c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U.

of South Alabama 1

Vectors
Some quantities require just a number to describe them.
Volume: This is a one liter coke...
Temperature: It is 93 outside...
o

These quantities are called scalars

Relative Humidity.... With 96% humidity!
.
For other quantities a number is not enough.

Some quantities need an number and a di-

rection.
We agree on a point.
Then I walk a distance of 5 meters from
that point.
My nal location is anywhere on a circle of

These quantities are called

Examples of vector quantities:
Vectors
5 meters from the starting point.
.

Displacement (or location).

Velocity.
Acceleration.
Force.
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 2

Vectors are represented as: ~ or

A A
Graphically, a vector is drawn as a line with
an arrow head on it.
The arrowhead end is called the head.
The other end is called the tail.

Remember: the vector is described by a number and direction.

The number corresponds to the length of the vector and is called
the magnitude.
The magnitude of A~ (the length of the vector) is represented
by: A or jA~ j.
The direction of the vector corresponds to the direction that the
vector is pointing.
The direction of the vector is represented by the angle with
respect to the X axis.
Or the direction of vector A~ is represented by the unit vector:
^= .
A
~
A

j j
~
A

Vectors may be displaced (i.e. moved).

The vector is not changed if its length and direction are not
changed.
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 3

Vector Addition
Triangle Method
Two vectors may be added.
This operation is dened dierently than the addition of two scalars.

We must add the vectors in a way that adds the lengths (i.e.) the
magnitudes..

But we must also account for their directions...

Consider adding two vectors A~ and B ~.

~:
The result is the resultant vector R
~
R = A~ + B
~

At rst we dene vector addition

by graphical methods.
The rst method is the Triangle
method:

Draw vector A~ (i.e. from tail to head).

At the head of A~ , place the tail of B
~.

~.
Draw vector B
The resultant vector (R ~ ) is determined by drawing a vector from
the tail of A~ to the head of B~.
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 4

Vector Addition
Parallelogram Method
The second method is the parallelogram method.
This method gives the same result as the triangle method...

Consider adding two vectors A~ and

~.
B
The result is the resultant vector
~:
R

~
R = A~ + B
~

Draw vector A~ (i.e. from tail to head).

At the head of A~ , place the tail of B
~.

~.
Draw vector B
Make copies of A~ and B
~.

~ until its tail is touching the tail of A

Displace the copy of B ~.

Displace the copy of A~ until its tail is touching the head of the
~.
copy of B
The resultant vector R~ is drawn along the diagonal from the tails
of vectors A~ and B
~ to the heads of A
~ and B~.
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 5

Properties of addition of vectors

Two vectors may be added in any order: A~ + B ~ = B ~ + A~ , i.e.

vector addition commutes.
Three
 or more
 vectors
 may
 be grouped in any order when added:
~+ B
A ~ +C ~ = A ~ +B~ +C~ , i.e. vector addition is associative.
Any number of vectors may be added together:
~
R = A~ + B
~ +C
~ +D
~
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 6

Inverse of a Vector
Scalar Inverse
Numbers have an additive inverse or inverse:
For the number a, there exist an additive inverse: -a.
A number a added to its additive inverse -a gives the identity
(zero) as a result.
a + (-a) = 0.
Note this is how the operation of subtractionis dened. (i.e.
just remove the parenthesis in the above example).
Vector Inverse
The inverse of a vector is constructed by taking the vector and chang-
ing its direction by 180 without changing its length.
o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 7

Vector Subtraction
We use the inverse vector and vec-
tor addition to dene vector sub-
traction.
Suppose we wish to subtract B ~
from A~ to get the resultant vec-
~:
tor R
~
R = A~ ~
B

Draw vector A~ (i.e. from tail to head).

Construct the inverse of vector B~.

At the head of A~ , place the tail of (-B

~ ).

~ ).
Draw vector (-B
The resultant vector (R ~ ) is determined by drawing a vector from
the tail of A~ to the head of B~.
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 8

Or construct a parallelogram:
~
R = A~ + B
~

Draw vector A~ (i.e. from tail to head).

At the head of A~ , place the tail of B
~.
Draw vector B ~.
Make copies of A~ and B ~ . Displace the copy
~ until its tail is touching the tail of A
of B ~.
Displace the copy of A~ until its tail is touch-
ing the head of the copy of B ~.
The resultant vector R ~ is drawn along the di-
agonal from the head of vector B ~ (original)
heads of A~ (original).

