CHAPTER TWO

TRANSFORMERS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The most important tasks performed by transformers are:-
I. Changing voltage and current levels in electrical power systems
II. Matching source and load impedances for maximum power transfer in electronic and
control circuit and
III. Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another )
Transformers are used extensively in ac power systems. AC electrical power can be generated at
one central location, its voltage stepped up for transmission over long distances at very low
losses and its voltage stepped down again for final use.

2.2 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION AND CONSTRUCTION

There are basically two types of transformer, the core-type and the shell-type. The two types
differ from each other by the manner in which the windings are wound around the magnetic core.
The magnetic core is a stock of thin silicon-steel laminations about 0.35mm thick for 50Hz
transformers. In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations are insulated from one
another by thin layer of varnish. In the core-type, the windings surround a considerable part of
steel core as shown in Figure 2.1(a). In shell-type the steel core surrounds a major part of the
windings as shown in Figure 2.1(b). For a given output and voltage rating, core-type transformer
requires less iron but more conductor material as compared to a shell-type transformer.
H.V.
Winding Yoke

L.V

H.V   
 Limb or 
L.V 2 2 2
Leg 2
H.V

L.V

L.V.
Winding

(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 Constructional details of single-phase (a) core-type transformer (b) Shell-type transformer
In core-type transformer, the flux has a single path around the legs or yokes. Figure 2.1(a). In
shell-type transformer, the flux in the central limb divides equally and returns through the outer
two legs as shown in Figure 2.1(b).

1
 There are two types of windings employed in transformers. The concentric coils are used for
core-type transformer as shown in Figure 2.1(a) and interleaved (or sandwiched) coils for shell-
type transformers as shown in Figure 2.2(b).
One type of laminations for the core and shell type of transformers is illustrated in Figure 2.2 (a)
and (b) respectively. In both core and shell-type transformers, the individual laminations are cut
in the form of long strips of L's, E’s and I's as shown in Figure 2.3 .

Butt Joints

Butt
Joints

1st, 3rd, 5th… layers 1st, 3rd, 5th… layers

Butt Joints

Butt
Joints

2nd, 4th, 6th… layers 2nd, 4th, 6th… layers

(b)
Figure 2.2 two adjacent layers for (a) core and (b) shell type transformers

Figure 2.3 long strips of E’s, L’s and I’s laminations

In order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the laminations are butted against each other,
the alternative layers are stacked as shown in Figure 2.4.

2
 Butt Joints

Figure 2.4 Arrangement of butt joints in magnetic core

During the transformer construction first the primary and secondary winding are wound, then the
laminations are pushed through the coil openings, layer by layer and the steel core is placed. The
laminations are then tightened by means of clamps and bolts.
Low-power transformers are air cooled whereas larger power transformers are immersed in oil
for better cooling. In oil-cooled transformer, the coil serves as a coolant and also as an insulation
medium.
PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION


V1 P N1 N2 S

Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

The primary winding P is connected to an alternating voltage source, therefore, an alternating
current Im starts flowing through N1 turns. The alternating mmf N1Im sets up an alternating flux 
which is confined to the high permeability iron path as indicated in Figure 2.5. The alternating
flux induces voltage E1 in the primary P and E2 in secondary S. If a load is connected across the
secondary, load current starts flowing.

3
2.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER AND PHASOR DIAGRAM
2.3.1 IDEAL TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER
For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various assumptions are as follows
1. Winding resistances are negligible.
2. All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings i.e. all of the flux is
confined to the magnetic core.
3. The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible.
4. The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for the core is linear.
A. EMF Equation of A Transformer
Let the voltage V1 applied voltage primary be sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then the current I m and,
therefore, the flux  will flow with the variations of Im . That is, the flux  is in time phase with
the current Im and varies sinusoidally. Let sinusoidal variation of flux  be expressed as
  m Sin t

Where m is maximum of the magnetic flux in Weber and  = 2f is the angular frequency in
rad/sec and f is the supply frequency in Hz.
The emf e1 in volt, induced in the primary of N1 turns by the alternating flux is given by
d
e 1   N1
dt
  N1m Cos  t

 N1m sin( t  )
2
 
Its maximum value, E1max occurs when Sin t   is equal to 1.
 2

 E1m  N1m

 
and e 1  E1m sin t  
 2

 The RMS value of the induced emf E1 in the primary winding is

E 2
E1  1m  fN1m
2 2
(2.1)
 2fN1m
 4.44 fN1m
Since the primary winding resistance is negligible hence e1, at every instant, must be equal and
opposite of V1. That is,
d
v1   e1   N1
dt
or V1   E1
The emf induced in the secondary is

4
 d
e2   N 2   N 2 m cos t
dt

 N 2  s in (  t  )
2

 E m 2 sin (  t  )
2
 Rms value of emf E2 induced in secondary winding is given by
E2m
E2   2 fN 2 m (2.2)
2
 4.44 fN 2 m

B. Voltage Transformation Ratio

From Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), we get
E1 N1
 k (2.3)
E2 N 2
The ratio is known as voltage transformation ratio.
I. If N2 > N1 i.e., K<1, then the transformer is called a step-up transformer.
II. If N2 < N1 i.e., K>1, then the transformer is known as a step-down
transformer.
Again in an ideal transformer
Input VA  Output VA
V1I1  V2 I 2

and
I1 V2 1
 
I 2 V1 k
Hence, the currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio of Eq. (2.3).
E1 E
Also, the ratio of  2  2  f m and this shows that the emf per turn in each of the
N1 N 2
windings is the same.
Example 2.1 A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary turns. The net
cross-sectional area of the core is 55 cm2. If the primary winding be connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz
single phase supply, calculate (i) the maximum value of flux density in the core and (ii) the
voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Solution
Voltage applied to the primary = 400 V
Induced emf in the primary, E1  voltage applied to the primary, V1 = 400 V
Number of turns in the primary N1 = 350

5
Net cross-sectional area Ai = 55 cm2
= 55 10-4 m2
Frequency of the supply f = 50 Hz
Induced emf in the primary is given by
E1  4.44f m N1  4.44f B m A i N1 E1 =
Maximum value of flux density in the core,
400
Bm 
4.44  50  55  10  4  350
 0.93 T ( Wb / m 2 )

Number of turns in the secondary winding, N2 = 1050

For an ideal transformer,
E1 N1

E2 N 2
Voltage induced in the secondary winding,
N2
E 2  E1 
N1
1050
 400 
350
 1200 V

Example 2.2 The required no-load voltage ratio in a single phase 50 Hz, core type transformer
is 6600/500. Find the number of turns in each winding, if the flux is to be 0.06 Wb.
Solution
6000
No-load voltage ratio =
500
No-load voltage of low voltage winding = 500 V
Flux = 0.06 Wb
Frequency f = 50Hz

Induced emf in the low voltage winding (secondary) of the transformer is given by,
E 2  4.44f m N 2
or 500  4.44  50  0.06  N 2
Number ut turns in the low voltage,
500
N2 
4.44  50  0.06
 37.5 ( not possible)

