Introduction To Electrical Machines: Step-Up Transformer. When The Secondary Winding Has Less Turns Than The

Introduction to Electrical Machines
CHAPTER TWO
TRANSFORMERS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
The transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without
a change in the frequency. The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply
mains is called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electrical
energy to the load is called secondary winding.
Actually the transformer is an electric energy conversion device, since the energy
received by the primary is converted to useful electrical energy in the other circuits
(secondary winding circuit).
If the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the
secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a
step-up transformer. When the secondary winding has less turns than the
primary windings then the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and
the transformer is called step down transformer.
Note that a step-up transformer can be used as a step-down transformer, in which
the secondary of step-up transformer becomes the primary of the step-down
transformer. Actually a transformer can be termed a step-up or step-down
transformer only after it has been put into service.
The most important tasks performed by transformers are:-
i) Changing voltage and current levels in electrical power systems
ii) Matching source and load impedances for maximum power
transfer in electronic and control circuit and
iii) Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another )
Transformers are used extensively in ac power systems. AC electrical power can be
generated at one central location, its voltage stepped up for transmission over long
distances at very low losses and its voltage stepped down again for final use.
2.2. CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER

There are basically two types of transformer, the core-type and the shell-type. The
two types differ from each other by the manner in which the windings are wound
around the magnetic core.
The magnetic core is a stock of thin silicon-steel laminations about 0.35mm thick for
50Hz transformers. In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations
are insulated from one another by thin layer of varnish. In the core-type, the
windings surround a considerable part of steel core as shown in Figure 2.1(a). In
shell-type the steel core surrounds a major part of the windings as shown in Figure
2.1(b). For a given output and voltage rating, core-type transformer requires less
iron but more conductor material as compared to a shell-type transformer.
The vertical portions of the core are usually called limbs or legs and the top and
bottom portions are called yoke. This means that for single-phase transformers,
core-type has two-legged core where as shell type has three-legged core. In core-
type transformers, most of the flux is confined to high permeability core. However,
some of the flux leaks through the core legs and non-magnetic material surrounding
the core. The flux called leakage flux, links one winding and not the other. A
reduction in this leakage flux is desirable as it improves the transformer
performance considerably. Consequently, an effort is always made to reduce it. In
the core-type transformer, this is achieved by placing half of the low voltage (LV)
winding over one leg and the other half over the second leg or limb. For the high
1
voltage (HV) winding also , half of the winding is over one leg and the other half
over the second leg, as shown in Figure 2.1.
  
 
2 2 2
2
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 Constructional details of single-phase (a) core-type transformer (b) Shell-
type transformer
Low voltage winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and high voltage winding
outside, in order to minimize the amount of insulation required. In shell-type
transformer the low voltage and high voltage windings are wound over the central
limb and are interleaved or sandwiched as shown in Figure2.1(b). Note that the
bottom and top are low voltage coils.
In core-type transformer, the flux has a single path around the legs or yokes. Figure
2.1(a). In shell-type transformer, the flux in the central limb divides equally and
returns through the outer two legs as shown in Figure 2.1(b).
There are two types of windings employed in transformers. The concentric coils are
used for core-type transformer as shown in Figure 2.1(a) and interleaved (or
sandwiched) coils for shell- type transformers as shown in Figure 2.2(b).
One type of laminations for the core and shell type of transformers is illustrated in
Figure 2.2 (a) and (b) respectively. In both core and shell-type transformers, the
individual laminations are cut in the form of long strips of L's, E’s and I's as shown in
Figure 2.3 .
2
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2 two adjacent layers for (a) core and (b) shell type transformers
Figure 2.3 long strips of E’s, L’s and I’s laminations

In order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the laminations are butted
against each other, the alternative layers are stacked as shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Arrangement of butt joints in magnetic core

During the transformer construction first the primary and secondary winding are
wound, then the laminations are pushed through the coil openings, layer by layer
3
and the steel core is placed. The laminations are then tightened by means of
clamps and bolts.
Low-power transformers are air cooled whereas larger power transformers are
immersed in oil for better cooling. In oil-cooled transformer, the coil serves as a
coolant and also as an insulation medium.
2.3. PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION


Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

The primary winding P is connected to an alternating voltage source, therefore, an
alternating current Im starts flowing through N1 turns. The alternating mmf N1Im sets
up an alternating flux  which is confined to the high permeability iron path as
indicated in Figure 2.5. The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary P and
E2 in secondary S. If a load is connected across the secondary, load current starts
flowing.
2.4. IDEAL TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER

For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various assumptions are as follows
1. Winding resistances are negligible.
2. All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings i.e. all of
the flux is confined to the magnetic core.
3. The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible.
4. The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for the
core is linear.
2.5.1. EMF Equation of A Transformer
Let the voltage V1 applied voltage primary be sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then the
current Im and, therefore, the flux  will flow with the variations of Im . That is, the
flux  is in time phase with the current Im and varies sinusoidally. Let sinusoidal
variation of flux  be expressed as
  m Sin t
Where m is maximum of the magnetic flux in Weber and  = 2f is the angular
frequency in rad/sec and f is the supply frequency in Hz.
4
The emf e1 in volt, induced in the primary of N1 turns by the alternating flux is given
by
d
e 1   N1
dt
  N1mCos  t

 N1m sin( t  )
2
 
Its maximum value, E1max occurs when Sin t   is equal to 1.
 2
 E1m  N1 m
 
and e  E1m sin  t  
1
 2
 The RMS value of the induced emf E1 in the primary winding is
E 2
E1  1m  fN1m
2 2
 2 fN1m (2.1)
 4.44 fN1m
Since the primary winding resistance is negligible hence e1, at every instant, must
be equal and opposite of V1. That is,
d
v1   e1   N1
dt
or V1   E1
The emf induced in the secondary is
d
e2   N 2   N 2  m cos t
dt

 N 2  s in (  t  )
2

 Em 2 sin (  t  )
2
 Rms value of emf E2 induced in secondary winding is given by
E
E2  2m  2 fN 2 m (2.2)
2
 4.44 fN 2 m
5
2.5.2. Voltage Transformation Ratio

From Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), we get
E1 N1
 k (2.3)
E2 N 2
The ratio is known as voltage transformation ratio.
i) If N2 > N1 i.e., K<1, then the transformer is called a step-up
transformer.
ii) If N2 < N1 i.e., K>1, then the transformer is known as a step-down
transformer.
Again in an ideal transformer
Input VA  Output VA
V1I1  V2 I 2
and
I1 V2 1
 
I 2 V1 k
Hence, the currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio of
Eq. (2.3).
E1 E2
Also, the ratio of   2  f m and this shows that the emf per turn in each
N1 N 2
of the windings is the same.
Example 2.1 A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary
turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 55 cm2. If the primary winding be
connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz single phase supply, calculate (i) the maximum value of
flux density in the core and (ii) the voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Solution
i) Voltage applied to the primary = 400 V
Induced emf in the primary, E1  voltage applied to the primary, V1 = 400 V
Number of turns in the primary N1 = 350
Net cross-sectional area Ai = 55 cm2
= 55 10-4 m2
Frequency of the supply f = 50 Hz
Induced emf in the primary is given by
E1  4.44f m N1  4.44f B m A i N1 E1 =
Maximum value of flux density in the core,
400
Bm 
4.44  50  55  10  4  350
 0.93 T ( Wb / m 2 )
ii) Number of turns in the secondary winding, N2 = 1050
For an ideal transformer,
6
E1 N1

E2 N 2
Voltage induced in the secondary winding,
N2
E 2  E1 
N1
1050
 400 
350
 1200 V
Example 2.2 The required no-load voltage ratio in a single phase 50 Hz, core type
transformer is 6600/500. Find the number of turns in each winding, if the flux is to
be 0.06 Wb.
Solution
6000
i) No-load voltage ratio =
500
No-load voltage of low voltage winding = 500 V
Flux = 0.06 Wb
Frequency f = 50Hz
Induced emf in the low voltage winding (secondary) of the transformer is given by,
E 2  4.44f m N 2
or 500  4.44  50  0.06  N 2
Number ut turns in the low voltage,
500
N2 
4.44  50  0.06
 37.5 (not possible)
The number of turns in each winding should be a whole number, moreover each
winding in the core type transformer is accommodated on both the limbs. i.e. half
number of turns of each winding on one limb. As such the number of turns in each
winding should be even.
Considering these facts , the number of turns in low voltage winding, N2 = 38
ii) Number of turns in high voltage winding
V1 6600
N1 = N 2 × = 38 ×
V2 500
= 501.6 ( not possible)
Considering all the factors mentioned above, the number of turns in the high voltage
winding N1=500. Here the number of turns finally taken is 500 and not 502, because
the high voltage winding will be split up into a number of coils. With 250 turns on
each limb, high voltage winding on one limb can be split into 5 coils of 50 turns
each.
2.5. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

The equivalent circuit for any electrical engineering devices can be drawn if the
equations describing its behavior are known. If any electrical device is to be
analyzed and investigated further for suitable modifications, its appropriate
equivalent circuit is necessary. The equivalent circuit for electromagnetic devices
7
consists of a combination o1 resistances, inductances, capacitances, voltages etc.

Such an equivalent circuit (or circuit model) can, therefore, be analyzed and studied
easily by the direct application of electric circuit theory.
As stated above equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the equations
describing the performance of the device. In the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6(a)
(rl +jx1) and (r2 + jx2) are the leakage impedances of the primary and secondary
'
windings respectively. The voltage V1 is treated as a voltage drop in the direction of
'
I1. Recall that the magnitude of V1 does not change appreciably from no load to full
'
load in large transformers. The magnitude of V1 depends on f ,N1 and m, since
V1'  E1 .
The primary current I1 consists of two components. One component I1' is the load
component and counteracts the secondary m.m.f. I2N2 completely. The other
component is exciting current Ie which is composed of Ic and Im. The current Ic is in
' ' '
phase with V1 and product V1 Ic gives core loss. The resistance Rc parallel with V1
represents the core loss Pc, such that.
Pc  I 2c R c  V1' I c 
V1' 
2
Rc
V'
And Rc  1
Ic
'
The current Im lags V1 by 90° and this can, therefore , be represented in the
equivalent circuit by a reactance Xm, such that
V'
Xm  1
Im
Rc and Xm are shown in Figure 2.6 (b), which is the exact equivalent circuit of a
transformer. The resistance Rc and reactance Xm are called core-loss resistance and
magnetizing reactance, respectively.
For minor changes in supply voltage and frequency, which is common under normal
operation, Rc and Xm are treated constant.
In Figure 2.6 (a) and (b) , the ideal transformer has been introduced to show the
transformation of voltage and current between primary and secondary windings .
Even at this stage the transformer magnetization curve is assumed linear, since the
effect of higher order harmonic can't be represented in the equivalent circuit.
R1 jX1 jX2 R2
+
+ + +
I1 I2
E1 E2
V1 V2
_ _ _ _
(a) Exciting current neglected
8
I1'
E1
(b) Exact equivalent circuit
I1' jx'2 r2'
N 
I1'  I 2  2 
 N1 
N 
E1 N  V2  1 
E2  1   N2 
 N2 
(c) Referred to primary
r1' jx1'
N 
I e  1  I2
N   N2 
I1  1 
 N2  I'c I'm
N 
V1  2  N  V2
 N1  E1  2  E2
 N1 
(d) referred to secondary