This diagram may be simplied by drawing A~ and

B~ with their tails at the same point.
The resultant (R~ =A ~ B ~ ) is drawn with its tail at
the head of B~ to the head of A ~.
Note that these methods are as accurate as the
graphical tools (such as rulers and protractors) that
are used...
We need numerical methods to calculate vector ad-
dition and subtraction.
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 9

Coordinate Systems
Consider a world consisting of a plane.
We want to describe the location of points in this plane.
Coordinate Systems for that world needs:
A single point to measure all
other points from: origin.
Two dierent directions to mea-
sure along.
In our case two mutually per-
pendicular directions.
Lets call the \horizontal" di-
rection (or axis) the \X" axis, the
\vertical" direction the \Y" axis.
A rule to tell use the order that
the directions position is commu-
nicated.
In our case (X, Y).
The location of (5,3) is indi-
cated in the Figure....
This is called a Cartesian coordinate system.
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 10

Components of Vectors
~ that has
Let's consider a vector A
a magnitude of 7.0 with an angle
of 50 with respect to the X axis.
o

Lets construct vector A~ with the

vector sum of two two vectors: A~ X

and A~ .
Y

A~ is parallel to the X axis.

X

A~ is parallel to the Y axis.

Y

The vectors A~ and A~ are called

the components of the A~ .
X Y
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 11

A Cartesian coordinate system allows us to use right triangles and

therefore trigonometry.

From the Figure you can identify:

The right angle.
The hypotenuse.
Use the angle with respect to the X axis (50 ). o

Then the length of A~ is: A = A cos(50 ).

X X
o

And the length of A~ is: A = A sin(50 ).

Y Y
o

These lengths are called the components of A~ .

The directions of these lengths are called the unit vectors
of A~ .

^i means one unit along the X direction.

^j means one unit along the Y direction.

So A~ (which is parallel to the X axis) is written as: A~ = A ^i =

X X X

A cos(50 )^i. o

And A~ (which is parallel to the Y axis) is written as: A~ = A ^j =

Y Y Y

A sin(50 )^
j . o

The vector A~ = A cos(50 )^i + A sin(50 )^j .

o o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 12

Example: Components of Vectors

Back to our example of a vector
~ that has a magnitude of 7.0
A
with an angle of 50 with respect
o

to the X axis.
Find the components of this vec-
tor and write the the vector A~ in
component form.
The X component of the vector is:
Ax = 7:0 cos(50 ) = 7:0(0:6427) = 4:500
o

The Y component of this vector

is:
Ay = 7:0 sin(50 ) = 7:0(0:7660) = 5:362
o

Using the unit vectors:

~
A = 4:500^i + 5:362^j
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 13

Magnitude & Direction of a Vector from

Example:
Components
Suppose a vector is given by its components.
How do we nd the magnitude of the vector: q
Use the Pythagorean theorem: jAj = A2 + A2
~
x y

How do we nd the direction (i.e. the angle with respect to the X axis)
of the vector?
Use the tangent of the angle with respect to the X axis:  =
T an ( x )
1 yA

Note that the angle with respect to the X axis becomes tricky if the
vector is not located in Quadrant I.
First Quadrant
A~ = 4^i + 5^
j
Use the Pythagorean theorem to
determine the magnitude:
p
jAj = 42 + 52 = 6:403
~

Use the tangent of the angle with

respect to the X axis:
5
 = tan 1( ) = 51:34 o

4
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 14

Magnitude & Direction of a Vector from

Example:
Components
(Continued)
Second Quadrant
~ = 4^i + 5^
A j
Use the Pythagorean theorem to
determine the magnitude:
p
jA~ j = ( 4)2 + 52 = 6:403
The value of tangent returned by
your calculator is:
5
 = tan 1( ) = 51:34 o

4
Use the tangent of the angle with
respect to the X axis:  = 180 51:34 = 128:66
o o o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 15

Magnitude & Direction of a Vector from

Example:
Components
(Continued)
Third Quadrant
~ = 4^i 5^
A j
Use the Pythagorean theorem to
determine the magnitude:
p
jA~ j = ( 4)2 + ( 5)2 = 6:403
The value of tangent returned by
your calculator is:
5
 ) = 51:34
= tan 1( o

4
Use the tangent of the angle with
respect to the X axis:  = 180 + 51:34 = 231:34
o o o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 16