6
The number of turns in each winding should be a whole number, moreover each winding in the
core type transformer is accommodated on both the limbs. i.e. half number of turns of each
winding on one limb. As such the number of turns in each winding should be even.
Considering these facts , the number of turns in low voltage winding, N2 = 38
Number of turns in high voltage winding
V1 6600
N1 = N 2 × = 38 ×
V2 500
= 501.6 ( not possible)
Considering all the factors mentioned above, the number of turns in the high voltage winding
N1=500. Here the number of turns finally taken is 500 and not 502, because the high voltage
winding will be split up into a number of coils. With 250 turns on each limb, high voltage
winding on one limb can be split into 5 coils of 50 turns each.
2.3.2 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
The equivalent circuit for any electrical engineering devices can be drawn if the equations
describing its behavior are known. If any electrical device is to be analyzed and investigated
further for suitable modifications, its appropriate equivalent circuit is necessary. The equivalent
circuit for electromagnetic devices consists of a combination o1 resistances, inductances,
capacitances, voltages etc. Such an equivalent circuit (or circuit model) can, therefore, be
analyzed and studied easily by the direct application of electric circuit theory.
As stated above equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the equations describing
the performance of the device. In the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6(a) (r l +jx1) and (r2 + jx2) are
the leakage impedances of the primary and secondary windings respectively. The voltage V1' is
treated as a voltage drop in the direction of I1. Recall that the magnitude of V1' does not change
appreciably from no load to full load in large transformers. The magnitude of V1' depends on
f ,N1 and m, since V1'  E1 .
The primary current I1 consists of two components. One component I1' is the load component
and counteracts the secondary m.m.f. I2N2 completely. The other component is exciting current Ie
which is composed of Ic and Im. The current Ic is in phase with V1' and product V1' Ic gives core
loss. The resistance Rc parallel with V1' represents the core loss Pc, such that.

 V1' 
2
Pc  I c2 R c  V1' I c 
Rc

V'
And Rc  1
Ic

The current Im lags V1' by 90° and this can, therefore , be represented in the equivalent circuit by
a reactance Xm, such that
V'
Xm  1
Im

7
Rc and Xm are shown in Figure 2.6 (b), which is the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer. The
resistance Rc and reactance Xm are called core-loss resistance and magnetizing reactance,
respectively.
For minor changes in supply voltage and frequency, which is common under normal operation,
Rc and Xm are treated constant.
In Figure 2.6 (a) and (b) , the ideal transformer has been introduced to show the transformation
of voltage and current between primary and secondary windings . Even at this stage the
transformer magnetization curve is assumed linear, since the effect of higher order harmonic
can't be represented in the equivalent circuit.
R1 jX1 jX2 R2
+
+ + +
I1 I2

V1 E1 E2
V2

_ _ _ _

(a) Exciting current neglected

jx2 r2
r1 jx1 I1' N1 N2
+
+ + +
I1 Ie I2
Ic Im

V1 E2
E1 Rc jXm
V2

_ _ _ _
Ideal
transformer

(b) Exact equivalent circuit

jx1 jx'2 r2'
r1 I1' N1 N2
+
+ + +
I1 Ie
N 
I1'  I 2  2 
Ic Im  N1 
N 
V1 E1 N  V2  1  V2
Rc jXm E 2  1   N2 
 N2 

_ _ _
_
Ideal
transformer

(c) Referred to primary

8
 N1 N2 r1' jx1' jx2 r2

+ + N 
I e  1  I2
N   N2 
I1  1 
 N2  I'c I'm
N 
V1 2  N  V2
V1  N1  E1 2  Rc jXm E2
 N1 

_ _
_
Ideal
transformer

(d) referred to secondary

Figure 2.6 Development of the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer
In transformer analysis, it is usual to transfer the secondary quantities to primary side or primary
quantities to secondary side. Secondary resistance drop I 2 r2 when transferred to primary side
must be multiplied by the turns ratio N1 /N2.
N1
 Secondary resistance drop, when transferred to primary =  I 2 r2 
N2

 N N  N 
  I1  1  r2  1  putting I 2  I1  1 
 N2  N2  N2 

 N 
2 
 I1  1  r2   I1r2'
 N 2  
 
2
 N 
Where r2'  r2    1 
 N2 

If resistance r2' is placed in the primary circuit, then the relation between voltage V 1 and V2 is
unaffected. This resistance r2' is called the secondary resistance referred to primary. Therefore,
the total resistance in the primary circuit is
2
N 
re1  r1  r2   1   r1  r2'
 N2 
Hence re1 is called the transformer equivalent (or total) resistance referred to primary winding.
2
 N 
Similarly the primary resistance referred to secondary is r1    2  and the equivalent ( or total)
 N1 
resistance referred to secondary is
2
 N 
re 2  r2  r1    2   r2  r1'
 N1 

9
 Figure 2.6 (e) equivalent circuit in general form.
Secondary leakage reactance drop I2 x2, when transferred to primary is

 N1   N  2 
I 2 x 2    I1  1  x 2   I1x '2
 N2   N 2  
 

The quantity x '2 is called the secondary leakage reactance referred to primary. Total primary
leakage reactance is
2
N 
x e1  x1  x 2   1   x1  x '2
 N2 
Where xe1, is called the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to primary. Likewise, the
equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to secondary is
2
N 
xe 2  x2  x1   2   x2  x1'
 N1 
The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to primary is
z e1  re1  jx e1

The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to secondary is

z e2  re2  jx e2

Following the above procedure, it can be shown that

2 2
N  N 
z e1   1  z e 2 and z e 2   2  z e1
 N2   N1 
In general, when values are referred to either circuit the following conditions should be kept in
mind
 The energy condition (i.e. the active and reactive) power should be remain unchanged
 The phase angle between voltage and current i.e. power factor, should be remain the same
and
 The referring factor must be the same for all values of the same type.

10
Simplification of the exact equivalent circuit: The equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6 (b) can be
simplified by referring all the quantities to primary or secondary and at the same time, moving
the ideal transformer to one side. If the secondary quantities are referred to primary, the
equivalent circuit of Figure2.6 (c) is obtained. Since it is usual to omit the ideal transformer, it is
shown dotted for the sake of completeness. When the primary quantities are referred to the
2
 N2 
secondary side, the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6(d) is obtained. Note that R 'c  R c   and
 N1 
2
N 
X 'm  X m  2  . The exact equivalent circuits of Figure 2.6(c) and (d) are known as T-circuits
 N1 
for a transformer, referred to primary and secondary windings respectively.
In the equivalent circuits of Figure 2.6 (c) and (d), the referred quantities with suitable notation ,
have been used. A more general equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in Figure 2.6(e), where
for simplicity (i) a particular notation for referred-quantities has been dropped (ii) the complex
notation (bar over I, j with reactances etc.) has been given up and (iii) the ideal transformer is not
shown. If the general equivalent circuit refers to the primary, one has to keep in mind that the
secondary quantities have been referred to the primary side. On the other hand, if the general
equivalent circuit refers to the secondary, then the primary quantities must be referred to the
secondary side. Thus in the general equivalent circuit of a transformer, one has merely to keep in
mind about the side to which all the quantities have been referred.
It may be interesting at this stage to draw the phasor diagram for the equivalent circuit of Figure
2.6(e) from a knowledge of the electric circuit theory. Assume that the secondary load voltage V 2
load current I2 and angle 2, by which I2 lags V2 are known. First of all draw I2 lagging V2 by an
angle 2 and then add I2 (r2 + jx2) to V2 to obtain E2, Figure 2. It is obvious from Figure (le) that
current Im due to voltage E2, must lag it by 90° and further I c must be in phase with E2. The
phasor sum of Ic and Im gives Ie and phasor sum of I2 and Ie gives I1. The voltage drop I1 (r1
+ jx1) is now added to E2 to obtain V1 as shown in Figure 2. The secondary p.f. is cos2 lagging
and the primary p.f. is cos 1 lagging .
The voltage drops I1 (r1 + jx1) and I2 (r2 + jx2) have been drawn to a much larger scale, in
comparison-with V1 or V2 for the sake of clarity.

