and the metaluminous group. The geochemical series pattern of the granitic

rocks seems to be consistent with the regional geochemical igneous rocks pattern in the island.

The HK are concentrated in the south and CW of the Western Sulawesi Province whereas the

CAK are more confined to the CW to the NW part of the province. The low-K to tholeiitic

series granitic rocks were found in the central part of the Northern Province. Some of the

plutons in the CW and NW part of the Western Sulawesi Province show a composite pattern

(combination of HK, CAK and low-K to tholeiitic), suggesting that multiple granitic

magmatism occurred in these areas. Most of HK granitic rocks belong to an active continental

margin setting (syn-collision) whereas the CAK and the low-K to tholeiitic are classified as

142
subduction related.

Based on magnetic susceptibility, the granitic rocks in Sulawesi can be classified as

ilmenite- and magnetite-series and show a space-dependant distribution. The granitic rocks in

the northern part of the island (Northern Sulawesi Province and NW part of Western Sulawesi

Province) belong to magnetite-series whereas those in the CW and southern part of the

Western Sulawesi Province generally belong to ilmenite-series.

The new Ar-Ar age dating data show that the HK granitic rocks in the Mamasa

Pluton were cooled at 9.5 Ma, whereas younger post-magmatic cooling age of 8.2 Ma and

3.12 Ma were recorded from CAK granitic rocks in Lalos-Toli Pluton and Parigi Pluton,

respectively.

Geothermobarometry calculation indicate that the granitic rocks from the Mamasa

and Masamba Pluton located in CW of Western Sulawesi Province were crystallized at

temperatures of 677 – 774°C and pressures of 0.91 to 2.3 kbar and crystallization depth of 3.7

to 9.1 km and estimated exhumation rate at 0.39 and 1.68 mm/year respectively, whereas the

Lalos-Toli and Sony Plutons located in NW of Western Sulawesi Province were crystallized

at temperature of 601 – 736°C and the pressure varies from 2.6 to 3.6 km which equals to

11.3 - 11.6 km crystallization depth with an estimated exhumation rate of 1.69 and 2.69

mm/year respectively. The granitic rocks in the Gorontalo Pluton located in the Northern

Sulawesi Province were emplaced at temperature of 662 – 668°C with a pressure range from

2.6 to 2.7 kbar, equivalent to 9.4 km depth and exhumed at a rate of 0.51 mm/year.

The oxygen fugacity calculation showed that the Mamasa, Masamba and Lalos-Toli

Pluton are classified as reduced- and contaminated- I type features consistent with their

magnetic susceptibility values, whereas the Sony and Gorontalo Pluton show a normal I type

rocks. The occurrence of reduced (ilmenite-series) - I-type granitic rocks were resulted from

reduced magmas related to carbon-bearing metasedimentary rocks.

143
 The significant vertical displacement of the granitic rocks in Sulawesi was actively

controlled by the tectonic regime (e.g. fault) which corresponds to the regional tectonic event

(e.g. collision and subduction).

The petrogenesis of the granitic rocks was controlled not only by fractional

crystallization processes but also by crustal contamination, particularly for the HK and CAK

granitic rocks in the Western Sulawesi Province. Radiogenic and stable isotopic data suggests

that the HK and CAK granitic rocks were derived from partial melting of lower crustal

sources with an arc signature and significant involvement of high 18O metasedimentary rock.

Low-K to tholeiitic series in the Gorontalo Pluton originated from lower to mid crust

(amphibolite or quartzofeldsphatic in composition) which partially melted and mixed with a

crustal source producing low Sr and high Nd isotopic values.

This study has shown that the granitic rock occurrences in the Western Sulawesi

Province were linked to the geodynamic setting of collision to subduction of the

Australian-derived microcontinent with the eastern Sulawesi. The low-K to tholeiitic granitic

rocks in Masamba and Mamasa pluton share a similarity with the Lamasi Complex. The

low-K to tholeiitic series in the Gorontalo Pluton suggests an origin from subduction of the

lower crustal segment of the Celebes Sea.

Different redox conditions, source rock composition, country rocks, petrogenesis and

mineral chemistry play a key part in the genesis of mineralization in Sulawesi. This study

shows that various ore deposits, especially Cu, Au, Mo, and base metals, are associated with

both reduced- I type ilmenite- series and normal I-type magnetite-series in Sulawesi.

Geochemical study of the weathered crusts from the granitic rocks at Mamasa and

Palu regions shows that the enrichment of REE is mainly occurred in horizon B and C,

respectively. There was a different mass balance transfer trend between Mamasa and Palu

weathering profiles. The positive Ce anomaly in horizon A suggests that Ce is rapidly

144
precipitated during weathering and retain at the upper soil horizon, indicating the

redox-controlled process has occurred leading to CeO2 precipitation in horizon A of the

Mamasa profile.

This study has shown the petrochemical variation of the granitic rocks from Sulawesi,

Indonesia and put a constraint on their petrogenesis, source and origin and geodynamic

significance. The study also showed the geothermobarometry condition and the implication to

the exhumation process. The variation in magnetic susceptibility from these granitic rocks and

its implication on the regional metallogeny were also studied. In addition, a study on

geochemical behavior of the REE in the weathered crust of the granitic rocks from 2 plutons

was also reported.

The shortcoming of this study is the lack of the Ar-Ar dating and the absence of

zircon dating from all granitic rock plutons. Thermochronological data (e.g. fission-track

analyses on zircon) is also significantly needed to accurately estimate the exhumation process.

Therefore, to get comprehensive discussions on the geodynamic significance of these granitic

rocks, the information provided by this study should be supported by future works on Ar-Ar

and zircon dating from each pluton. Additional data on sulfur isotope would also be

advantageous in order to constrain the physiochemical behavior of mineralization-bearing

fluid during mineralization.

145
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