Figure 2.6 Development of the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer
In transformer analysis, it is usual to transfer the secondary quantities to primary
side or primary quantities to secondary side. Secondary resistance drop I2 r2 when
transferred to primary side must be multiplied by the turns ratio N1 /N2.
N
 Secondary resistance drop, when transferred to primary = I 2 r2  1
N2
 N N
  I1  1  r2  1
 N2  N2
 N 
 putting I 2  I1  1 
 N2 
9
 N  2 
 I1  1  r2   I1r2'
 N 2  
 
2
 N 
Where r2'  r2    1 
 N2 
'
If resistance r2 is placed in the primary circuit, then the relation between voltage V1
'
and V2 is unaffected. This resistance r2 is called the secondary resistance referred
to primary. Therefore, the total resistance in the primary circuit is
2
N 
re1  r1  r2   1   r1  r2'
 N2 
Hence re1 is called the transformer equivalent (or total) resistance referred to
primary winding. Similarly the primary resistance referred to secondary is
2
 N 
r1    2  and the equivalent ( or total) resistance referred to secondary is
 N1 
2
 N 
re2  r2  r1    2   r2  r1'
 N1 
Fehler! Es ist nicht möglich, durch die Bearbeitung von Feldfunktionen
Objekte zu erstellen.
Figure 2.6 (e) equivalent circuit in general form.
Secondary leakage reactance drop I2 x2, when transferred to primary is
 N1   N  2 
I 2 x 2    I1  1  x 2   I1x '2
 N2   N 2 



'
The quantity x 2 is called the secondary leakage reactance referred to primary. Total
primary leakage reactance is
2
N 
x e1  x1  x 2   1   x1  x '2
 N2 
Where xe1, is called the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to primary.
Likewise, the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to secondary is
2
N 
xe 2  x2  x1   2   x2  x1'
 N1 
The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to primary is
z e1  re1  jx e1
The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to secondary is

z e2  re2  jxe2
10
Following the above procedure, it can be shown that

2 2
N  N 
z e1   1  z e 2 and z e2   2  z e1
 N2   N1 
In general, when values are referred to either circuit the following conditions should
be kept in mind
 The energy condition (i.e. the active and reactive) power should be remain
unchanged
 The phase angle between voltage and current i.e. power factor, should be
remain the same and
 The referring factor must be the same for all values of the same type.
Simplification of the exact equivalent circuit: The equivalent circuit of Figure
2.6 (b) can be simplified by referring all the quantities to primary or secondary and
at the same time, moving the ideal transformer to one side. If the secondary
quantities are referred to primary, the equivalent circuit of Figure2.6 (c) is obtained.
Since it is usual to omit the ideal transformer, it is shown dotted for the sake of
completeness. When the primary quantities are referred to the secondary side, the
2
'  N2 
equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6(d) is obtained. Note that R c  R c   and
 N1 
2
'  N2 
X m  X m   . The exact equivalent circuits of Figure 2.6(c) and (d) are known
 N1 
as T-circuits for a transformer, referred to primary and secondary windings
respectively.
In the equivalent circuits of Figure 2.6 (c) and (d), the referred quantities with
suitable notation , have been used. A more general equivalent circuit can be drawn
as shown in Figure 2.6(e), where for simplicity (i) a particular notation for referred-
quantities has been dropped (ii) the complex notation (bar over I, j with reactances
etc.) has been given up and (iii) the ideal transformer is not shown. If the general
equivalent circuit refers to the primary, one has to keep in mind that the secondary
quantities have been referred to the primary side. On the other hand, if the general
equivalent circuit refers to the secondary, then the primary quantities must be
referred to the secondary side. Thus in the general equivalent circuit of a
transformer, one has merely to keep in mind about the side to which all the
quantities have been referred.
It may be interesting at this stage to draw the phasor diagram for the equivalent
circuit of Figure 2.6(e) from a knowledge of the electric circuit theory. Assume that
the secondary load voltage V2 load current I2 and angle 2, by which I2 lags V2 are
known. First of all draw I2 lagging V2 by an angle 2 and then add I2 (r2 + jx2) to V2
to obtain E2, Figure 2. It is obvious from Figure (le) that current Im due to voltage E2,
must lag it by 90° and further Ic must be in phase with E2. The phasor sum of Ic and
Im gives Ie and phasor sum of I2 and Ie gives I1. The voltage drop I1 (r1 + jx1) is
now added to E2 to obtain V1 as shown in Figure 2. The secondary p.f. is cos2
lagging and the primary p.f. is cos 1 lagging .
The voltage drops I1 (r1 + jx1) and I2 (r2 + jx2) have been drawn to a much larger
scale, in comparison-with V1 or V2 for the sake of clarity.
11
jI
V1 1x
1
I1r1
jI x
2
2
E2
I2r2
V2
I1
I2
1 2
Ic Ie
Im
Figure 2.7 Phasor diagram for equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6 (e)
Approximate Equivalent Circuit: Approximate equivalent circuit is obtained from
the exact equivalent circuit Figure 2.6(e), if the shunt branch (Rc and Xm in parallel)
is moved to the .primary or secondary terminals as shown in Figure 2.8(a) and (b)
respectively. It may be seen from Figure 2.8 (a) that the exciting current Ie does not
flow through rl and x1, whereas Ie does flow through r1 and x1 in the exact
equivalent circuit. Thus the primary leakage impedance drop due to the exciting
current, i.e. Ie( r1 +jx1) has been neglected in Figure 2.8 (a), though it is not so
actually.
It may also be seen from Figure 2.8 (b) that Ie flows through r2 and x2, whereas Ie
does not flow through r2 and x2 in the exact equivalent circuit. Thus the secondary
leakage impedance drop due to Ie, i.e. Ie (r2 + jx2) has been included, though Ie (r2 +
jx2) is actually zero.
(a)
(b)
12
(c) (d)
Figure 2.8 (a) and (b) Approximate equivalent circuits of a transformer (c) and (d)
Simplified forms of the approximate equivalent circuit.
Since the exciting current is only about 2 to 6 per cent of the rated winding current
in power and distribution transformers, the error introduced by neglecting Ie( r1
+jx1) or including Ie (r2 + jx2) is insignificant. However, the computational labor
involved is reduced considerably by the use of approximate equivalent circuits of
Figure 2.8(a) and (b). As before, one must keep in mind about the side to which all
the equivalent-circuit quantities have been referred.
Still further simplification is achieved by neglecting the shunt branch Rc and Xm in
Figure 2.8 (a) and (b) and this leads to equivalent circuit of Figure 2.8(c). This
simplification is tantamount to neglecting exciting current Ie in comparison with
rated currents, which is almost justifiable in large transformers, say over 100 KVA or
so. For transformers having ratings near 500 KVA or more, the equivalent resistance
re is quite small as compared with equivalent leakage reactance xe. Consequently re
may be neglected, leading to the equivalent circuit of Figure3 (d). Thus, when a
large power system is studied, a transformer is usually replaced by its equivalent
circuit of the form shown in Figure 2.8(d).
The equivalent circuit Figure 2.6(e) should be used only when the exciting current is
a large percentage of the rated current e.g., in audio-frequency transformers used in
electronic circuits, in transformers used for relaying and measurement purposes etc.
For high voltage surge investigations, the transformer equivalent circuit must be
modified to include the effects of inter-turn and turn to earth capacitances.
2.6. OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS

These two tests on a transformer help to determine
(i) The parameters of the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.8
(ii) the voltage regulation and
(iii) efficiency
The equivalent circuit parameters can also be obtained from the physical dimensions
of the transformer core and its winding details. Complete analysis of the transformer
can be carried out, once its equivalent circuit parameters are known. The power
required during these two tests is equal to the appropriate power loss occurring in
the transformer.
13
2.6.1. Open Circuit (or No-Load) Test

The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test on a single phase transformer is
given in Figure 2.9 (a). In this diagram, a voltmeter, wattmeter and an ammeter are
shown connected on the low voltage side of the transformer. The high voltage side is
left open circuited. The rated frequency voltage applied to the primary, i.e. low
voltage side, is varied with the help of a variable ratio auto-transformer. When the
voltmeter reading is equal to the rated voltage of the L.V. winding , all three
instrument readings are recorded.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.9 (a) Circuit diagram for open-circuit test on a transformer and (b)
approximate equivalent circuit at no load
The-ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current Ie. Since Ie is quite
small (2 to 6%) of rated current), the primary leakage impedance drop is almost
negligible, and for all practical purposes, the applied voltage V1 is equal to the
induced emf E1. Consequently, the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6 (e) gets modified
to that shown in Figure 2.9( b).
The input power given by the wattmeter reading consists of core loss and ohmic
loss. The exciting current being about 2 to 6 percent of the full load current, the
2  2 2 
ohmic loss in the primary(  I e r1 ) varies from 0.04 percent    100  to 0.36
 100 100 
percent of the full-load primary ohmic loss . In view of this fact, the ohmic loss
during open circuit test is negligible in comparison with the normal core loss
(approximately proportional to the square of the applied voltage). Hence the
wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to transformer core loss.
V1 = Applied rated voltage on L.V. side,
Ie = exciting current ( or no-load current) and
Pc = core loss
Then Pc  V1I e cos  o

Pc
 No load p.f.  cos  o 
V1I e
From phase diagram of Figure 2.7, it follows that
I c  I e cos o and I m  I e sin o
Pc
From Figure 4( b), I c 
V1
14
V V1
R CL  1 
I c I e cos  o
 Core loss resistant
V12 V121
 
V1I e cos  o Pc o
Also I c2 R CL  Pc
P Pc
 R CL  c 
I c2 I e cos  o 2
Magnetizing reactance
V1 Pc
X mL  
I m I e sin  o
The subscript L with Rc and Xm is used merely to emphasize that theses values are
for the L.V. side.
It must be kept is mind that the values of Rc and Xm, in general, refer to the
side, in which the instruments are placed (the L.V. side in the present case). A
voltmeter is sometimes, used at the open-circuited secondary terminals, in order to
determine the turns ratio.
Thus the open-circuit test gives the following information: (i) core loss at rated
voltage and frequency, (ii) the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit,
i.e. Rc and Xm and (iii) turns ratio of the transformer.
2.6.2. Short-Circuit Test
The low voltage-side of the transformer is short-circuited and the instruments are
placed on the high voltage side, as illustrated in Figure 2.10 (a).
Figure 2.10 (a) connection diagram for short circuit test on a transformer
Figure 2.10 (b) Equivalent circuit with short-circuit on the secondary side
15
Figure 2.10 (c) Transformer equivalent circuit with secondary short-circuited