jI
V1 1x
1

I1r1
jI x
2
2

E2
I2r2

V2
I1
I2
1 2

Ic Ie
Im

11
 Figure 2.7 Phasor diagram for equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6 (e)
Approximate Equivalent Circuit: Approximate equivalent circuit is obtained from the exact
equivalent circuit Figure 2.6(e), if the shunt branch (R c and Xm in parallel) is moved to the
.primary or secondary terminals as shown in Figure 2.8(a) and (b) respectively. It may be seen
from Figure 2.8 (a) that the exciting current I e does not flow through rl and x1, whereas Ie does
flow through r1 and x1 in the exact equivalent circuit. Thus the primary leakage impedance drop
due to the exciting current, i.e. I e( r1 +jx1) has been neglected in Figure 2.8 (a), though it is not so
actually.
It may also be seen from Figure 2.8 (b) that I e flows through r2 and x2, whereas Ie does not flow
through r2 and x2 in the exact equivalent circuit. Thus the secondary leakage impedance drop due
to Ie, i.e. Ie (r2 + jx2) has been included, though Ie (r2 + jx2) is actually zero.
x1+x2=xe r1+r2=re
I1 I2
+ +
Ie

Ic Im
V1 V2
Rc jXm

_ _

(a)
r1+r2=re x1+x2=xe

+ +
Ie I2
I1
Ic Im
V1 V2
Rc jXm

_ _

(b)
r1+r2=re x1+x2=xe x1+x2=xe
+
+ + +
I1=I2 I1=I2

V1 V2 V1 V2

_ _
_ _

(c) (d)
Figure 2.8 (a) and (b) Approximate equivalent circuits of a transformer (c) and (d) Simplified forms of the
approximate equivalent circuit.

II.3.3 TRANSFORMER PHASOR DIAGRAMS

12
The purpose of first considering an ideal transformer, i.e. a transformer with no core losses, no
winding resistance, no magnetic leakage and constant permeability, is merely to highlight the
most important aspect of transformer action. Such transformer never exists and now the phasor
diagrams of real transformer will be considered.
A. Transformer Phasor Diagram at no-load
The magnetic flux m being common to both the primary and secondary is drawn first. The
induced emf E1 and E2 lag m by 900 and are shown accordingly in Figure 2.9. The voltage -E 1 is
being replaced by V1 just for convenience.
a) Effect of transformer core loss
The core loss (or iron loss) consists of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. These losses are
always present in the ferromagnetic core of the transformer, since the transformer is an ac
operated magnetic device. The hysteresis loss in the core is minimized by using high grade
material such as cold-rolled-grain-oriented (CRGO) steel and the eddy current loss is minimized
by using thin lamination for the core.
The current in the primary is alternating, therefore, the magnetizing force H is cyclically varying
from one positive value say Hl to a corresponding negative value Hl, Figure 2.9 (a). When the
magnetizing force is - Hl, the flux density is maximum negative equal to OM. As the magnetizing
force decreases from - Hl, the current Ie decreases and becomes zero for a flux density, or flux,
equal to ON. When the current Ie becomes positive and equal to OP, the flux is reduced to zero
but it is going to become positive. The traverse of the loop along the arrows involves time. When
Ie is crossing zero positive (passing through zero and becoming positive), the core flux is
negative and is equal to ON in Figure 2.9(a). This is shown in Figure 2.9(b) at instant tl, where
waveforms are assumed sine waves. When Ie is positive and equal to OP, Figure 2.9(a), the flux
is crossing zero and becoming positive; this is shown in Figure 2.9(b) at instant t2. It is seen
from Figure 2.9(b) that exciting current Ie leads the magnetic flux  (or  lags Ie) by some time
angle . This angle of lead, or lag, being dependent on the hysteresis loop, is called the
hysteretic angle. In Figure 2.9 (c), I e is shown leading , or  is shown lagging Ie, by hysteretic
angle .
 or  ie ,  

ie
P

-H1 0
O t
0 P H1 or Ie

N N

M
t 2
t1
(a)
(b)

13
 V1

Ier1
V’1=-E1

0
Ie
Ic
l1

Im

Ex1=-jIex1

E1, E2=V2

(c)
Figure 2.9 (a) Hysteresis loop for transformer core (b) exciting current and core flux waveforms and (c)
no-load phasor diagram of a transformer.
The no-load primary current Ie is called the exciting current of the transformer and can be
resolved into two components. The component Im along m is called the reactive or magnetizing
current , since its function is to provide the required magnetic flux m. The second component
along V'1 is Ic and this component is called the core- loss component. When multiplied by V'1
gives the total core loss Pc.
Pc
V ' 1 I c  Pc or Ic  Amp .
V' 1
From Figure 2.9 (c), it is seen that
I e  I m2  I 2c
Note that in an ideal transformer, core-loss current I c  0 and therefore exciting current Ie equals
to magnetizing current Im i.e. I e  I m .
b) Effect of transformer resistance
The effect of primary resistance r1 can be accounted for, by adding to V1, a voltage drop equal to
Ie r1 as shown in Figure 2.9 (c). Note that Ier1 is in phase with Ie and is drawn parallel to Ie in the
phasor diagram.
c) Effect of leakage flux
The existence of electrical potential difference is essential for the establishment of current in an
electric circuit. Similarly the magnetic potential difference is necessary to establish flux in a
magnetic circuit. This magnetic potential difference establishes:
I. The mutual flux m linking both windings and
II. The primary leakage flux l1 which links only the primary winding.
The distinctive behavior of the mutual flux m and the primary leakage flux l1The mutual flux
m exists entirely in the ferromagnetic core and, therefore, involves hysteresis loop. The current I e
that establishes m must lead it by some hysteresis angle . On the other hand, the primary leakage

14
flux l1 exists largely in air. Although l1 does pass through some iron, the reluctance offered to l1
is mainly due to air. Consequently l1 does not involve any hysteresis loop and it can be taken to
be in phase with the current Ie that produces it, Figure2.9(c). In the primary winding, induces an
emf E1 lagging it by 90°; similarly the primary leakage flux l1 induces an emf Ex1 in the primary
winding and lagging it (i.e. l1) by 90°. Since Ie leads Ex1 by 90°, it is possible to write EX1= -jIexl.
The primary applied voltage Vl must have a component jIexl, equal and opposite to Exl. Here xl
has the nature of reactance and is referred to as the primary leakage reactance in ohms. It may be
noted that x1 is a fictitious quantity merely introduced to represent the effects of primary leakage
flux.

Figure 2.10 Transformer at no load.

The total voltage drop in primary at no-load is I e (r1+jx1) = Iez1 where z1 is the primary leakage
impedance. Therefore Figure 2.9(c) gives the phasor diagram of transformer at no-load, where N l
is assumed to be equal to N2. The primary voltage equation at no-load can be written as:
V1  V1'  I e ( r1  jx1 )

The primary leakage impedance drop shown in Figure 2.9(c), is drawn to a larger scale, in
comparison with Vl' or Vl, just for the sake of clarity. At no-load and V'1 and V1 are very nearly
equal. Even at full load primary leakage impedance drop in power transformer is about 2 to 5%
of V1, so that the magnitude of V'1 or E1 does not change appreciably from no-load to full load.
B. Transformer Phasor Diagram Under Load
The secondary circuit of transformer is considered first and then the primary circuit, for
developing the phasor diagram of a transformer under load.

Figure 2.11Transformer under load

When the switch S is closed, secondary current I2 starts flowing from terminal n to the load.
Assume the load to have a lagging power factor so that I 2 lags secondary load voltage V 2 by an
angle 2. At first V2 is drawn with I2 lagging V2 by the secondary p.f. angle 2, Figure 1.11 (a).
The secondary resistance drop is accounted for, by drawing I 2r2 parallel to I2. The secondary
m.m.f. I2N2 gives rise to a leakage flux l2 which links only the secondary and not the primary.
The flux l2 is called the secondary leakage flux and is in phase with I 2, for the same reason that
l1 is in phase with Ie in Figure 2.9(c). The secondary leakage flux induces emf E x2 in the

15
secondary winding, lagging l2 by 90°. The secondary no load voltage E 2 must have a component
equal and opposite to –jx2I2. Thus the phasor sum of V 2, I2r2 and jx2I2 gives the secondary
induced emf E2 as shown in Figure 2.12(a).
The voltage equation for secondary circuit can now be written as
E 2  V2  I 2 ( r2  jx2 )  V2  I 2 z2

where z2 is the secondary leakage impedance of the transformer.

