INTRODUCTION TO

MATERIAL SCIENCE
PHY- 613
B.S 7TH SEMESTER
LECTURE 9
 2-DIMENSIONAL DEFECTS
External Surfaces:
One of the most obvious boundaries is the external
surface, along which the crystal structure terminates.
Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number
of nearest neighbors and are therefore in a higher
energy state than the atoms at interior positions. The
bonds of these surface atoms that are not satisfied give
rise to a surface energy, expressed in units of energy
per unit area (J/m2 or erg/cm2 ). To reduce this energy,
materials tend to minimize, if at all possible, the total
surface area.
Grain Boundaries
Grain boundaries are the boundary separating two small
grains or crystals having different crystallographic
orientations in polycrystalline materials. The atoms are
bonded less regularly along a grain boundary (e.g., bond
angles are longer), and consequently there is an interfacial
or grain boundary energy similar to the surface energy just
described. The magnitude of this energy is a function of
the degree of misorientation, being larger for high-angle
boundaries. Grain boundaries are more chemically
reactive than the grains themselves as a consequence of
this boundary energy
Phase Boundaries
Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials, in which a
different phase exists on each side of the boundary;
furthermore, each of the constituent phases has its own
distinctive physical and/or chemical characteristics, phase
boundaries play an important role in determining the
mechanical characteristics of some multiphase metal alloys.
Twin Boundaries
A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across
which there is a specific mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms
on one side of the boundary are located in mirrorimage
positions to those of the atoms on the other side
Schematic diagram showing Schematic diagram showing a
smalland high-angle grain twin plane or boundary and
boundaries and the adjacent atom the adjacent atom positions.
positions.
BULK OR VOLUME DEFECTS
Other defects exist in all solid materials that are much
larger than those heretofore discussed. These include
pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, and other phases.
They are normally introduced during processing and
fabrication steps
Experimental Methods for Study of
Defects

o Optical microscopy
o Electron microscopy : Transmission
electron microscopy, Scanning electron
microscopy

o Scanning probe microscopy: STM, AFM

o Macroscopic Deformation Tests,
o Optical spectroscopic Techniques,
o Stress Pulse Double Etching Technique,
o Electron spin resonance and electron nuclear
double resonance,
 Optical Microscopy for Defects Study

• In this type of microscopy a light microscope,

consisting of optical elements and illumination
systems, is used to study the microstructure
of materials.

• In the case of materials which are opaque

to visible light (all metal, polymers and many
ceramics), the light microscope must be used
in reflecting mode.

• Contrasts in the image produced result from

differences in reflectivity of various regions of
the microstructure. As metal were first
examined, using this technique, so
investigations of this type are often called
metallographic investigations.

• Careful surface preparations are necessary to

reveal the important details of the
microstructure
 Optical Microscopy for Defects Study

• Useful up to 2000X
magnification.

• Polishing removes
surface features
(e.g., scratches)

• Etching changes
reflectance,
depending on
crystal orientation.
 Optical Microscopy for Defects Study
Figure (a) shows surface
structure of grains when viewed
with the microscope. The texture
of each grain depends on its
reflectance properties.
(a)
.

Figure (c)
gives
photomicrogra
ph of a
polycrystalline
(b) specimen
exhibiting
these
Figure (b) shows reflection of characteristics
incident light by three etched
surface grains each having (c)
different orientations.
 Optical Microscopy for Defects Study

• Small grooves are formed along grain

boundaries due to etching. This is
because the atoms along grain
boundary regions are more chemically
active and dissolve at a greater rate
than those within the grains.

• The grooves become more visible when

viewed under a microscope, because
they reflect light at an angle different
from that of the grains themselves.

• This effect is shown in Figure (a).

• Figure (b) is a photomicrograph of

polycrystalline specimen in which the
grain boundary grooves are clearly
visible as dark lines.
 Optical Microscopy for Defects Study

• When microstructure of a two

phase alloy is to be examined,
an etchant is often chosen that
produces a different texture for
each phase so that the
different phases may be
distinguished from each other.

Grain boundaries

• Grain boundaries are imperfections,

• They are more susceptible to
etching,
• They may be revealed as dark lines
• There could a change in crystal
orientation across boundary.

Adapted from Fig. 5.18(b) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig.
5.18(c) is courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.)
 REFERENCES

Callister, W. D., and D. G. Rethwisch. 2014. Fundamentals of

Materials Science and Engineering: An Integrated Approach.
Wiley, 9th Edition.
Shackelford. J. F. 2014. Introduction to Materials Science for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 8th Edition
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk
All ebooks are available on Zlibrary websit
https://z-lib.org/Or https://b-ok.cc/