The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated current in the
high voltage side. In a transformer, the primary m.m.f. is almost equal to the
secondary m.m.f., therefore, a rated current in the H.V. winding causes rated
current to flow in the L.V. winding.
A primary voltage of 2 to 12% of its rated value is sufficient to circulate rated
currents in both primary and secondary windings. From Figure 2.10 (b) , it is clear
that the secondary leakage impedance drop appears across the exciting branch (RC
and Xm in parallel). About half (1 to 6%) of the applied voltage appears across the
secondary leakage impedance and, therefore, across the exciting branch. The core
flux induces the voltage across the exciting branch and since the latter is 1 to 6% of
rated voltage, the core flux is also 1 to 6% of its rated value. Hence the core loss,
being approximately proportional to the square of the core flux, is 0.01 percent
 1 1   6 6 
   100  to 0.36 percent     100  of its value at rated voltage.
 100 100   100 100 
The wattmeter, in short circuit test, records the core loss and the ohmic loss in both
windings. Since the core loss has been proved to be almost negligible in comparison
with the rated voltage core loss, the wattmeter can be taken to register only the
ohmic losses in both windings.
At rated-voltage, the exciting Current is 2 to 6% of full load current. When the
voltage across the exciting branch is 1 to 6% of rated voltage, the exciting current
 2 1   6 6 
may be 0.02 percent     100  to 0.36% percent     100  of
 100 100   100 100 
its full-load current and can, therefore, be safely ignored. As a result of this the
equivalent circuit of Figure2.6(e), with the secondary short-circuited, gets modified
to that shown in Figure 2.10 (c)
Let VSC, ISC and PSC be the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings; then from
Figure 2.10 (c), equivalent leakage impedance referred to H.V. side,
V
Z eH  SC
I SC
P
equivalent resistance referred to H.V. side, reH  SC and equivalent leakage
2
ISC
2 2
reactance referred to H.V. side, X eH  Z eH  reH
In reH, XeH and ZeH„, the subscript H is used to indicate that these quantities are
referred to H.V. side. These parameters can however, be referred to the L.V. side, if
required.
In the analysis of transformer equivalent circuit, the values of equivalent resistance
and equivalent leakage reactance referred to either side are used. However, if the
16
leakage impedance parameters for both primary and secondary are required
separately, then it is usual to take r1 = r2=½ re) and x1 = x2=½ xe, referred to the
same side.
Thus, the short-circuit test gives the following information: (i) ohmic loss at rated
current and frequency and (ii) the equivalent resistance and equivalent leakage
reactance.
Voltage regulation of a transformer can be determined from the data obtained from
short-circuit test. Data of both open-circuit and short-circuit tests is necessary (i)
for, obtaining all the parameters of exact equivalent circuit and (ii) for calculating
the transformer efficiency.
How can a wattmeter connected on the H.V. side, record the ohmic in the L.V.
winding also? When rated current is made to flow in the H.V. winding, the 1.v.
winding must also carry rated current, because the transformer action requires
I1N1= I2N2. The flow of rated current in the L.V. winding causes ohmic loss, which
must be supplied from somewhere. The only way to provide L.V. winding loss is
from the input to H.V. side. But the entire input power to H.V. side is recorded by
the wattmeter, therefore, the ohmic losses in both windings are given by the
wattmeter reading.
It has already been stated that open-circuit and short-circuit tests should be
performed on the L.V. side and H.V. side respectively only for the sake of
convenience. This can he illustrated by considering a 3300/220V, 33KVA, single-
phase transformer.
For open-circuit test on low voltage side, the ranges of voltmeter, ammeter and
wattmeter are 220V (rated value), 6A ( 2 to 6% of rated current of 150A) and 6A,
220V respectively. These are the standard ranges for ordinary instruments and
therefore, more accurate readings can be obtained. If the open circuit test is
performed on the H.V. side, a source of 3300V may not be readily available. At the
same time, the instrument ranges are 3300V, 0.4A and 0.4A , 3300V which are
which are not within the range of ordinary instruments and the results obtained may
not be so accurate . Also it may not be safe to work on the high voltage side.
For a short-circuit test on the H.V. side, the instrument ranges are 165V (2 to 12%
of rated voltage of 3300V), l0A (rated current) and 10A, 165V, which are well within
the range of the ordinary instruments. On the other hand, instrument ranges, for a
short-circuit test on L.V. side are 11V, 150A, and 150A. 11V. Instruments of such
ranges and auto-transformer capable of handling 150A may not be readily available
and at the same time, the results may not be so accurate. It is for these reasons
that the open-circuit and short-circuit tests are conducted on L.V. and H.V. sides
respectively.
2.6.3. Polarity Test
On the primary side of a two-winding transformer, one terminal is positive with
respect to the other terminal at any one instant. At the same instant, one terminal
of the secondary winding is positive with respect to the other terminal. These
relative polarities of the primary and secondary terminals at any instant must be
known if the transformers are to be operated in parallel or are to be used in a
polyphase circuit.
17
(a) (b)
Figure 2.11 Polarity test on a two winding transformer (a) subtractive polarity and
(b) additive polarity
When viewed from the H.V. side, the terminals are marked A1 and A2, the former,
i.e. A1 being on the extreme right. Terminals A1 and A2 marked plus and minus
arbitrarily in Figure 6. Now terminal A 1 is connected to one end of the secondary
winding and a voltmeter is connected between A2 and the other end of the
secondary winding. A voltage of suitable value is now applied to the H.V. winding.
Let E1 and E2 be the e.m.fs induced on H.V. and L.V. sides respectively. If the
voltmeter reading is equal to E1–E2 then secondary terminal connected to A1 is
positive and is marked a1, the L.V. terminal connected to A2 through the voltmeter is
negative and is marked a2 as shown in Figure 2.11(a). If voltmeter reading is equal
to E1+E2, then the terminals connected to A1 and A2 are negative and positive and
are marked a2 and a1 respectively as shown in Figure 2.11(b). The subscript
numbers 1,2 on the H.V. and L.V. windings are so arranged that when A2 is negative
with respect to A1. a2 is also negative with respect to a1 at the same instant. In
other words, if the instantaneous emf is directed from A2 to A1 in H.V. winding, it is
at the same time directed from a2 to a1 in the L.V. winding.
When the voltmeter reads the difference E1–E2, the transformer is said to possess a
subtractive polarity and when voltmeter reads E1+E2 the transformer has additive
polarity. In subtractive polarity, the voltage between A2 and a2 (or A1 and a1) is
reduced. The leads connected to these terminals and the two windings are,
therefore, not subjected to high voltage stress. In additive polarity the windings and
the leads connected to A1, A2, a1 and a2 are subjected to high voltage stresses. On
account of these reasons, subtractive polarity is preferable to additive polarity.
Example 2.3 A 20 kVA, 2500/250 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer gave the
following test result
Open-circuit test (on L.V. side):250 V, 1.4 A, 105 W.
Short-circuit test (on H.V. side): 104 V, 8 A, 320 watts.
Compute the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to high-
voltage and low-voltage sides. Also draw the exact equivalent circuit referred to the
low -voltage side.
Solution
From open-circuit test:
105
No-load power factor, cos 0   0.3
250  1.4
 0 = 72.55 and sin 0 =0.954
 Ic = Ie cos 0 = 1.40.3 = 0.42 A
18
and Im = Ie sin 0 = 1.40.954 = 1.336 A
V 250
hence, R cL  1   595 
I c 0.42
V 250
X mL  1   187 
I m 1.336
Alternatively, the value of RcL and XmL can be determined as follows:
V 2 2502
R cL  1   595 
Pc 105
V1 250
Now Ic    0.42 A
R cL 595
and I m  I 2e  I 2c  1.4 2  0.42 2  1.336 A
V 250
X mL  1   187 
I m 1.336
From short circuit test:
V 104
Z eH  sc   13 
I sc 8
P 320
reH  sc   8
2
Isc 82
2 2
 x eH  Z eH  reH  132  52  12 
Equivalent circuit parameters referred to L.V. side are:
RcL = 595  XmL = 187 
2 2 2 2
1 1 1  1
reL  reH     5   0.05  ; x eL  x eH     12   0.12 
k  10  k  10 
This equivalent circuit is shown in Figure below (a)
x eL  0.12  reL  0.05 
R cL  595 XcL  187 
0.025  0.06  0.06  0.025 
595 187 
(a) (b)
19
Figure (a) approximate equivalent circuit referred to L.V. side and exact equivalent
circuit referred to L.V. side.
Equivalent circuit parameters referred to H.V. side are:
R cH  R cL  k 2  595102  59,500 
X mH  X mL  k 2  187102  18,700 
reH = 5 ; xeH = 12
An equivalent circuit showing these parameters can easily be drawn.
Exact equivalent circuit parameters referred to L.V. side are:
1 1
r1L  r1' H  reL  0.05  0.025 
2 2
1 1
x1L  x1' H  x eL  0.12  0.06 
2 2
RcL = 595  and XmL = 187 
The exact equivalent circuit is shown in Figure (b)
20
2.7. TRANSFORMER PHASOR DIAGRAMS

The purpose of first considering an ideal transformer, i.e. a transformer with no core
losses, no winding resistance, no magnetic leakage and constant permeability, is
merely to highlight the most important aspect of transformer action. Such
transformer never exists and now the phasor diagrams of real transformer will be
considered.
2.6.4. Transformer Phasor Diagram at no-load
The magnetic flux m being common to both the primary and secondary is drawn
first. The induced emf E1 and E2 lag m by 900 and are shown accordingly in Figure
2.12. The voltage -E1 is being replaced by V 1 just for convenience.
a) Effect of transformer core loss
The core loss (or iron loss) consists of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. These
losses are always present in the ferromagnetic core of the transformer, since the
transformer is an ac operated magnetic device. The hysteresis loss in the core is
minimized by using high grade material such as cold-rolled-grain-oriented (CRGO)
steel and the eddy current loss is minimized by using thin lamination for the core.
The current in the primary is alternating, therefore, the magnetizing force H is
cyclically varying from one positive value say Hl to a corresponding negative value
Hl, Figure 2.12 (a). When the magnetizing force is - Hl, the flux density is
maximum negative equal to OM. As the magnetizing force decreases from - Hl, the
current Ie decreases and becomes zero for a flux density, or flux, equal to ON.
When the current Ie becomes positive and equal to OP, the flux is reduced to zero
but it is going to become positive. The traverse of the loop along the arrows
involves time. When Ie is crossing zero positive (passing through zero and
becoming positive), the core flux is negative and is equal to ON in Figure 2.12(a).
This is shown in Figure 2.12(b) at instant tl, where waveforms are assumed sine
waves. When Ie is positive and equal to OP, Figure 2.12(a), the flux is crossing
zero and becoming positive; this is shown in Figure 2.12(b) at instant t2. It is
seen from Figure 2.12(b) that exciting current Ie leads the magnetic flux  (or 
lags Ie) by some time angle . This angle of lead, or lag, being dependent on the
hysteresis loop, is called the hysteretic angle. In Figure 2.12 (c), Ie is shown
leading , or  is shown lagging Ie, by hysteretic angle .
 or  , 
t
t 2
t1
(a)
(b)
21
0
l1