Further the mutual flux  is drawn leading E2 by 90° and exciting current Ie is drawn leading  by
the hysteretic angle . Note that the phasor V2 has purposely been taken to the left of vertical
line, so that E2 is vertically downward and the mutual flux  is horizontal.
The component of the primary current which neutralizes the demagnetizing effect of I2 is
I'1 (I1N1 = I2N2) and drawn opposite to I2. The phasor sun of I'1 and Ie gives the total primary
current I1 taken from the supply mains . The primary leakage impedance drop I1(r1+jx1) is
depicted as explained earlier.
The voltage equation for primary circuit under load can be written as
V1  V1'  I1( r1  jx2 )  V1'  I1 z1

where z1 is the primary leakage impedance of transformer. Note that the angle 1 between V1 and
I1 is the primary power factor angle under load.
If the secondary load current I2 leads the voltage V2 such that the load p.f. is leading, then the
phasor diagram for the transformer is as shown in Figure 2.12(b). The entire procedure for
drawing the phasor diagram is the same as explained for Figure 2.12 (a).
V1

V1
I1r1
I1r1
V’1=-E1
V’1=-E1

I1
I’1
1
I1
I’1
Ex2 1
=-jIex1 Ie Ie
  

l 2

2
I2 2
I2r2 V2 I2

V2
E1, E2 I2r2 E1, E2

Figure 2.12 Transformer phasor diagram for (a) lagging p.f. load and (b) leading p.f. load

2.4 OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS

These two tests on a transformer help to determine

16
 i) The parameters of the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.13
ii) the voltage regulation and
iii) efficiency
The equivalent circuit parameters can also be obtained from the physical dimensions of the
transformer core and its winding details. Complete analysis of the transformer can be carried out,
once its equivalent circuit parameters are known. The power required during these two tests is
equal to the appropriate power loss occurring in the transformer.
2.4.1 Open Circuit (or No-Load) Test
The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test on a single phase transformer is given in
Figure 2.13 (a). In this diagram, a voltmeter, wattmeter and an ammeter are shown connected on
the low voltage side of the transformer. The high voltage side is left open circuited. The rated
frequency voltage applied to the primary, i.e. low voltage side, is varied with the help of a
variable ratio auto-transformer. When the voltmeter reading is equal to the rated voltage of the
L.V. winding, all three instrument readings are recorded.
Auto-
transformer Ie
A + Ie
W Ic Im

V1=E1 R Xm
c

H.V L.V _

(a) (b)
Figure 2.13 (a) Circuit diagram for open-circuit test on a transformer and (b) approximate equivalent
circuit at no load
The-ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current I e. Since Ie is quite small (2 to 6%)
of rated current), the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, and for all practical
purposes, the applied voltage V1 is equal to the induced emf E1. Consequently, the equivalent
circuit of Figure 2.6 (e) gets modified to that shown in Figure 2.13( b).
The input power given by the wattmeter reading consists of core loss and ohmic loss. The
exciting current being about 2 to 6 percent of the full load current, the ohmic loss in the primary(
 2 2 
2
 Ie r1 ) varies from 0.04 percent    100  to 0.36 percent of the full-load
 100 100 
primary ohmic loss . In view of this fact, the ohmic loss during open circuit test is negligible in
comparison with the normal core loss (approximately proportional to the square of the applied
voltage). Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to transformer core loss.
V1 = Applied rated voltage on L.V. side,
Ie = exciting current ( or no-load current) and
Pc = core loss
Then Pc  V1I e cos  o

17
 Pc
 No load p.f.  cos o 
V1I e
From phase diagram of Figure 2.7, it follows that
I c  I e cos o and I m  I e sin o
Pc
From Figure 4( b), I c 
V1
V V1
R CL  1 
I c I e cos o
 Core loss resistant
V12 V121
 
V1I e cos o Pc o
Also I c2 R CL  Pc
P Pc
 R CL  c 
I c2  I e cos o  2
Magnetizing reactance
V Pc
X mL  1 
I m I e sin o
The subscript L with Rc and Xm is used merely to emphasize that theses values are for the L.V.
side.
It must be keptis mind that the values of R c and Xm, in general, refer to the side, in which the
instruments are placed (the L.V. side in the present case). A voltmeter is sometimes, used at the
open-circuited secondary terminals, in order to determine the turns ratio.
Thus the open-circuit test gives the following information: (i) core loss at rated voltage and
frequency, (ii) the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit, i.e. R c and Xm and (iii) turns
ratio of the transformer.

2.4.2 Short-Circuit Test

The low voltage-side of the transformer is short-circuited and the instruments are placed on the
high voltage side, as illustrated in Figure 2.14 (a).
Auto-
transformer
A

W
Short circuit

H.V L.V

18
 Figure 2.14 (a) connection diagram for short circuit test on a transformer
r1 x1 x2 r2

Short circuit
Rc Xm

Figure 2.14 (b) Equivalent circuit with short-circuit on the secondary side
r1 x1 x2 r2

Isc

Short circuit
Vsc

Figure 2.14 (c) Transformer equivalent circuit with secondary short-circuited

The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated current in the high voltage
side. In a transformer, the primary m.m.f. is almost equal to the secondary m.m.f., therefore, a
rated current in the H.V. winding causes rated current to flow in the L.V. winding.
A primary voltage of 2 to 12% of its rated value is sufficient to circulate rated currents in both
primary and secondary windings. From Figure 2.14 (b) , it is clear that the secondary leakage
impedance drop appears across the exciting branch (RC and Xm in parallel). About half (1 to 6%)
of the applied voltage appears across the secondary leakage impedance and, therefore, across the
exciting branch. The core flux induces the voltage across the exciting branch and since the latter
is 1 to 6% of rated voltage, the core flux is also 1 to 6% of its rated value. Hence the core loss,
being approximately proportional to the square of the core flux, is 0.01 percent
 1 1   6 6 
   100  to 0.36 percent     100  of its value at rated voltage. The
 100 100   100 100 
wattmeter, in short circuit test, records the core loss and the ohmic loss in both windings. Since
the core loss has been proved to be almost negligible in comparison with the rated voltage core
loss, the wattmeter can be taken to register only the ohmic losses in both windings.
At rated-voltage, the exciting Current is 2 to 6% of full load current. When the voltage across the
exciting branch is 1 to 6% of rated voltage, the exciting current may be 0.02 percent
 2 1   6 6 
   100  to 0.36% percent     100  of its full-load current and can,
 100 100   100 100 
therefore, be safely ignored. As a result of this the equivalent circuit of Figure2.6(e), with the
secondary short-circuited, gets modified to that shown in Figure 2.14 (c)
Let VSC, ISC and PSC be the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings; then from Figure 2.14 (c),
equivalent leakage impedance referred to H.V. side,

19
 V
Z eH  SC
ISC
PSC
equivalent resistance referred to H.V. side, reH  2 and equivalent leakage reactance referred
I SC
2 2
to H.V. side, X eH  Z eH  reH