Magnitude & Direction of a Vector from

Example:
Components
(Continued)
Fourth Quadrant
~ = +4^i 5^
A j
Use the Pythagorean theorem to
determine the magnitude:
p
jA~ j = 42 + ( 5)2 = 6:403
The value of tangent returned by
your calculator is:
5
 = tan 1( ) = 51:34 o

4
Use the tangent of the angle with
respect to the X axis:  = 360 51:34 = 308:66
o o o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 17

Addition of Vectors
We want a numerical method to add two or more vectors.
The rule for addition of vectors is simple:
To add vectors: algebraicly add the components (i.e.
add the X components together, then add the Y com-
ponents together).
Remember the result is a vector, which requires at least two
numbers to describe it.
These two numbers are:
A magnitude and direction.
Or an X component and Y component.
Suppose we want to add two vectors C~ =
~+B
A ~:

~
A= A ^i + A ^j
x y

~
B= B ^i + B ^j
x y

Using unit vectors:

~ =
A A ^i x+ A ^j y

~
B = B ^i x+ B ^j y

~ = (A + B )^i + (A + B )^
C x x j y y

Vector addition using the components depicted graphically.

 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 18

Addition of Vectors
Example: Vector Addition
Find the resultant from the sum of A~ and B
~ , where:

~
A = (7^i + 5^j ) m
~
B = ( 17^i + 9^j ) m
Just add the components....

~
A = (7^i + 5^j ) m
+ ~
B = ( 17^i + 9^j ) m
~
C = ( 10^i + 14^j ) m
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector (C~ ).
Magnitude:
p
C = ( 10)2 + 142 = 17:20m

The angle with respect to the X axis:

14
 = tan 1( ) = 54:46 o

10
Since the resultant vector is in quadrant II, the angle is:  = 180 o

54:46 = 125:54 .
o o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 19

Vector Subtraction using Components

The numerical method to subtract vectors is very similar to adding two
vectors.
The rule for subtraction of two vectors is:

To subtract vectors: subtract the components

(i.e. subtract the X components, then subtract
the Y components).

Remember the result is a vector, which re-

quires at least two numbers to describe it.
These two numbers are:
A magnitude and direction.
Or an X component and Y component.
Suppose we want to subtract two vectors C~ = A~ ~:
B

~
A = A ^i + A ^j
x y

~
B = B ^i + B ^j
x y

Using unit vectors:

~
A = A ^i +
x A ^
j y

~
(B = B ^i +
x B ^
j) y

~
C = (A B )^i + (A B )^j
x x y y
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 20

Example: Vector Addition

Find the resultant C~ = A~ ~,
B where:
~
A = (7^i + 5^j ) m
( ~
B = ( 17^i + 9^j ) m )
Just subtract the components....

Using unit vectors:

~
A = (7^i + 5^j ) m
~
B = ( 17^i + 9^j ) m
~
C = (24^i 4^j ) m
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector (C~ ).
Magnitude:
p
C = (24)2 + ( 4)2 = 24:33m

The angle with respect to the X axis:

4
 = tan 1(
) = 9:46 o

24
Since the resultant vector is in quadrant IV, the angle is:  = 360 o

9:46 = 350:53 .
o o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 21

Example: A Vector Equation

A hiker walks along a trail in four
legs. The rst leg is 60 m north,
the second leg is 130 m east, head-
ing and distance of the third leg
is 80 m at an angle of 30 west o

of north. The four leg has an un-

known length and heading. The
hiker ends up at a distance of 132.72
m 13.06 west of north. Find the
o

length and heading of the fourth

leg.
Let the hike be represented by the
vector equation:
~
= A~ + B
R ~ +C ~ +D ~
~ . Solving this equation for D
where the unknown vector is D ~:
~
D=R ~ A ~ B ~ C ~
~ , resolve all known vectors into components:
To calculate D
~ = (0^i
A + 60^j ) m
~ = (130^i
B + 0^j ) m
~ = ( 80 sin(30)^i
C + 80 cos(30)^j ) m
~ = (D ^i
D x + D ^j ) y m
~ = ( 132:72 sin(13:06)^i + 132:72 cos(13:06)^
R j) m
Or:
~ = (0^i
A + 60^j ) m
~ = (130^i
B + 0^j ) m
~ = ( 40^i
C + 69:28^j) m
~ = (D ^i
D x+ D ^j ) y m
~ = ( 29:99^i + 129:29^
R j) m
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 22