(c)
Figure 2.12 (a) Hysteresis loop for transformer core (b) exciting current and core
flux waveforms and (c) no-load phasor diagram of a transformer.
The no-load primary current Ie is called the exciting current of the transformer and
can be resolved into two components. The component Im along m is called the
reactive or magnetizing current , since its function is to provide the required
magnetic flux m. The second component along V'1 is Ic and this component is called
the core- loss component. When multiplied by V'1 gives the total core loss Pc.
P
V ' 1 I c  Pc or I c  c Amp.
V' 1
From Figure 2.12 (c), it is seen that
I e  I m2  I 2c
Note that in an ideal transformer, core-loss current I c  0 and therefore exciting
current Ie equals to magnetizing current Im i.e. I e  I m .
b) Effect of transformer resistance

The effect of primary resistance r1 can be accounted for, by adding to V1, a voltage
drop equal to Ie r1 as shown in Figure 2.12 (c). Note that Ier1 is in phase with Ie and
is drawn parallel to Ie in the phasor diagram.
c) Effect of leakage flux
The existence of electrical potential difference is essential for the establishment of
current in an electric circuit. Similarly the magnetic potential difference is necessary
to establish flux in a magnetic circuit. This magnetic potential difference establishes:
i) the mutual flux m linking both windings and
ii) the primary leakage flux l1 which links only the primary winding.
The distinctive behavior of the mutual flux m and the primary leakage flux l1The
mutual flux m exists entirely in the ferromagnetic core and, therefore, involves
hysteresis loop. The current Ie that establishes m must lead it by some hysteresis
angle . On the other hand, the primary leakage flux l1 exists largely in air. Although
l1 does pass through some iron, the reluctance offered to l1 is mainly due to air.
Consequently l1 does not involve any hysteresis loop and it can be taken to be in
phase with the current Ie that produces it, Figure2.12(c). In the primary winding,
induces an emf E1 lagging it by 90°; similarly the primary leakage flux l1 induces an
22
emf Ex1 in the primary winding and lagging it (i.e. l1) by 90°. Since Ie leads Ex1 by
90°, it is possible to write EX1= -jIexl. The primary applied voltage V l must have a
component jIexl, equal and opposite to Exl. Here xl has the nature of reactance and is
referred to as the primary leakage reactance in ohms. It may be noted that x1 is a
fictitious quantity merely introduced to represent the effects of primary leakage flux.
Figure 2.13 Transformer at no load.

The total voltage drop in primary at no-load is Ie (r1+jx1) = Iez1 where z1 is the
primary leakage impedance. Therefore Figure 2.12(c) gives the phasor diagram of
transformer at no-load, where Nl is assumed to be equal to N2. The primary voltage
equation at no-load can be written as:
V1  V1'  I e ( r1  jx1 )
The primary leakage impedance drop shown in Figure 2.12(c), is drawn to a larger
scale, in comparison with Vl' or Vl, just for the sake of clarity. At no-load and V'1 and
V1 are very nearly equal. Even at full load primary leakage impedance drop in power
transformer is about 2 to 5% of V1, so that the magnitude of V'1 or E1 does not
change appreciably from no-load to full load.
2.6.5. Transformer Phasor Diagram Under Load
The secondary circuit of transformer is considered first and then the primary circuit,
for developing the phasor diagram of a transformer under load.
Figure 2.14 Transformer under load

When the switch S is closed, secondary current I2 starts flowing from terminal n to
the load. Assume the load to have a lagging power factor so that I2 lags secondary
load voltage V2 by an angle 2. At first V2 is drawn with I2 lagging V2 by the
secondary p.f. angle 2, Figure 1.11 (a). The secondary resistance drop is accounted
for, by drawing I2r2 parallel to I2. The secondary m.m.f. I2N2 gives rise to a leakage
flux l2 which links only the secondary and not the primary. The flux l2 is called the
secondary leakage flux and is in phase with I2, for the same reason that l1 is in
phase with Ie in Figure 2.12(c). The secondary leakage flux induces emf Ex2 in the
secondary winding, lagging l2 by 90°. The secondary no load voltage E2 must have a
component equal and opposite to –jx2I2. Thus the phasor sum of V2, I2r2 and jx2I2
gives the secondary induced emf E2 as shown in Figure 2.15(a).
The voltage equation for secondary circuit can now be written as
E2  V2  I 2 ( r2  jx2 )  V2  I 2 z 2
where z2 is the secondary leakage impedance of the transformer.

Further the mutual flux  is drawn leading E2 by 90° and exciting current Ie is drawn
leading  by the hysteretic angle . Note that the phasor V2 has purposely been
taken to the left of vertical line, so that E2 is vertically downward and the mutual
flux  is horizontal.
The component of the primary current which neutralizes the demagnetizing effect of
I2 is
I'1 (I1N1 = I2N2) and drawn opposite to I2. The phasor sun of I'1 and Ie gives the
total primary current I1 taken from the supply mains . The primary leakage
impedance drop I1(r1+jx1) is depicted as explained earlier.
The voltage equation for primary circuit under load can be written as
V1  V1'  I1( r1  jx2 )  V1'  I1z1

where z1 is the primary leakage impedance of transformer. Note that the angle 1
between V1 and I1 is the primary power factor angle under load.
If the secondary load current I2 leads the voltage V2 such that the load p.f. is
leading, then the phasor diagram for the transformer is as shown in Figure 2.15 (b).
The entire procedure for drawing the phasor diagram is the same as explained for
Figure 2.15 (a).
jI 1
x1
1
1
  

l 2
2
2
jI 2
x2
x2
jI 2
Figure 2.15 Transformer phasor diagram for (a) lagging p.f. load and (b) leading p.f.
load
24
2.8. VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Constant voltage is the characteristics of most domestic, commercial and industrial
loads. It is therefore, necessary that the output voltage of a transformer must
remain within narrow limits as the load and its power factor vary. This requirement
is more stringent in distribution transformers as these directly feed the load centers.
The voltage drop in a transformer on load is chiefly determined by its leakage
reactance which must be kept as low as design and manufacturing techniques would
permit.
The voltage regulation is defined as voltage in secondary terminal voltage,
expressed as a percentage (per unit) of secondary rated voltage i.e.
E2  V2
Voltage regulation  in p .u
sec ondary rated voltage
where E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no load
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at any load
It is stipulated that the secondary rated voltage of a transformer is equal to the
secondary terminal voltage at no load, i.e. E2.
E  V2 E  V2
 Voltage regulation  2 in p .u  2  100 in percentage
E2 E2
At no-load, the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, therefore, the
N2
secondary no-load voltage E 2  V1 . The expression for voltage regulation can
N1
also be written as
N2 N
V1  V2 V1  V2 1
N1 N2
 100 in percentage   100 in percentage
N2 V1
V1
N1
Here V1 is the primary applied voltage.
The change in secondary terminal voltage with load current is due to the primary
and secondary leakage impedances of the transformer. The magnitude of this
change depends on the load power factor, load current, total resistance and leakage
reactance of a transformer.
A distribution transformer should have a small value of voltage regulation (i.e. good
voltage regulation) so that the terminal voltage at the consumers does not vary
widely as the load changes. For a transformer of large voltage regulation (i.e. poor
voltage regulation), the voltage at the consumers' terminals will fall appreciably with
increase in load. This has a detrimental effect on the operation of fluorescent tubes,
T.V. sets, refrigeration motors, etc since these are designed to operate satisfactorily
at a constant voltage. Thus distribution transformer should be designed to have a
low value of leakage impedances.
The voltage regulation of a transformer can be obtained form its approximate
equivalent circuit referred to primary or secondary. Figure 2.16 (a) illustrates the
approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to the secondary side and
the phasor diagram for this circuit is drawn in Figure 2.16 (b) for a lagging power
factor load. For the calculation of voltage regulation, draw an arc of radius OD
meeting the extension of line OA in F. It may be seen from Figure 2.16 (b) that OF
(= E2) is approximately equal to OC.
25
E2  OC  OA  AB  BC or B' C' 

  OA  AB' cos 2  DB' sin 2
 V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin  2
2
2
2
2
Figure 2.16 (a) approximate equivalent circuit of a 2-winding transformer, referred

to secondary; (b) the phasor diagram of the circuit of Figure 2.16(a) for lagging
power factor load.
Thus the voltage drop in the secondary terminal voltage
E 2  V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin 2 2.1
Note carefully that E2-V2 is not equal to AD i.e. I2ze2. The change in secondary
terminal voltage is equal to the magnitude of E2 minus the magnitude of V2.
In Eq.(2.1), per unit voltage regulation for any load current I2 is
E 2  V2 I 2 re 2 I x
 cos 2  2 e 2 sin 2 2.2
E2 E2 E2
In case I2, is rated current, then
I 2 re2 voltage drop across re 2 at rated current


E2 Rated (  base ) voltage E2
 p .u. equivalent resis tan ce or p .u . resis tan ce drop   r ( say )
I r I2 r Ohmic loss at rated current

Also  r  2 e2  2r e2 
E2 E2 I 2r Rated VA
I 2  x e2
Similarly, for rated current I2,  x
E2
From Eq. (2.2), the per unit voltage regulation at rated current is given by
 r cos 2   x sin 2 (2.3a)
Percentage voltage regulation at rated load

 r cos 2   x sin 2   100 (2.3b)
It should be noted that Eqs. (2.1) to (2.3) are valid for lagging power factors only.
For leading power factor loads, the phasor diagram of Figure reveals that
26
E 2  Oc  V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin 2
Therefore , secondary terminal voltage drop, for any load current I2, is
E 2  V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin  2
 p.u. voltage regulation at any load current I2 is given by
I 2 re 2 I x
cos 2  2 e2 sin 2
E2 E2
In case I2 is the rated ( or full-load)current, then p.u. voltage regulation is given by
 r cos 2   x sin 2
Condition for zero voltage regulation: It can be seen from Eq. (2.3) that voltage
regulation varies with load power factor. If load power factor is varied with constant
values of load current and secondary emf, then zero voltage regulation will occur
when
 r cos 2   x sin 2  0
 I 2 re 2 r
tan 2   r     e2
x I x xe 2
E2 2 e2
E2
x
 magnitude of the load p.f. , cos  2  e 2
re 2
The negative value of tan2 indicates a leading power factor. Therefore, zero
x
voltage regulation occurs when load power factor is e 2 leading . For leading p.f.s.
ze2
x
greater than e 2 , the voltage regulation will be negative, i.e. the voltage will rise
ze2
from its no load value, as the transformer load is increased.
Condition for maximum voltage regulation: P.u. voltage regulation
  r cos 2   x sin 2 .
The condition for maximum voltage regulation is obtained by dedifferentiating the
above expression with respect to 2 and equating the results to zero. Here again the
load current and secondary emf are assumed to remain constant.
d
  p .u. regulation    r sin 2   x cos 2  0
d 2
 x
Or tan 2  x  e 2
r re2
r
Any cos  2  e 2
z e2
Here tan2 is positive, therefore, maximum voltage regulation occurs at lagging load
re 2
p.f. equal to . In other words, maximum voltage regulation occurs when load
ze 2
power-factor angle 2 is equal to the leakage impedance angle  of the transformer.
 the magnitude of maximum voltage regulation is:
27
r x I r r I x x
  r e2   x e2  2 e2  e2  2 e2  e2
ze2 re 2 E 2 ze 2 E2 re 2