In reH, XeH and ZeH„, the subscript H is used to indicate that these quantities are referred to H.V.
side. These parameters can however, be referred to the L.V. side, if required.
In the analysis of transformer equivalent circuit, the values of equivalent resistance and
equivalent leakage reactance referred to either side are used. However, if the leakage impedance
parameters for both primary and secondary are required separately, then it is usual to take r 1 =
r2=½ re) and x1 = x2=½ xe, referred to the same side.
Thus, the short-circuit test gives the following information: (i) ohmic loss at rated current and
frequency and (ii) the equivalent resistance and equivalent leakage reactance.
Voltage regulation of a transformer can be determined from the data obtained from short-circuit
test. Data of both open-circuit and short-circuit tests is necessary (i) for, obtaining all the
parameters of exact equivalent circuit and (ii) for calculating the transformer efficiency.
How can a wattmeter connected on the H.V. side, record the ohmic in the L.V. winding also?
When rated current is made to flow in the H.V. winding, the 1.v. winding must also carry rated
current, because the transformer action requires I1N1= I2N2. The flow of rated current in the L.V.
winding causes ohmic loss, which must be supplied from somewhere. The only way to provide
L.V. winding loss is from the input to H.V. side. But the entire input power to H.V. side is
recorded by the wattmeter, therefore, the ohmic losses in both windings are given by the
wattmeter reading.
It has already been stated that open-circuit and short-circuit tests should be performed on the L.V.
side and H.V. side respectively only for the sake of convenience. This can he illustrated by
considering a 3300/220V, 33KVA, single-phase transformer.
Example 2.3 A 20 kVA, 2500/250 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer gave the following test
result
Open-circuit test (on L.V. side):250 V, 1.4 A, 105 W.
Short-circuit test (on H.V. side): 104 V, 8 A, 320 watts.
Compute the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to high-voltage and low-
voltage sides. Also draw the exact equivalent circuit referred to the low -voltage side.
Solution
From open-circuit test:
105
No-load power factor, cos 0   0.3
250  1.4
0 = 72.55 and sin 0 =0.954
Ic = Ie cos 0 = 1.40.3 = 0.42 A
and Im = Ie sin 0 = 1.40.954 = 1.336 A

20
 V 250
hence, R cL  1   595 
I c 0.42
V 250
X mL  1   187 
I m 1.336
Alternatively, the value of RcL and XmL can be determined as follows:
V 2  250 2
R cL  1   595 
Pc 105
V1 250
Now Ic    0.42 A
R cL 595
and Im  I e2  I c2  1.4 2  0.42 2  1.336 A
V 250
X mL  1   187 
I m 1.336
From short circuit test:
V 104
ZeH  sc   13 
I sc 8
Psc 320
reH   2  5
I sc2 8
 2
x eH  Z eH 2
 reH  132  52  12 
Equivalent circuit parameters referred to L.V. side are:
RcL = 595  XmL = 187 

2 2 2 2
1  1  1  1
reL  reH     5   0.05  ; x eL  x eH     12   0.12 
k  10  k  10 
This equivalent circuit is shown in Figure below (a)
x eL  0.12  reL  0.05 
0.025  0.06  0.06  0.025 

Ie Ie

R cL  595 XcL  187  595 187 

(a) (b)
Figure (a) approximate equivalent circuit referred to L.V. side and exact equivalent circuit referred to L.V.
side.
Equivalent circuit parameters referred to H.V. side are:
R cH  R cL   k  2  59510 2  59,500 

X mH  X mL   k  2  18710 2  18,700 

21
 reH = 5 ; xeH = 12
An equivalent circuit showing these parameters can easily be drawn.
Exact equivalent circuit parameters referred to L.V. side are:
1 1
r1L  r1' H  reL  0.05  0.025 
2 2
1 1
x1L  x1' H  x eL  0.12  0.06 
2 2
RcL = 595  and XmL = 187 
The exact equivalent circuit is shown in Figure (b)

2.5 TRANSFORMER REGULATION, LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

2.5.1 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Constant voltage is the characteristics of most domestic, commercial and industrial loads. It is
therefore, necessary that the output voltage of a transformer must remain within narrow limits as
the load and its power factor vary. This requirement is more stringent in distribution transformers
as these directly feed the load centers. The voltage drop in a transformer on load is chiefly
determined by its leakage reactance which must be kept as low as design and manufacturing
techniques would permit.
The voltage regulation is defined as voltage in secondary terminal voltage, expressed as a
percentage (per unit) of secondary rated voltage i.e.
E2  V2
Voltage regulation  in p .u
sec ondary rated voltage

where E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no load

V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at any load
It is stipulated that the secondary rated voltage of a transformer is equal to the secondary
terminal voltage at no load, i.e. E2.
E  V2 E  V2
 Voltage regulation  2 in p .u  2  100 in percentage
E2 E2
At no-load, the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, therefore, the secondary
N2
no-load voltage E 2  V1 . The expression for voltage regulation can also be written as
N1

N2 N
V1  V2 V1  V2 1
N1 N2
 100 in percentage   100 in percentage
N2 V1
V1
N1

22
Here V1 is the primary applied voltage.
The change in secondary terminal voltage with load current is due to the primary and secondary
leakage impedances of the transformer. The magnitude of this change depends on the load power
factor, load current, total resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer.
A distribution transformer should have a small value of voltage regulation (i.e. good voltage
regulation) so that the terminal voltage at the consumers does not vary widely as the load
changes. For a transformer of large voltage regulation (i.e. poor voltage regulation), the voltage
at the consumers' terminals will fall appreciably with increase in load. This has a detrimental
effect on the operation of fluorescent tubes, T.V. sets, refrigeration motors, etc since these are
designed to operate satisfactorily at a constant voltage. Thus distribution transformer should be
designed to have a low value of leakage impedances.
The voltage regulation of a transformer can be obtained form its approximate equivalent circuit
referred to primary or secondary. Figure 2.15 (a) illustrates the approximate equivalent circuit of
a transformer referred to the secondary side and the phasor diagram for this circuit is drawn in
Figure 2.15 (b) for a lagging power factor load. For the calculation of voltage regulation, draw an
arc of radius OD meeting the extension of line OA in F. It may be seen from Figure 2.15 (b) that
OF (= E2) is approximately equal to OC.
E2  OC  OA  AB  BC  or B' C' 
  OA  AB' cos 2  DB' sin 2
 V2  I 2 re2 cos 2  I 2 xe2 sin 2
F
D C’
2 C
E2 I2xe2
re2 xe2 2
+ + B B’
2
I2re2
E2 V2 A
V2

_ _
I2

2

Figure 2.15 (a) approximate equivalent circuit of a 2-winding transformer, referred to secondary; (b) the
phasor diagram of the circuit of Figure 2.16(a) for lagging power factor load.
Thus the voltage drop in the secondary terminal voltage
E2  V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin 2 2.1
Note carefully that E2-V2 is not equal to AD i.e. I2ze2. The change in secondary terminal voltage
is equal to the magnitude of E2 minus the magnitude of V2.
In Eq.(2.1), per unit voltage regulation for any load current I2 is

23
E2  V2 I 2 re2 I x
 cos 2  2 e 2 sin 2 2.2
E2 E2 E2
In case I2, is rated current, then
I 2 re 2 voltage drop across re 2 at rated current

E2 Rated (  base ) voltage E 2
 p .u . equivalent resis tan ce or p .u . resis tan ce drop   r ( say )

I r I2 r Ohmic loss at rated current

Also  r  2 e2  2r e2 
E2 E2 I 2r Rated VA

I 2  xe 2
Similarly, for rated current I2,  x
E2
From Eq. (2.2), the per unit voltage regulation at rated current is given by
 r cos 2   x sin 2 (2.3a)
Percentage voltage regulation at rated load
  r cos 2   x sin 2   100 (2.3b)
It should be noted that Eqs. (2.1) to (2.3) are valid for lagging power factors only. For leading
power factor loads, the phasor diagram of Figure reveals that
E 2  Oc  V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin 2