~:
Solving for the components of D
~
R = ( 29:99^i + 129:66^j) m
( ~
A = (0^i + 60^j ) m )
( ~
B = (130^i + 0^j ) m )
( ~
C = ( 40^i + 69:28^j ) m )
~
D = ( 119:99^x 0:38^j ) m
So the vector describing the fourth leg is:
~ = ( 119:99 x
D ^ 0:38 ^j) m
The length of D~ (i.e. the distance) is:
p
jD~ j = ( 119:99)2 + ( 0:38)2 = 119:99 m
The heading is:
0:38
 = tan 1( ) = 0:181
o

119:99
Both the \X" and \Y" compo-
nents are negative.
So this vector is in the third quad-
rant.
Or 0.181 South of West.
o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 23

Scalar or Dot Product

The scalar or dot product is a vector operation where two vectors are
multiplied and a scalar results.

The dot product is dened as:

~
B
A ~ = j ~ jjB
A ~ j cos( )
Where  is the angle between the two vectors.

the scalar product commutes: A~
B~ = B~
A~ .

The scalarproduct 
obeys the distributive prop-
~ B~ + C~ = A~ B~ + A~ C~
erty: A



Note the dot product between two identical
unit vectors is:

^i
^i = j^ijj^ij cos(0)

^i
^i = 1
Note the dot product between two dierent unit vectors is:
^i
^j = j^ijj^j j cos(90)

^i
^j = 0
This gives us the general rule for a dot product of:
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 24

^i
^i = 1 ^j
^j = 1

^ k^ = 1
k
^i
^j = 0 ^i
k^ = 0

^j k^ = 0
Geometrically, the dot product is the projection of on vector onto the
other.

Or, how much of one vector is par-

allel to the second.
The dot product between two vec-
tors is easily calculated using com-
ponents.

   
~ B
A ~
= A ^i + A ^j + A k^
x y z
B ^i + B ^
x
^
j+B k y z

Just multiply out as a polynomial:

~ B
A ~
= A B ^i
^i + A B ^i
^j + A B ^i
k^ +
x x x y x z

A B ^j
^i + A B ^
y x j
^ j+A B ^
y y j
k ^+ y z

A B k^
^i + A B k^
^j + A B k^
k^
z x z y z z

Now apply the rules for the dot product between two unit vectors:

A

~ B
~ = A B ^i
%
x
^i 1 + A B ^i %
x
^j 0 + A B ^i
%k^ 0 +
x y x z

A B ^j%
y
^i 0 + A B ^j %
x
^j 1 + A B ^j
%k^ 0 +
y y y z

A B k^%
z
^i 0 + A B k^ %
x
^j 0 + A B k^
%k^ 1
z y z z
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 25

This gives us the result

~ B
A ~
=A B +A B +A B
x x y y z z

Note any vector \dotted" into itself gives the square of the magnitude
of that vector:
~ A
A ~
=A A +A A +A A
x x y y z z

A

~ A
~ = A2 + A2 + A2

j j
x y z

~ ~
A A= A ~ 2
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 26

Example: The Dot Product

Vector A: A~ = 3:00 ^i + 4:00 ^j .
Vector B: B~ = 6:00 ^i + 2:00 ^j.

First ne the dot product: A~
B

~:
   
A
B = 3:00 ^i + 4:00 ^
~ ~ j
6:00 ^i + 2:00 ^
j

A

~ B
~ = (3:00)(6:00) + (4:00)(2:00)

A

~ B
~ = 26:00
Find the angle between vectors A~ and B
~.

~ B
A ~
= jA~ jjB
~ j cos()

So rst nd the magnitudes of vectors A~ and B

~.

First, vector A: q
j j=
~
A A2x + A2y

p
jA~ j = (3:00)2 + (4:00)2

jA~ j = 5:00
Next, vector B: q
j j=
~
B Bx2 + By2

p
jB~ j = (6:00)2 + (2:00)2
p
jB~ j = 40:00
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 27

Using the denition of the dot product:

~ B
A ~
= jA~ jjB
~ j cos()

p
26:00 = (5:00) 40:00 cos()

p:00
26
= cos()
5:00 40:00

 = cos 1 (0:8222)

 = 34:47 o
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 28

Vector or Cross Product

The vector or cross product is a vector oper-
ation where two vectors are multiplied and a
vector results.