I2
E2 z e2
 I z

re22  xe22  2 e 2  ze 2 pu
E2
2 2
2  
I 2 re2 cos 2
I 2 x e 2 cos 2
2 2
2 90
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 2.17 Phasor diagram for 1-phase transformer for (a) negative voltage
regulation (V.R);(b) zero V.R and (c) maximum V.R
Thus the magnitude of maximum voltage regulation is equal to the p.u value
equivalent leakage impedance of the transformer. For example, if a transformer has
ze2 = 0.054. then magnitude of maximum possible voltage regulation is 5.4%.
Phasor diagrams for a single-phase transformer for different operating power factors
are illustrated in Figure 2. In Figure 2.17 (a), E2 < V2 voltage regulation (V.R.) is
therefore negative . In Figure 2.17 (b) E2 = V2. V.R is zero. Figure 2.17 (c) is drawn
under the condition of maximum V.R, because here load power-factor angle 2 =
leakage-impedance angle  of the transformer where
x   cos 1  re 2
  tan 1  e 2 .
 re 2  
 ze 2 
Example 2.4 A 6600/440 V, single-phase transformer has an equivalent resistance
of 0.02 p.u. and an equivalent reactance of 0.05 p.u. Find the full-load voltage
regulation at 0.8 pf lagging, if
the primary voltage is 6600 V. Find also the secondary terminal voltage at full load.
Solution
  r cos  2   x sin  2
P.u. voltage regulation
 0.02 0.8  0.050.6   0.046
E 2  V2
  0.046
E2
For a primary voltage of 6600 V, the secondary no load voltage E2 is 440 V.
 The change in the secondary terminal voltage
E2  V2 = 440 (0.046) = 20.25 V
and secondary terminal voltage
V2 = 440 + 20.25 V
28
Example 2.5 A short-circuit test, when performed on the H.V. side of a 10 kVA,
2000/400 V, single-phase transformer gave the following data:
60 V, 4 A, 100 W
If the L.V. side is delivering full load (or rated) current at 0.8 p.f. lag and at 400 V,
find the voltage applied to H.V. side.
Solution
From short circuit data
P 100
reH  sc   6.25 
2
Isc 42
V 60
ZeH  sc   15 
Isc 4
2 2
 x eH  Z eH  reH  152  6.252  13.61 
For the L.V. side, the parameters are
2 2
1  1
reL  reH     6.25   0.25 
k  5
2 2
1  1
x eL  x eH     13.61   0.544 
k  5
Full load secondary current
S 10,000
I 2L    25 A
V2 400
E 2  V2  I 2 L reL cos  2  I 2 L x eL sin  2
Now
 25  0.25  0.8  25  0.544  0.6   13.16 V
For V2 = 400 V, E2 = 400 + 13.16 = 413.16 V
 The voltage applied to the primary is
2000
 413.16  2065 .8 V .
400
2.9. TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
Equipment is desired to operate at a high efficiency. Fortunately, losses in
transformers are small. Because the transformer is a static device, there are no
rotational losses such as windage and friction losses in a rotating machine. In a well-
designed transformer the efficiency can be as high as 99%.
2.9.1. Transformer Losses
There are mainly two kinds of losses in a transformer, namely
i) Core loss and
ii) ohmic loss
Core loss The core loss P c occurring in the transformer iron, consists of two
components, hysteresis loss Ph and eddy current loss P e i.e.
P c = P h + Pe
29
The hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core can be expressed by :-
Ph  K h f Bxm 

and 
2 2 
Pe  K e f B m 
Where Kh = proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of
the core material and units used.
Ke = Proportionality constant whose value depends on the volume and
resistivity of the core material, thickness of laminations and the units
employed
Bm = maximum flux density in the core and
f = frequency of the alternating flux
The value of the exponent x (called Steinmetz’s constant) varies from 1.5 to 2.5
depending upon the magnetic properties of the core material. Therefore, the total
core loss is
P c = KhfB1.6m + Kef2B2m
Ohmic Loss When a transformer is loaded, ohmic loss (I2R) occurs in both the
primary and secondary winding resistances. Since the standard operating
temperature of electrical machines is 750C. The ohmic loss should be calculated at
750C.
2.9.2. Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer ( or any other device) is defined as the ratio the
output power to input power. Thus
Output power
Efficiency  =
Input power
V2 I 2 cos 2
= 2.4
V2 I 2 cos  2 + Pc + I 2 2 R
Where P c = total core loss
I22R = total ohmic losses
V2I2 = output VA
Cos 2 = load power factor
Since the efficiencies of power and distribution transformers are usually very high, it
is therefore, more accurate to determine the efficiency from measurement of losses
than from the measurement of output.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency.
In Eq. (*), P c is constant and the load voltage V2 remains practically constant. A
d
specified values of load p.f. cos2, the efficiency will be maximum when  0.
dI 2
d
Therefore,  0 for Eq.(2.4) is
dI 2
30
 
d V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 22 re 2 V2 cos  2   V2 I 2 cos 2 V2 cos  2  2 I 2 re 2 
 0
dI 2

V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 22 re 2
2

Or V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 22re2  V2 cos 2   V2 I 2 cos 2 V2 cos 2  2I 2re2 
Or I 22 re 2  Pc 2.5
Or variable ohmic loss, I 22 re 2  cons tan t core loss , Pc
Hence the maximum efficiency occurs when the variable ohmic loss I 22 re 2 is equal to
the fixed core loss Pc. From Eq.(2.5) the load current I2 at which maximum
efficiency occurs is given by
Pc Pc
I2   I fl 2.6
re 2 2
I fl re 2
If both sides of above equation are multiplied by

E2 , we get
1000
E2 I 2 E2 I fl Pc

1000 1000 Full load ohmic losses
kVA load for maximum
Core loss
 rated transformer kVA 
Ohmic losses at rated current
Pc
Or kVAmax  kVA 2
2.7
I fl re 2
Thus the maximum efficiency, for a constant load current, occurs at unity power
factor (i.e. at purely resistive load). It is seen from Eq. (2.6) that the load current at
which maximum efficiency occurs does not depend upon the load power factor
because Pc and re2 are almost unaffected by a variation in the load power factor.
A reduction in the load power factor reduces the transformer output and therefore
the transformer efficiency is also reduced accordingly. Figure 2.18 illustrates the
effect of p.f. on efficiency. Note that transformer efficiency is maximum at the same
load current regardless of variation in the load power factor.
31
max
Figure 2.18 Effect power factor on efficiency
2.10. RATING OF TRANSFORMER

The manufacturer of transformers fixes a name plate on the transformer, on which
are recorded the rated output, the rated voltages, the rated frequency etc of a
particular transformer. A typical name plate rating of a single phase transformer is
as follows: 20 KVA, 3300/220V, 50Hz. Here 20 KVA is rated output at the secondary
terminals. Note that the rated output is expressed in kilo-volt-ampere (KVA) rather
than in kilowatt (KW). This is due to the fact that rated transformer output is limited
by the heating and hence by losses in the transformer. The two types of losses in a
transformer are core loss and ohmic ( I2r) loss. The core loss depends on
transformer voltage and ohmic loss on transformer current. As these losses depend
on transformer voltage (V) and current (I) and are almost unaffected by the load
power factor, the transformer rated output is expressed in VA (VI) or in kVA and
are not in kW. For example, a transformer working on rated voltage and rated
current with load pf equal to zero has rated losses and rated kVA output but delivers
zero power to load. This shows that transformer must be expressed in kVA.
For any transformer
 Rated input in kVA at    Rated 0utput in kVA at  

 the primary ter min als  cos1    the sec ondary ter min als  cos2   Losses
     
Since a transformer operates at very high efficiency, losses may be ignored.
Furthermore the primary power factor Cos1 and secondary power factor Cos2 are
nearly equal. Therefore the rated KVA marked on the name plate of a transformer
refers to both windings i.e. rated KVA of primary winding and secondary winding are
equal.
The voltage 3300/220 V refers to the design voltages of the two windings. Either
one may serve as primary or secondary. If it is step-down transformer, then 3300 V
is rated primary voltage and refers to the voltage applied to the primary winding.
The 220V is rated secondary voltage and refers to the voltage developed between
output terminals at no-load with rated voltage applied to the primary terminals.
Rated primary and secondary currents are calculated from the rated KVA and the
corresponding rated voltages. Thus
20,000
Rated (or full load) primary current   6.06A
3300
20,000
Rated (or full load) secondary current   90.91A
220
32
Note that the rated primary and secondary currents refer to the currents for which
the windings are designed.
Rated frequency refers to the frequency for which the transformer is designed to
operate.
Example 2.6 A 100 kVA, 1000/10000 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has an
iron loss of 1100 W. The copper loss with 5 A in the high voltage winding is 400 W.
Calculate the efficiencies at (i) 25 %, (ii) 50 % and (iii) 100 % of normal load for
power factors of (a) 1.0 and (b) 0.8. The output terminal voltage being maintained
at 10000 V. Find also the load for maximum efficiency at both power factors.
Solution
i) Efficiency at 25% of normal load, unity pf:
Iron losses = 1100 W
Copper losses with 5 A in secondary = 400 W
Secondary full load current, I2
100  1000
I2 
10000
 10 A
Current in the secondary at 25 % full load = ¼  10 = 2.5 A
2
 2.5 
Copper losses at 25% full load =    400
 5 
= 100 W
Output at 25% full load = 0.25  100  1000  1
= 25 000 W
Efficiency at 25 % load, unity pf
25000
 at 25%   100
25000  1100  100
 95.4%
ii) Efficiency at 25 % full load, 0.8 pf:
25000  0.8
 at 25%   100
25000  0.8  1100  100
 94.34%
iii) Efficiency at 50 % full load, unity pf:
Copper losses at 25% full load = 400 W
Output at 50 % full load, unity pf = 0.5  100  1000  1
= 50 000 W
50000  1.0
 at 50%   100
50000  1.0  1100  100
 97.65%
iv) Efficiency at 50 % full load, 0.8 pf:
33
50000  0.8
 at 50%   100
50000  0.8  1100  400
 97.1%
v) Efficiency at 100 % full load, unity pf:
2
 10 
Copper losses at 100% full load =    400
 5
= 1600 W
Output = 100  1000  1 = 100 000 W
100000  1.0
 at 100%   100
100000  1.0  1100  1600
 97.37%
vi) Efficiency at full load, 0.8 pf:
100000  0.8
 at 100%   100
100000  0.8  1100  1600
 96.73%
vii) Load for maximum efficiency at unity pf:
Maximum efficiency occurs when the iron losses equal the copper losses. Let the
maximum efficiency occur at x per cent of the full load.
Copper losses at x % of full load = x2 1600
Thus x2 1600 = 1100
x = 0.829
Load for maximum efficiency = 0.829  100 = 82.9 kVA
viii) Load for maximum efficiency at 0.8 pf:
Load for maximum efficiency will remain the same irrespective of power factor
Thus load for maximum efficiency = 82.9 kVA
Example 2.7 A single phase transformer working at unity power factor has an
efficiency of 90% at both one half load and at the full load of 500 W. Determine the
efficiency at 75 % of full load.
Solution
Efficiency of the transformer at full-load = 0.9
Output at full load = 500 W
Let the iron losses of the transformer be = x watts
and the total copper losses at full load be = y watts
Then, the total losses at full load = x + y
Hence,
500
0.9 
500  x  y
 10 A
Or 0.9x + 0.9y = 50 (i)
34
Efficiency of the transformer at half of full load = 0.9

2
1 y
Total copper losses at half of full load =   y 
2 4
Output of the transformer = ½  500 = 250 W
250
Thus, 0.9 
250  x  y
4
0.9x + 0.25y = 25 (ii)
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii)
y = 37 W
and x = 18.53 W
i.e. total copper losses at full load = 37 W
Iron losses = 18.53 W
Output of the transformer at 75 per cent of full load
= 0.75 x 500
= 375 W
Total copper losses at 75 per cent of full load
= (0.75)2 x 37
= 20.8 W
Efficiency at 75 percent of full load
375
 at 75%   100
375  18.53  20.8
 90.5%
2.11. PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

When electric power is supplied to a locality a single transformer, capable of
handling the required power demand, is installed. In some cases, it may be
preferable to install two or more transformers in parallel, instead of one large unit.
Though two or more transformers may be expensive than one large unit, yet this
scheme posses certain advantages described below.
1. With two or more transformers, power system becomes more reliable.