Therefore , secondary terminal voltage drop, for any load current I2, is
E2  V2  I 2 re2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin 2

 p.u. voltage regulation at any load current I2 is given by

I 2 re 2 I x
cos 2  2 e2 sin 2
E2 E2
In case I2 is the rated ( or full-load)current, then p.u. voltage regulation is given by
 r cos 2   x sin 2

Condition for zero voltage regulation: It can be seen from Eq. (2.3) that voltage regulation
varies with load power factor. If load power factor is varied with constant values of load current
and secondary emf, then zero voltage regulation will occur when
 r cos 2   x sin 2  0
 I r r
tan 2   r   2 e 2   e 2
x I x xe 2
E2 2 e2
E2
xe 2
 magnitude of the load p.f. , cos 2 
re2

24
 The negative value of tan2 indicates a leading power factor. Therefore, zero voltage regulation
xe 2 xe 2
occurs when load power factor is leading . For leading p.f.s. greater than , the voltage
ze 2 ze 2
regulation will be negative, i.e. the voltage will rise from its no load value, as the transformer
load is increased.
Condition for maximum voltage regulation: P.u. voltage regulation
  r cos 2   x sin 2 .

The condition for maximum voltage regulation is obtained by dedifferentiating the above
expression with respect to 2 and equating the results to zero. Here again the load current and
secondary emf are assumed to remain constant.
d
  p .u . regulation    r sin 2   x cos 2  0
d2
 xe 2
Or tan 2  x 
r re2
r
Any cos 2  e2
ze2
Here tan2 is positive, therefore, maximum voltage regulation occurs at lagging load p.f. equal to
re 2
. In other words, maximum voltage regulation occurs when load power-factor angle 2 is
ze 2
equal to the leakage impedance angle  of the transformer.
 the magnitude of maximum voltage regulation is:
r x I r r I x x
  r e 2   x e2  2 e2  e 2  2 e 2  e2
ze2 re2 E2 ze2 E2 re2
I
 I z
 2 re22  xe22  2 e 2  z e2 pu
E2 ze 2 E2

E2
2 2
2  
I 2 re2 cos  2 I2xe2
I 2 x e2 cos 2 V2 V2
V2
E2
C E2 = V 2
E2 I2re2
E2 < V 2

E2 > V2
I2
I2
2 2
2 90
I2
O O O
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.16 Phasor diagram for 1-phase transformer for (a) negative voltage regulation (V.R);(b) zero V.R
and (c) maximum V.R

25
Thus the magnitude of maximum voltage regulation is equal to the p.u value equivalent leakage
impedance of the transformer. For example, if a transformer has z e2 = 0.054. then magnitude of
maximum possible voltage regulation is 5.4%.
Phasor diagrams for a single-phase transformer for different operating power factors are
illustrated in Figure 2. In Figure 2.16(a), E2 < V2 voltage regulation (V.R.) is therefore negative .
In Figure 2.16 (b) E2 = V2. V.R is zero. Figure 2.16 (c) is drawn under the condition of maximum
V.R, because here load power-factor angle 2 = leakage-impedance angle  of the transformer
1  x   cos 1  re2  .
where   tan  e 2
 re2   z 
 e2 
Example 2.4 A 6600/440 V, single-phase transformer has an equivalent resistance of 0.02 p.u.
and an equivalent reactance of 0.05 p.u. Find the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 pf lagging, if
the primary voltage is 6600 V. Find also the secondary terminal voltage at full load.

Solution
  r cos 2   x sin 2
P.u. voltage regulation
  0.02   0.8   0.05  0.6  0.046
E 2  V2
  0.046
E2
For a primary voltage of 6600 V, the secondary no load voltage E2 is 440 V.
 The change in the secondary terminal voltage
E2  V2 = 440 (0.046) = 20.25 V
and secondary terminal voltage
V2 = 440 + 20.25 V

Example 2.5 A short-circuit test, when performed on the H.V. side of a 10 kVA, 2000/400 V,
single-phase transformer gave the following data:
60 V, 4 A, 100 W
If the L.V. side is delivering full load (or rated) current at 0.8 p.f. lag and at 400 V, find the
voltage applied to H.V. side.
Solution
From short circuit data
P 100
reH  sc   6.25 
2
I sc 42
V 60
Z eH  sc   15 
I sc 4

 x eH  2
Z eH 2
 reH  152  6.252  13.61 

For the L.V. side, the parameters are

26
 2 2
1 1
reL  reH     6.25   0.25 
 
k  5
2 2
1 1
x eL  x eH     13.61   0.544 
k  5
Full load secondary current
S 10,000
I2L    25 A
V2 400

E 2  V2  I 2 L reL cos 2  I 2 L x eL sin 2

Now
  25  0.25  0.8   25  0.544  0.6  13.16 V
For V2 = 400 V, E2 = 400 + 13.16 = 413.16 V
 The voltage applied to the primary is
2000
 413.16  2065.8 V .
400
2.5.2 TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
Equipment is desired to operate at a high efficiency. Fortunately, losses in transformers are small.
Because the transformer is a static device, there are no rotational losses such as windage and
friction losses in a rotating machine. In a well-designed transformer the efficiency can be as high
as 99%.
A. Transformer Losses
There are mainly two kinds of losses in a transformer, namely
i) Core loss and
ii) ohmic loss
Core loss The core loss Pc occurring in the transformer iron, consists of two components,
hysteresis loss Ph and eddy current loss Pe i.e.
Pc = Ph + Pe
The hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core can be expressed by :-
Ph  K h f Bx m


and 
Pe 
 K e f 2 B2 m 

Where Kh = proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the core material
and units used.
Ke = Proportionality constant whose value depends on the volume and resistivity of the
core material, thickness of laminations and the units employed
Bm = maximum flux density in the core and
f = frequency of the alternating flux
The value of the exponent x (called Steinmetz’s constant) varies from 1.5 to 2.5 depending upon
the magnetic properties of the core material. Therefore, the total core loss is

27
 Pc = KhfB1.6m + Kef2B2m
Ohmic Loss When a transformer is loaded, ohmic loss (I 2R) occurs in both the primary and
secondary winding resistances. Since the standard operating temperature of electrical machines is
750C. The ohmic loss should be calculated at 750C.
B. Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer ( or any other device) is defined as the ratio of the output power
to input power. Thus
Output power
Efficiency  =
Input power

V2 I 2 cos 2
= 2.4
V2 I 2 cos 2 + Pc + I 2 2 R
Where Pc = total core loss
2
I2 R = total ohmic losses
V2I2 = output VA
Cos 2 = load power factor
Since the efficiencies of power and distribution transformers are usually very high, it is therefore,
more accurate to determine the efficiency from measurement of losses than from the
measurement of output.
C. Condition for Maximum Efficiency.
In Eq. (*), Pc is constant and the load voltage V2 remains practically constant. A specified values
d d
of load p.f. cos2, the efficiency will be maximum when dI  0 . Therefore, dI  0 for Eq.
2 2
(2.4) is
 
d V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 22 re 2 V2 cos 2   V2 I 2 cos 2 V2 cos 2  2 I 2 re 2 
 0
dI 2
 2
V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 2 re 2
2

Or V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 22re2  V2 cos 2   V2 I 2 cos 2 V2 cos 2  2I 2 re2 
Or I 22 re 2  Pc 2.5
Or variable ohmic loss, I 22 re2  cons tan t core loss, Pc
Hence the maximum efficiency occurs when the variable ohmic loss I 22 re 2 is equal to the fixed
core loss Pc. From Eq.(2.5) the load current I2 at which maximum efficiency occurs is given by
Pc Pc
I2   I fl 2.6
re 2 2
I fl re 2

If both sides of above equation are multiplied by E 2 , we get

1000

28
 E2 I 2 E 2 I fl Pc

1000 1000 Full load ohmic losses

kVA load for maximum

Core loss
  rated transformer kVA  
Ohmic losses at rated current

Pc
Or  kVA  max   kVA  2 2.7
I fl re2

Thus the maximum efficiency, for a constant load current, occurs at unity power factor (i.e. at
purely resistive load). It is seen from Eq. (2.6) that the load current at which maximum efficiency
occurs does not depend upon the load power factor because P c and re2 are almost unaffected by a
variation in the load power factor.
A reduction in the load power factor reduces the transformer output and therefore the transformer
efficiency is also reduced accordingly. Figure 2.17 illustrates the effect of p.f. on efficiency. Note
that transformer efficiency is maximum at the same load current regardless of variation in the
load power factor.