~
C = A~  B
~

This vector is perpendicular to the plane dened by the two vec-

tors that are multiplied.

The magnitude of the cross product is dened as:

j~B
A ~j = j ~ jjB
A ~ j sin( )

Where  is the angle between the two vectors.

The direction of the resultant vector C~ is determined by the right hand
rule.

Use your right hand.... Take the ngers and

point them in the direction of the rst vector
in the cross product. Orient your hand so that
the second vector points out of you palm. The
thumb points in the direction of the resultant
vector C~ .

The cross product does not commute: A~  B~ = B~  A~ .

This may be proven by use of of the right hand rule.
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 29

The magnitude of the cross product between the same unit vector is:

j^i  ^ij = j^ijj^ij sin(0)

j^i  ^ij = (1)(1)(0)
j^i  ^ij = 0
so:
^i  ^i = 0 ^j  ^j = 0 k^  k^ = 0

Note, that this means: A~  A~ = 0 .

The cross product between two dierent unit
vector is:
j^i  ^j j = j^ijj^j j sin(90)
j^i  ^j j = (1)(1)(1)
j^i  ^j j = 1
The direction is determined by the right hand rule.
For this example, the direction is k^.
From this example and the right hand rule, we can deduce the following
relationships:
^i  ^j = k^ k^  ^i = ^j ^j  k^ = ^i
Suppose we have two vectors: A~ = A ^i + A ^j + A k^ and B
x
~ = B ^i +
y z x

B ^
y j+B k ^
z

And we want to take the cross product of these two vectors:

 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 30

 B
~
C ~
= A ~
  
~
A  ~
B = A i+A j +A k  B i+B j +B k
^ ^x
^ ^ ^
y
^ z x y z

Just multiply out as a polynomial (be careful of the order of multipli-

cation) :
~
A  B~ = A B ^i  ^i + A B ^i  ^j + A B ^i  k^ +
x x x y x z

A B ^j  ^i + A B ^
y x j ^ j+A B ^ jk
y
^+y y z

A B k^  ^i + A B k^  ^j + A B k^  k^
z x z y z z

Apply the rules for taking the cross product between unit vectors

~
A  B~ = A B ^i %^i 0 + A B ^i %^j k + A B ^i %k^ j +
x x
^
x y
^
x z

j %^i k + A B ^ j % ^j 0 + A B ^j %k^ ^i +
^
A B ^ y x y y y z

A B k^ %^i^j + A B k^ %^j ^i + A B k^ %k^ 0

z x z y z z

so the result is:

~
A  B~ = [A B y z Az By ] ^i + [Az Bx Ax Bz ] ^
j + [Ax By ^
Ay Bx ] k

The cross product between these two vectors are more easily calculated
by using the determinant of a 3  3 matrix:
^i ^j ^
k [A B
y Az By ] ^i+
z

~
A  B~ = Det Ax Ay Az = [AxBz Az Bx] ( ^j )+
Bx By Bz [AxBy Ay Bx] k^
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 31

Example: The Cross Product

Vector A: A~ = 3:00^i + 4:00^j + 0:00k^.
Vector B: B~ = 6:00^i + 2:00^j + 0:00k^.

A) First nd the cross product: A~  B

~:

^i ^j ^
k [(4:00)(0:00) (0:00)(2:00)]^i+
~ B
A ~ = Det 3:00 4:00 0:00 = [(3:00)(0:00) (0:00)(3:00)] ( ^ j )+
6:00 2:00 0:00 [(3:00)(2:00) (4:00)(6:00)] k^
So:
~
A  B~ = 0:00^i + 0:00^j
18:00k^
B) Next nd the angles between the two vectors:
jA~  B~ j = jA~ jjB~ j sin()
So rst nd the magnitudes of vectors A~ and B
~.

First, vector A: q
j j=
~
A A2x + A2y

p
jA~ j = (3:00)2 + (4:00)2

jA~ j = 5:00
Next, vector B: q
j j=
~
B Bx2 + By2

p
jB~ j = (6:00)2 + (2:00)2
p
jB~ j =
40:00
Using the denition of the dot product:
 c C. M. Jenkins, Dept of Physics, U. of South Alabama 32

B) Next nd the angles between the two vectors:

jA~  B~ j = jA~ jjB~ j sin()
p
18:00 = 5:00 40:00 sin()

p:00
18
= sin()
5:00 40:00

 = sin 1 (0:5692)

 = 34:47 o