For instance if one transformer develops a fault, it can be removed and
the other transformers can maintain the flow of power , though at
reduced
load.
2. Transformers can be switched on or off , depending upon the power

demand. In this manner, the transformer losses decrease and the system
becomes more economical and efficient in operation.
3. The cost of standby (or spare) unit is much less when two or more
transformers are installed.
In any case, in the long run , electric power demand may become more than rated
KVA capacity of already existing transformer or transformers. Under such
35
circumstances, the need for extra transformer arises; the extra unit must be
connected in parallel.
Note that the parallel operation of transformers requires that their primary windings
, as well as secondary windings are connected in parallel . In this section only the
parallel operation of single-phase transformers is considered.
The various conditions which must be fulfilled for the satisfactory parallel operation
of two or more single-phase transformers are as follows:
a) The transformer must have the same voltage ratios, i.e with the primaries
connected to the same voltage sources, the secondary voltage of all
transformers should be equal in magnitude.
b) The equivalent leakage impedance in ohms must be inversely proportional to

their respective KVA ratings. In other words, per unit (pu) leakage impedance
of transformers based on their KVA rating must be equal.
c) The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance i.e. Xe/re

should be the same for all transformers.
d) The transformer must be connected properly as far as their polarities are

concerned.
Out of the conditions listed above, condition(d) must be strictly fulfilled. If the
secondary terminals are connected with wrong polarities, large circulating currents
will flow and the transformers may get damaged.
Condition (a) should be satisfied as accurately as possible ; since different

secondary voltages would give rise to undesired circulating currents. For conductions
(b) and (c), some deviation is permissible. Thus the fulfillment of condition (d) is
essential whereas the fulfillment of the other conditions is desirable.
Figure 2.19 Two single-phase transformers in parallel
Figure 2.19 shows single-phase transformers in parallel, connected to some voltage

source on the primary side. Zero voltmeter reading indicates proper polarities. If the
voltmeter reads the sum of two secondary voltages, the polarities are improper and
can be corrected by reversing the secondary terminals of any one of the
transformers.
2.12. THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is invariably done
through the use of three-phase systems because of its several advantages over
single-phase systems. As such, a large number of three-phase transformers are
36
inducted in a 3-phase energy system for stepping-up or stepping – down the voltage
as required. For 3-phase up or down transformation, three units of 1-phase
transformers or one unit of 3-phase transformer may be used. When three identical
units of 1-phase transformers are used as shown in Figure 2.20(a), the arrangement
is usually called a bank of three transformers or a 3-phase transformer bank. A
single 3-phase transformer unit may employ 3–phase core-type construction Figure
2.20(b) or three phase shell type construction.
Input
A B C
P S P S P S
a b c
Output
(a) (b)
Figure 2.20 (a)Three-phase transformer bank, both windings in star;(b) three-phase
core-type transformer
A single-unit 3-phase core-type transformer uses a three-limbed core, one limb for
each phase winding as shown in Figure 2.20(b). Actually, each limb has the L.V.
winding placed adjacent to the laminated steel core and then H.V. winding is placed
over the 1.v. winding. Appropriate insulation is placed in between the core and 1.v.
winding and also in between the two windings.
A 3-phase core-type transformer costs about 15% less than a bank of three 1-phase
transformers. Also, a single unit occupies less floor space than a bank.
2.12.1. Three-Phase Transformer Connections
Three-phase transformers may have the following four standard connections
(a) Star-Delta ( Y-) (b) Delta-Star (-Y)
(c) Delta-Delta (-) (d) Star-Star (Y-Y)
These connections are shown in Figures 2.21 and 2.22, where V and I are taken as
input line voltage and line current respectively. Primary and secondary windings of
one phase are drawn parallel to each other. With phase turns ratio from primary to
secondary as
N1/N2= a, the voltages and current in the windings and lines are shown in Figures
2.21 and 2.22. The various connections are now described briefly.
(a) Star-delta (Y-) Connection This connection is commonly used for stepping
down the voltage from a high level to a medium or low level. The insulation
on the h.v. side of the transformer is stressed only to 57.74%
 1 
 x 100 of line to line voltage
 3 
For per-phase m.m.f. balance, I2N2 =I1N1
Here primary phase current, I1 = primary line current I
37
N1
Secondary phase current , I 2  I  aI
N2 1
Secondary line current  3 I 2  3 . aI
Also, voltage per turn on primary = voltage per turn on secondary
V 1 V2
.
3 N1 N 2
N2 V V
Secondary phase voltage, V2  . 
N 1 3 a. 3
V
Secondary line voltage = secondary phase voltage =
a. 3
V V
Input VA = 3 . I = output VA = 3. . aI  3 VI
3 a. 3
Phase and line values for voltages and currents on both primary and secondary sides
of star-delta transformer are shown in Figure 2.21(a)
I 3kI kI
I 3
V
V I
3 3k V
V kI kI
I 3 k 3V
V
3 k
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.21 (a) Star-delta connection and (b) delta-star connection of 3-phase
transformers
(b) Delta-Star (-Y) connection:- This type of connection is used for stepping
up the voltage to a high level. For example, these are used in the beginning
of h.v. transmission lines so that insulation is stressed to about 57.74% of
line voltage
Delta-star transformers are also generally used as distribution transformers for
providing mixed line to line voltage to high-power equipment and line to neutral
voltage to 1-phase low-power equipment. For example, 11kV/400V, delta-star
distribution transformer is used to distribute power to consumers by 3-phase four-
wire system. Three-phase high–power equipment is connected to 400V, three line
wires, whereas 1-phase low-power equipment is energized from 231 V line to
neutral circuits.
38
For per  phase m.m.f . balance , I 2 N 2  I1 N1

1
Here primary phase current , I1  ( primary line current I )
3
N 1
Secondary phase current, I 2  1 I1  a
N2 3
V2 V1
Also 
N 2 N1
N V
Secondary phase voltage, V2  2 .V1 
N a
1
V
 Secondary line voltage  3.
a
I V I
Input VA  3. V .  3 VI  Output VA  3. . a  3 VI
3 a 3
Phase and line values for voltages and currents on primary as well as secondary
sides of a 3-phase delta-star transformer are shown in Figure 2.21(b).
(c) Delta-Delta (-) Connection
This scheme of connections is used for large 1.v transformers. It is because a delta-
connected winding handles line voltage, so it requires more turns per phase but of
smaller cross-sectional area. The absence of star point may be a disadvantage in
some applications.
In case a bank of three transformers is used, then one transformer can be removed
for maintenance purposes while the remaining two transformers (called an open-
delta or V-connection) can still deliver 58% of the power delivered by the original 3-
phase transformer bank.
For per phase mmf balance, I2N2 = I1N1:
1
primary phase current , I1  ( primary line current I )
3
N aI
Secondary phase current , I 2  1 I1 
N2 3
 aI 
Secondary line current ,  3   aI
 
 3 
V2 V
Also   1
N2 N1
N V
Secondary phase voltage , V2  2 V1  ( Here V1  V )
N1 a
V
Secondary line voltage  V2 
a
I V aI
Input VA  3V .  output VA  3. ,  3 VI
3 a 3
Phase and line value for voltages and currents on both primary and secondary sides
of a 3-phase delta-delta transformer are shown in Figure 2.22 (a).
39
I kI kI
V V I V
k 3 kI V
I kI V 3k
V k
3 3
(a) (b)
Figure 2.22 (a) Delta-delta connection and (b) Star-star connection of three-phase
transformers.
(d) Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection
This connection is used for small h.v transformers . As stated before, with star
connection, turns per phase are minimum and the winding insulation is stressed to
57.74% of line voltage. Star-star connection is rarely used in practice because of
oscillatory neutral problems.
For per  phase m.m.f .balance, I 2 N 2  I1 N1

Pr imary Phase Current, I1  primary line current, I
N
Secondary phase current, I 2  1 I1  aI
N2
 Secondary line current
N V
sec ondary phase voltage , V2  2 V1 
N1 3a
V V
Secondary line voltage  3 V2  3 . 
3. a a
V V
Input VA  3 . I  output VA  3. . aI  3 VI
3 3. a
Phase and line values of voltages and currents on both sides of a star-star
transformer are shown in Figure 2.22(b)
Example 2.8 A 3-phase transformer is used to step-down the voltage of a 3-phase,
11kV feeder line. Per-phase turns ratio is 12. For a primary line current of 20A,
calculate the secondary line voltage, line current and output KVA for the following
Connections:
(a) star-delta (b) delta-star (c) delta-delta (d) star-star. Neglect losses.
Solution
(a) Three-phase transformer with star-delta connection is shown in Figure
2.23(a)
40
V 11000
phase voltage on primary, VP1  L1  V
3 3
phase current on primary, I P1  I L1  20A
VP1 VP 2
Here,  and I p1  12  I p 2  1
12 1
11000
 Phase voltage on sec ondary, Vp2   529.25V
3 x 12
Line voltage on sec ondary , VL2  Vp2  529.25V
Phase current on sec ondary I p 2  12 I p1  12  20  240A
Line current on sec ondary I L2  3 I p 2  3  240  415.68A
3Vp2 .I p2 11000 1
Output KVA   3.  240 x  381.04 KVA
1000 3 x 12 1000
(b) Delta-star connection of 3-phase transformer is shown in Figure 2.23 (b)

Vp1 VL1 11000
Phase voltage on sec ondary VP2    V  916.67 V
12 12 12
11000
Line voltage on sec ondary VL2  3 Vp2  3   1587.67V
12
20
Phase current on primary I p1  I L1 / 3  A
3
20
Phase current on sec ondary I p1  12 I p1  12   138.568A
3
Line current on sec ondary, I L 2  I p 2  138.568A
11000 12 x 20
Output KVA  3    381.04 KVA.
12 1000 x 3
(c) Delta-delta connection of 3-phase transformer is shown in Figure 2.23(c)
Vp1 VL1 11000