100
Pf=1.0
Pf=0.8

75
Percent efficiency

Pf=0.2

50
max

25

0.5 1.0
Per unit load current

Figure 2.17 Effect power factor on efficiency

2.6 PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

When electric power is supplied to a locality a single transformer, capable of handling the
required power demand is installed. In some cases, it may be preferable to install two or more
transformers in parallel, instead of one large unit. Though two or more transformers may be
expensive than one large unit, yet this scheme posses certain advantages described below.

1. With two or more transformers, power system becomes more reliable. For instance if
one transformer develops a fault, it can be removed and the other transformers can
maintain the flow of power , though at reduced
load.

29
 2. Transformers can be switched on or off , depending upon the power demand. In this
manner, the transformer losses decrease and the system becomes more economical and
efficient in operation.

3. The cost of standby (or spare) unit is much less when two or more transformers are
installed.

In any case, in the long run , electric power demand may become more than rated KVA capacity
of already existing transformer or transformers. Under such circumstances, the need for extra
transformer arises; the extra unit must be connected in parallel.

Note that the parallel operation of transformers requires that their primary windings , as well as
secondary windings are connected in parallel . In this section only the parallel operation of
single-phase transformers is considered.

The various conditions which must be fulfilled for the satisfactory parallel operation of two or
more single-phase transformers are as follows:

1. The transformer must have the same voltage ratios, i.e with the primaries connected
to the same voltage sources; the secondary voltage of all transformers should be
equal in magnitude.

2. The equivalent leakage impedance in ohms must be inversely proportional to their

respective KVA ratings. In other words, per unit (pu) leakage impedance of
transformers based on their KVA rating must be equal.

3. The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance i.e. Xe/re should be
the same for all transformers.

4. The transformer must be connected properly as far as their polarities are concerned.

Out of the conditions listed above, condition (d) must be strictly fulfilled. If the secondary
terminals are connected with wrong polarities, large circulating currents will flow and the
transformers may get damaged.

Condition (a) should be satisfied as accurately as possible ; since different secondary voltages
would give rise to undesired circulating currents. For conductions (b) and (c), some deviation is
permissible. Thus the fulfillment of condition (d) is essential whereas the fulfillment of the
other conditions is desirable.

30
 A1 A2 A1 A2

A B
+ - + -
a1 a2 a1 a2
V

Figure 2.18 Two single-phase transformers in parallel

Figure 2.18 shows single-phase transformers in parallel, connected to some voltage source on the
primary side. Zero voltmeter reading indicates proper polarities. If the voltmeter reads the sum of
two secondary voltages, the polarities are improper and can be corrected by reversing the
secondary terminals of any one of the transformers.
2.7 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is invariably done through the use of
three-phase systems because of its several advantages over single-phase systems. As such, a large
number of three-phase transformers are inducted in a 3-phase energy system for stepping-up or
stepping – down the voltage as required. For 3-phase up or down transformation, three units of 1-
phase transformers or one unit of 3-phase transformer may be used. When three identical units of
1-phase transformers are used as shown in Figure 2.19(a), the arrangement is usually called a
bank of three transformers or a 3-phase transformer bank. A single 3-phase transformer unit
may employ 3–phase core-type construction Figure 2.20(b) or three phase shell type
construction.
Input

A B C

P S P S P S
P P P

I II III

S S S
a b c

Output

(a) (b)

Figure 2.19 (a)Three-phase transformer bank, both windings in star;(b) three-

phase core-type transformer
A single-unit 3-phase core-type transformer uses a three-limbed core, one limb for each phase
winding as shown in Figure 2.19(b). Actually, each limb has the L.V. winding placed adjacent to

31
the laminated steel core and then H.V. winding is placed over the 1.v. winding. Appropriate
insulation is placed in between the core and 1.v. winding and also in between the two windings.
A 3-phase core-type transformer costs about 15% less than a bank of three 1-phase transformers.
Also, a single unit occupies less floor space than a bank.
2.7.1 Three-Phase Transformer Connections
Three-phase transformers may have the following four standard connections
(a) Star-Delta ( Y-) (b) Delta-Star (-Y)
(c) Delta-Delta (-) (d) Star-Star (Y-Y)
These connections are shown in Figures 2.20 and 2.21, where V and I are taken as input line
voltage and line current respectively. Primary and secondary windings of one phase are drawn
parallel to each other. With phase turns ratio from primary to secondary as
N1/N2= a, the voltages and current in the windings and lines are shown in Figures 2.21 and 2.22.
The various connections are now described briefly.
A. Star-delta (Y-) Connection This connection is commonly used for stepping down the
voltage from a high level to a medium or low level. The insulation on the h.v. side of the
 1 
transformer is stressed only to 57.74%   x 100  of line to line voltage
 3 
For per-phase m.m.f. balance, I2N2 =I1N1
Here primary phase current, I1 = primary line current I
N1
Secondary phase current , I 2  I  aI
N2 1
Secondary line current  3 I 2  3 . aI

Also, voltage per turn on primary = voltage per turn on secondary

V 1 V
.  2
3 N1 N 2
N2 V V
Secondary phase voltage, V2  . 
N1 3 a. 3
V
Secondary line voltage = secondary phase voltage = a. 3

V V
Input VA = 3 . I = output VA = 3. . aI  3 VI
3 a. 3
Phase and line values for voltages and currents on both primary and secondary sides of star-delta
transformer are shown in Figure 2.20(a)

32
 I 3aI aI
V I 3
V I
3 3a V
V aI aI
I 3 a 3V
V
3 a

(a)
(b)

Figure 2.20 (a) Star-delta connection and (b) delta-star connection of 3-phase transformers

B. Delta-Star (-Y) connection:- This type of connection is used for stepping up the
voltage to a high level. For example, these are used in the beginning of h.v. transmission
lines so that insulation is stressed to about 57.74% of line voltage
Delta-star transformers are also generally used as distribution transformers for providing mixed
line to line voltage to high-power equipment and line to neutral voltage to 1-phase low-power
equipment. For example, 11kV/400V, delta-star distribution transformer is used to distribute
power to consumers by 3-phase four-wire system. Three-phase high–power equipment is
connected to 400V, three line wires, whereas 1-phase low-power equipment is energized from
231 V line to neutral circuits.
For per  phase m.m.f . balance , I 2 N 2  I1 N 1
1
Here primary phase current , I1  ( primary line current I )
3
N 1
Secondary phase current, I 2  1 I1  a
N2 3
V2 V1
Also 
N 2 N1
N V
Secondary phase voltage, V2  2 .V1 
N a
1
V
 Secondary line voltage  3.
a
I V I
Input VA  3. V .  3 VI  Output VA  3. . a  3 VI
3 a 3
Phase and line values for voltages and currents on primary as well as secondary sides of a 3-
phase delta-star transformer are shown in Figure 2.21(b).
C. Delta-Delta (-) Connection
This scheme of connections is used for large 1.v transformers. It is because a delta-connected
winding handles line voltage, so it requires more turns per phase but of smaller cross-sectional
area. The absence of star point may be a disadvantage in some applications.
In case a bank of three transformers is used, then one transformer can be removed for
maintenance purposes while the remaining two transformers (called an open-delta or V-

33
connection) can still deliver 58% of the power delivered by the original 3-phase transformer
bank.
For per phase mmf balance, I2N2 = I1N1:
1
primary phase current , I1  ( primary line current I )
3
N1 aI
Secondary phase current , I 2  I1 
N2 3
 aI 
Secondary line current ,  3   aI
 
 3
V2 V
Also   1
N2 N1
N V
Secondary phase voltage , V2  2 V1  ( Here V1  V )
N1 a
V
Secondary line voltage  V2 
a
I V aI
Input VA  3V .  output VA  3. ,  3 VI
3 a 3
Phase and line value for voltages and currents on both primary and secondary sides of a 3-phase
delta-delta transformer are shown in Figure 2.22 (a).