Phase voltage on sec ondary, VP2    V  916.7 V
12 12 12
Line voltage on sec ondary, VL2  VP2  916.7V
20
Phase current on primary, I P1  A
3
20
Phase current on sec ondary, I P 2  12 I P1  12  A
3
12  20
Line current on sec ondary, I L2  3 I P2  3 .  240A
3
11000 12x 20 1
Output KVA  3     381.04 KVA.
12 3 1000
41
I L1  20A I L2
I L1  20 A
VP1 I P1 VP 2  VL2
VL1  11000 V I P2
I P2 VP 2
VL1  11000 V I P1 VL 2
(a)
(b)
I L1  20A I L2  3I P 2 IL2
VP2  VL2 VP1 I P1

VP 2
VL1  11000 V IP2
VP1  11000 V I P2 VL2  3VP 2
I P1
(c) (d)
Figure 2.23 for Example 2.8

(d) 3-phase transformer with star-star connection is shown in Figure 2.23(d)
V 11000
Phase voltage on sec ondary , VP2  P1  V
12 3 x 12
11000 11000
Line voltage on sec ondary, VL2  3 VP 2  3  V
3 x 12 12
Phase current on Pr imary, I P1  I L1  20A
Phase current on sec ondary, , I P 2  12 I P1  12  20  240A
Line current on Secondary, I L2  I P 2  240A
3  11000 240
Output KVA    381.04KVA
3 12 1000
Example 2.9 An 11000/415V, delta-star transformer feeds power to a 30

kW, 415V, 3-phase induction motor having an efficiency of 90% and full-load pf
0.833. Calculate the transformer rating and phase and line currents on both high
and low voltage sides.
Solution
30
Transformer kVA rating   40KVA
0.9 x 0.833
Total load in VA 40,000
Line current on l.v. side of transformer    55.65A
3 x line voltage 3 x 415
.
For star connected 1.v. winding, phase current in 1.v. winding = line current on
1.v side = 55.65A.
40,000
Line current on HV, side of transformer =  2.1A
3 x 11000
For delta connected HV winding, phase current in HV winding:
42
1 1
= (line current on h.v. side) = x 2.1 = 1.212A
3 3
Phase Shift
Some of the three-phase transformer connections will result in a phase shift
between the primary and secondary line-voltages. Consider the phase voltages,
shown in Figure 2.24, for the Y- connections. The phases VAN and Va are aligned,
but line voltage VAB of the primary leads the line voltage Vab of the secondary by
300. It can be shown the -Y connection also provides a 300 phase shift in there line
–to-line voltage. This property of phase shift in Y- or -Y connections can be used
advantageously in some applications.
Figure 2.24 phase shift in line-to-line voltages in a three-phase transformer

V-Connection
It was stated earlier that in the - connection of three single-phase transformers,
one transformer can be removed and the system can still deliver three-phase power
to a three-phase load. This configuration is known as an open-delta or V connection.
It may be employed in an emergency situation when one transformer must be
removed for repair and continuity of service is required.
(a)
43
30 

30
(b)
Figure 2.25 V-connection
Consider Figure 2.25(a) in which one transformer, shown dotted is removed. For
simplicity the load is considered to by Y- connected. Figure 2.25(b) shows the phase
diagram for voltages and currents. Here VAB, VBC and VCA represent the line-to line
voltage of the primary Vab, Vbc and Vcb secondary and Van, Vbn and Vcn represent the
phase voltages of the load. For an inductive load the load currents Ia, Ib and Ic will
lag the corresponding voltages Van, Vbn and Vcn by the load phase angle θ.
Transformer winding ab and bc deliver power
Pab  Vab I a cos30  
Pbc  Vcb I c cos 30  
Let Vah = Vcb  = V, Voltage rating of the transformer secondary winding.
Ia = Ic = I current rating of the transformer secondary winding and  = 0 for
a resistive load. Power delivered to the load by the V connection is
Pv  Pab  Pbc  2VI cos 30 2.8

With all three transformers connected in delta, the power delivered is
P  3VI 2.9
From Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9)
Pv 2 cos 300
  0.58
P 3
The V connection is capable of delivering 58% power without overloading the
transformer (i.e., not exceeding the current rating of the transformer winding).
2.12.2. Three-Phase Transformer of A Common Magnetic Core (Three
Phase Unit Transformer)
A three phase transformer can be constructed by having three primary and three
secondary windings on a common magnetic core. Consider three single-phase core-
type units as shown in Figure 2.26(a). For simplicity, only the primary winding has
been shown. If balanced three-phase sinusoidal voltages are applied to the
windings, the fluxes a, b, and c will also be sinusoidal and balanced. If the three
legs carrying these fluxes are merged, the net flux in the merged leg is zero. This
leg can therefore be removed as shown in Figure 2.26(b). This structure is not
convenient to build.
44
c a
a
b
b c
a   b  c  0
(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Figure 2.26 development of a three-phase core-type transformer.
However, If section II is pushed in between sections I and III by removing its yokes,
a common magnetic structure shown in Figure 2.26(c), is obtained.
This core structure can be built using stacked laminations as shown in Figure
2.26(d). Both primary and secondary windings of a phase are placed on the same
leg. Note that the magnetic paths of legs a and c are somewhere longer than that of
leg b (Figure 2.26 (c). This will result in some imbalance in the magnetizing
currents. However, this imbalance is not significant.
Figurer 2.27 shows a picture of a three-phase transformer of this type. Such a
transformer weight less , costs less, and requires less space than a three-phase
transformer bank of the same rating. The disadvantage is that if one phase breaks
down, the whole transformer must be removed for repair.
45
Figure 2.27 Cut-away view of three-phase core-type transformer

Transformers are usually air-cooled even if placed in metal cases. Larger sizes are
placed in tanks with special transformer oil. The oil has a dual function ; it insulates
while providing cooling. Still larger sizes have tanks with corrugated sides or cooling
fins or radiators to dissipate the heat to the surrounding air. Figure 2.28 shows a
typical self-cooled transformer. The oil moves around by natural convection, since
warmer oil flows up. It flows down again through the radiator, which gives up this
heat to the surrounding air. In larger oil-cooled units, the oil must be pumped
around to maintain acceptable temperature levels. No matter what size of
transformer is dealt with, they all operate on the same principle.
Figure 2.28 large oil-cooled three-phase power transformer (sectional view).
2.13. AUTOTRANSFORMERS
In principle and in general construction, the autotransformer does not differ from
the conventional two-winding transformer so far discussed. It does differ from it.
however, in the way the primary and secondary windings are interrelated.
It will be recalled that in discussing the transformer principles of operation, it was
pointed out that a counter emf was induced in the winding, which acted as a primary
to establish the excitation ampere turns. The induced voltage per turn was the same
in each and every turn linking with the common flux of the transformer. Therefore,
fundamentally it makes no difference in the operation whether the secondary
induced voltage is obtained from a separate winding linked with the core or from a
portion of the primary turns. The same voltage transformation results in the two
situations. When the primary and secondary voltage are derived from the same
winding. the transformer is called an autotransformer.
An ordinary two-winding transformer may also be used as an autotransformer by
connecting the two windings in series and applying the impressed voltage across the
two, or merely to one of the windings. It depends on whether it is desired to step
the voltage down or up, respectively. This is shown in Figure 2.29(a) for the step-
down connection; the step-up connection is illustrated in Figure 2.29(b).
b
V2
I1
I2 - I1
(a) (b)
Figure 2.29 Autotransformers: (a) step-down; (b) step-up.
In Figure 2.29(a) the input voltage V1 is connected to the complete winding (a-c)
and the load RL is connected across a portion of the winding, that is, (b-c).The
voltage V2 is related to V1 as in the conventional two-winding transformer, that is,
N bc
V2  V1  2.10
N ac
where Nbc and Nac are the number of turns on the respective windings. The ratio of
voltage transformation in an autotransformer is the same as that for an ordinary -
transformer, namely,
N ac V1 I 2
k   2.11
N bc V2 I1
with k > 1 for step-down.
Assuming a resistive load for convenience, then,
V
I2  2
RL
Assume that the transformer is 100% efficient.The power output is
P  V2 I 2 2.12
47
Note that I1 flows in the portion of winding ab, whereas the current (I2 – I1) flows in
the remaining portion bc. The resulting current flowing in the winding bc is always
the arithmetic difference between I1 and I2 , since they are always in opposite sense.
Remember that the induced voltage in the primary opposes the primary voltage. As
a result. the current caused by the induced voltage flows opposite to the input
current.
In an autotransformer, the secondary current is this induced current, that is,
I1  I 2  I1   I 2 2.13
Hence the ampere-turns due to section bc, where the substitutions I 2  kI1 and
N
N bc  ac are made according to Eq. (2.11), is
k
ampere-turns due to section bc   I 2  I1 N bc

kI1  I1 N bc  1
 I1N ac 1    I1N ab
k  k
 ampere  turns due to sec tion ab
Thus the ampere-turns due to sections bc and ab balance each other, a characterstic
of all transformer actions.
Equation (2.12) gives the power determined by the load. To see how this power is
delivered, we can write the equation in a slightly modified forn. By substituting Eq.
(2.13) into Eq. (2.12), we obtain
P  V2 I 2  V2 I1  I 2  I1 
 V2 I1  V2 I 2  I1  W 2.14
This indicates that the load power consists of two parts. The first part is
Pc  V2 I1  conducted power to load through ab 2.15
The second part is
Ptr  V2  I 2  I1   transformed power to load through bc 2.16
We will see in the following examples that most of the power to the load is directly
conducted by winding ab. The remaining power is transferred by the common
winding bc. To show these powers Pc and P tr in terms of the total power P. ue
proceed as follows:
Pc V2 I1 I1 1
  
P V2 I 2 I 2 k
and
Ptr V2  I 2  I1   I 2  I1  k  1
  
P V2 I 2 I2 k
P P k  1
Thus Pc  and Ptr  with a > 1 for a step-down autotransformer.
k k
Example 2.10 A standard 5-kVA 2300/230-V distribution transformer is
connected as an autotransformer to step down the voltage from 2530 V to 2300 V.
The transformer connection is as shown in Figure 2.29 (a). The 230-V winding is
section ab, the 2300-V winding is bc. Compare the kVA rating of the autotrans-
48
former with that of the original two-winding transformer. Also calculate Pc, P tr, and
the currents.
Solution
The rated current in the 230-V winding (or in ab) is
5000 VA
I1   21.74 A
230
The rated current in the 2300-V winding (or in bc) is
5000
I 2  I1   2.174 A
2300
Therefore,
I 2  2.174  I1  23.914 A
The secondary current I2 can also be calculated from
2530
I 2  kI1   21.74  23.914 A
2300
2530
Since the transformation ratio k   1.1
2300
P  V1I1  V2 I 2  2530  21.74  55.00 kVA
The conducted power is
P 55,000
Pc    50 kVA
k 1 .1
and that transformed is
Ptr  P
k  1  55,000 1.1  1  5.0 kVA
k 1.1
Consider now the step-up transformer of Figure 2.29(b). Following reasons similar to
those above, it follows that
P  V1I1  V1I 2  I1  I 2 

 V1I 2  V1 I1  I 2  W 2.17
where we made the substitution of I1 from Eq. (2.13), which really is kirchhoff's
current law applied to point b. To show this, note at point b we have
I1  I 2  I1   I 2
so that
I1  I 2   I 2  I1   I 2   I1  I 2 
Again, Eq. (2.17) shows us that the power supplied to the load consists of two parts,
Pc  V1I 2  conducted power to load through ab 2.18
and
Ptr  V1  I1  I 2   transformed power to load through bc 2.19
In terms of total power, we have
49
Pc V1I 2 I 2
  k 2.20
P V1 I1 I1
and
Ptr V1  I1  I 2  I1  I 2 
   1 k 2.21
P V1I1 I1
Thus for the step-up transformer with a < 1, we obtain Pc  kP and Ptr  P 1  k 
As before, Pc is the power directly conducted to the load and Ptr is the portion that is
transformed.
Example 2.11 Repeat the problem of Example 2.10 for a 2300 V-to-2530 V
step-up connection as shown in Figure 2.29 (b).
Solution
As calculated in Example 2.10, the current rating of the winding ab is I2 = 21.74 A,
which also is the load current. The output voltage is 2530 V; thus the volt-ampere
rating of the autotransformer is
P  V2 I 2  2530  21.74  55 kVA

which is the same as in Example above. The transformer ratio
2300
k  0.909
2530
The conducted power is therefore
Pc  aP  0.909  55 kVA  50 kVA

and the transformed power
Ptr  P 1  a   55 kVA1  0.909  5 kVA

The examples given make it clear that an autotranaformer of given physical
dimensions can handle much more load power than an equivalent two-winding
k
transformer; in fact, times its rating as two-winding transformer for the step-
1 k
1
down autotransformer or for the step-up arrangement. A 5-kVA transformer is
k 1
capable of taking care of 11 times its rating. These great gains are possible since an
autotransformer transforms, by transformer action, only a fraction of the total
power; the power that is not transformed is conducted directly to the load.
It should be noted that an autotransformer is not suitable for large percentage
voltage reductions as is a distribution transformer. This is due to the required turns
ratio becoming too large; hence the power-handling advantage would be minimal.
Furthermore, in the unlikely but possible event that the connections to the
low-voltage secondary were to fail somewhere below point b in Figure 2.29(a), the
winding bc would be deleted from the circuit. This implies that the load would see
the full high line voltage. Autotransformers are not used for these reasons where
large voltage changes are encountered. In situations where autotransformers can be
used to their full advantage, it will be found that they are cheaper than a
cowentional two-winding transformer of similar rating. They also have better
regulation (i.e., the voltage does not drop so much for the same load), and they
operate at higher efficiency. In all applications using autotransformer it should be
realized that the primary and secondary circuits are not electrically isolated, since
one input terminal is common with one output terminal.
50
51
PROBLEMS
2.1. A 6600/400 V, 50 Hz single-phase core type transformer has a net cross-

sectional area of the core of 428 cm2. The maximum flux density in the core is
1.5 T. Calculate the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings.
Ans. 462, 28
2.2. A single phase, 50 Hz, 220/3000 V, transformer has a net cross-sectional area
of the core 400 cm2. If the peak value of flux density in the core is 1.239 T,
calculate the suitable values for the number of turns in primary and secondary
windings
2.3. Single-phase 50 Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and 280
in the secondary winding. The voltage applied across the primary winding is
240 V at 50 Hz. Calculate (i) the maximum flux density in the core and (ii)
induced emf in the secondary. The net cross-sectional area of the core can be
taken 200 cm2.
Ans.(i) 0.675 Wb/m2; (ii) 840 V
2.4. The values of the resistance of the primary and secondary windings of a
2200/200V, 50 Hz single phase transformer are 2.4 and 0.02  respectively.
Find (i) equivalent resistance of primary referred to secondary, (ii) equivalent
resistance of secondary referred to primary, (iii) total resistance of transformer
referred to secondary and (iv) total resistance of transformer referred to
primary.
2.5. Short circuit test performed on 20 kVA, 2000/200 V, 50 Hz, single phase
transformer gave the following readings:
With 100 V applied to the primary, full load current circulated in the short
circuited secondary with power drawn of 300 W. Calculate the secondary
terminal voltage on full- load (i) at unity power factor, (ii) at pf of 0.75
lagging and (iii) at pf of 0.8 leading. Find also the percentage regulation in
each case. Ans.:(i) 197 V, 1.5 % (ii) 191.4 V, 4.28% (iii)
203.3 V, -1.66%
2.6. The iron and full load copper losses in a 40 kVA single phase transformer are
450 and 850 W respectively. Find (i) the efficiency at full load when the power
factor of the load is 0.8 lagging, (ii) the maximum efficiency and (iii) the load
at which the maximum efficiency occurs.
2.7. Open-circuit and short-circuit tests were conducted on a 50 kVA, 6360/2Q0 V,

50 Hz, single-phase transformer in order to find its efficiency. The observations
during these tests are:
Open circuit test: Voltage across primary winding 6360 V. Primary
current, 1.0A, power input 2 kW.
Short circuit test: Voltage across primary 180 V, current in secondary
winding 175 A, power input 2 kW.
Calculate the efficiency of the transformer when supplying full load at power
factor of 0.8 lagging.
Ans.:89.2 %
2.8. Calculate the efficiency at full load, half load and one-fourth load at (i) unity pf
and (ii) 0.71 pf lagging, for a 80 kVA, 1100/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase
transformer, whose losses are as follows:
Iron losses= 800 W
Total copper losses with 160 A in the low voltage winding is 200 W.
52
Ans.:(i) 98.04 Y., 97.57 %, 95.92 % (ii) 97.25 %, 96.61 %;, 94.36
%.
2.9. The parameters of the equivalent circuit of a 10 kVA, 2000/ 400 V, 50 Hz,
single phase transformer are as follows:
Primary winding: r1=5.5 ; x1=12 
Secondary winding: r2 =0.2 ; x2 = 0.45
If the primary supply voltage is 2000 V, calculate the approximate value of
the secondary voltage at full load 0.8 power factor lagging.
Ans.:377.6 V
2.10. A 10-kVA 2200/460-V transformer is connected as an autotransformer to

step up the voltage from 2200 V to 2660 V. When used to transform 10 kVA,
determine the kVA load output.
Ans.:57.8 kVA
2.11. Three transformers connected -Y step down the voltage from 12600 to 600
V and deliver a 55-kVA load at a power factor of 0.866 lagging. Calculate :
(a) The transformation ratio of each transformer.
(b) The kVA and kW load in each transformer.
(c) The load currents.
(d) The currents in the transformer windings.
Ans.: (a) 33k ; (b) 18.3kVA , 15.88kW; (c) 48.1 A ; (d) I2=48.1A,
I1=1.46A
2.12. A 50-hp 440-V three-phase motor with an efficiency of 0.88 and a power
factor of 0.82 on full load is supplied from a 6600/440-V -Y connected
transformer. Calculate the currents in the high- and low-voltage transformer
windings when the motor is running at full load.
2.13. A 13,200-V three-phase generator delivers 10000 kVA to a three-phase

66,000-V transmission line through a step-up transformer. Determine the kVA,
voltage, and current ratings of each of the single-phase transformers needed if
they are connected:
(a) - (b)Y - (c) Y –Y (d) -Y
Ans.: (a) 3333kVA, V1=13.2kV, V2=66kV, I1=253A, I2=50.5A; (c)
3333kVA, V1=7.62kV, V2=38.1kV, I1=437.5A, I2=87.5A
2.14. A Y- transformer bank supplies a balanced load of 500 kW, 1100 V, 0.85 pf
lagging. Determine the primary and secondary voltages and currents . the
primary line voltage is 11000 V.
53

Introduction To Electrical Machines: Step-Up Transformer. When The Secondary Winding Has Less Turns Than The

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Electrical Machines: Step-Up Transformer. When The Secondary Winding Has Less Turns Than The

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to Electrical Machines

2.2. CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER

Figure 2.3 long strips of E’s, L’s and I’s laminations

Figure 2.4 Arrangement of butt joints in magnetic core

2.3. PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION

Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

2.4. IDEAL TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER

2.5.2. Voltage Transformation Ratio

2.5. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

consists of a combination o1 resistances, inductances, capacitances, voltages etc.

(a) Exciting current neglected

(b) Exact equivalent circuit

I1' jx'2 r2'

(c) Referred to primary

(d) referred to secondary

The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to secondary is

Following the above procedure, it can be shown that

2.6. OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS

2.6.1. Open Circuit (or No-Load) Test

Then Pc  V1I e cos  o

Figure 2.10 (c) Transformer equivalent circuit with secondary short-circuited

and Im = Ie sin 0 = 1.40.954 = 1.336 A

R cL  595 XcL  187 

0.025  0.06  0.06  0.025 

2.7. TRANSFORMER PHASOR DIAGRAMS

b) Effect of transformer resistance

Figure 2.13 Transformer at no load.

Figure 2.14 Transformer under load

where z2 is the secondary leakage impedance of the transformer.

V1  V1'  I1( r1  jx2 )  V1'  I1z1

2.8. VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

E2  OC  OA  AB  BC or B' C' 

Figure 2.16 (a) approximate equivalent circuit of a 2-winding transformer, referred

E 2  V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin 2 2.1

I 2 re2 voltage drop across re 2 at rated current

I r I2 r Ohmic loss at rated current

 r cos 2   x sin 2 (2.3a)

Percentage voltage regulation at rated load

Or variable ohmic loss, I 22 re 2  cons tan t core loss , Pc

If both sides of above equation are multiplied by

Figure 2.18 Effect power factor on efficiency

2.10. RATING OF TRANSFORMER

 Rated input in kVA at    Rated 0utput in kVA at  

Efficiency of the transformer at half of full load = 0.9

2.11. PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

1. With two or more transformers, power system becomes more reliable.

2. Transformers can be switched on or off , depending upon the power

b) The equivalent leakage impedance in ohms must be inversely proportional to

c) The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance i.e. Xe/re

d) The transformer must be connected properly as far as their polarities are

Condition (a) should be satisfied as accurately as possible ; since different

Figure 2.19 Two single-phase transformers in parallel

Figure 2.19 shows single-phase transformers in parallel, connected to some voltage

2.12. THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

For per  phase m.m.f . balance , I 2 N 2  I1 N1

For per  phase m.m.f .balance, I 2 N 2  I1 N1

(b) Delta-star connection of 3-phase transformer is shown in Figure 2.23 (b)

Vp1 VL1 11000

VP2  VL2 VP1 I P1

Figure 2.23 for Example 2.8

Example 2.9 An 11000/415V, delta-star transformer feeds power to a 30

Figure 2.24 phase shift in line-to-line voltages in a three-phase transformer

Pv  Pab  Pbc  2VI cos 30 2.8