I kI kI

V V I V
k 3 kI V
I kI V 3k
V k
3 3

(a) (b)

Figure 2.21(a) Delta-delta connection and (b) Star-star connection of three-phase transformers.
D. Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection
This connection is used for small h.v transformers . As stated before, with star connection, turns
per phase are minimum and the winding insulation is stressed to 57.74% of line voltage. Star-
star connection is rarely used in practice because of oscillatory neutral problems.

34
 For per  phase m.m.f .balance, I 2 N 2  I1 N1
Pr imary Phase Current, I1  primary line current , I
N
Secondary phase current , I 2  1 I1  aI
N2
 Secondary line current
N V
sec ondary phase voltage , V2  2 V1 
N1 3a
V V
Secondary line voltage  3 V2  3 . 
3. a a
V V
Input VA  3 . I  output VA  3. . aI  3 VI
3 3. a
Phase and line values of voltages and currents on both sides of a star-star transformer are shown
in Figure 2.22(b)

Example 2.8 A 3-phase transformer is used to step-down the voltage of a 3-phase, 11kV feeder
line. Per-phase turns ratio is 12. For a primary line current of 20A, calculate the secondary line
voltage, line current and output KVA for the following Connections:
(a) star-delta (b) delta-star (c) delta-delta (d) star-star. Neglect losses.
Solution
(a) Three-phase transformer with star-delta connection is shown in Figure 2.23(a)
V 11000
phase voltage on primary , VP1  L1  V
3 3
phase current on primary , I P1  I L1  20A
VP1 V
Here,  P 2 and I p1  12  I p2  1
12 1
11000
 Phase voltage on sec ondary, Vp2   529.25V
3 x 12
Line voltage on sec ondary , VL 2  Vp2  529.25V
Phase current on sec ondary I p2  12 I p1  12  20  240A
Line current on sec ondary I L2  3 I p2  3  240  415.68A
3Vp2 .I p2 11000 1
Output KVA   3.  240 x  381.04 KVA
1000 3 x 12 1000

(b) Delta-star connection of 3-phase transformer is shown in Figure 2.23 (b)

35
 VL1 11000 V p1
Phase voltage on sec ondary VP 2   V  916.67V 
12 12 12
11000
Line voltage on sec ondary VL 2  3 V p 2  3   1587.67V
12
20
Phase current on primary I p1  I L1 / 3  A
3
20
Phase current on sec ondary I p1  12 I p1  12   138.568 A
3
Line current on sec ondary, I L 2  I p 2  138.568 A
11000 12 x 20
Output KVA  3    381.04 KVA.
12 1000 x 3

(c) Delta-delta connection of 3-phase transformer is shown in Figure 2.23(c)

VL1 11000 Vp1
Phase voltage on sec ondary, VP 2   V  916.7V 
12 12 12
Line voltage on sec ondary, VL2  VP 2  916.7V
20
Phase current on primary, I P1  A
3
20
Phase current on sec ondary, I P 2  12 I P1  12  A
3
12  20
Line current on sec ondary, I L2  3 I P 2  3 .  240A
3
11000 12x 20 1
Output KVA  3     381.04KVA .
12 3 1000

I L1  20A I L2
12:1 I L1  20A
12:1
VP1 I P1 VP2  VL2
VP 2
VL1  11000 V I P2 I P1
I P2
VL2
VL1  11000 V

(a) (b)

I L1  20 A I L2  3I P 2 I L2
12:1 12:1
VP1 I P1
VP 2  VL 2 VP 2
VL1  11000 V I P2
VL 2  3VP 2
VP1  11000 V I P2
I P1

(d)
(c)

Figure 2.22 for Example 2.8

(d) 3-phase transformer with star-star connection is shown in Figure 2.23(d)

36
 VP1 11000
Phase voltage on sec ondary , VP 2   V
12 3 x 12
11000 11000
Line voltage on sec ondary, VL 2  3 VP 2  3  V
3 x 12 12
Phase current on Pr imary, I P1  I L1  20A
Phase current on sec ondary, , I P 2  12 I P1  12  20  240A
Line current on Secondary, I L2  I P 2  240A
3  11000 240
Output KVA    381.04KVA
3  12 1000

Example 2.9 An 11000/415V, delta-star transformer feeds power to a 30 kW, 415V, 3-phase
induction motor having an efficiency of 90% and full-load pf 0.833. Calculate the transformer
rating and phase and line currents on both high and low voltage sides.
Solution
30
Transformer kVA rating   40KVA
0.9 x 0.833
Total load in VA 40,000
Line current on l.v. side of transformer    55.65A
3 x line voltage 3 x 415
.

For star connected 1.v. winding, phase current in 1.v. winding = line current on 1.v side =
55.65A.
40,000
Line current on HV, side of transformer =  2 .1 A
3 x 11000

For delta connected HV winding, phase current in HV winding:

1 1
= (line current on h.v. side) = x 2.1 = 1.212A
3 3

2.7.2 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
In principle and in general construction, the autotransformer does not differ from the
conventional two-winding transformer so far discussed. It does differ from it. however, in the
way the primary and secondary windings are interrelated.
It will be recalled that in discussing the transformer principles of operation, it was pointed out
that a counter emf was induced in the winding, which acted as a primary to establish the
excitation ampere turns. The induced voltage per turn was the same in each and every turn
linking with the common flux of the transformer. Therefore, fundamentally it makes no
difference in the operation whether the secondary induced voltage is obtained from a separate
winding linked with the core or from a portion of the primary turns. The same voltage transfor-
mation results in the two situations. When the primary and secondary voltage are derived from
the same winding. the transformer is called an autotransformer.

37
An ordinary two-winding transformer may also be used as an autotransformer by connecting the
two windings in series and applying the impressed voltage across the two, or merely to one of the
windings. It depends on whether it is desired to step the voltage down or up, respectively. This is
shown in Figure 2.29(a) for the step-down connection; the step-up connection is illustrated in
Figure 2.29(b).

a a

I1

I2 b
b V2

Load
V1 I1

Load
I2 - I 1
V2 RL
I2 - I1

c
c

(a) (b)
Figure 2.23 Autotransformers: (a) step-down; (b) step-up.
In Figure 2.29(a) the input voltage V 1 is connected to the complete winding (a-c) and the load R L
is connected across a portion of the winding, that is, (b-c).The voltage V2 is related to V1 as in the
conventional two-winding transformer, that is,
N bc
V2  V1  2.10
N ac
where Nbc and Nac are the number of turns on the respective windings. The ratio of voltage
transformation in an autotransformer is the same as that for an ordinary transformer, namely,
N V I
k  ac  1  2 2.11
N bc V2 I1
with k > 1 for step-down.
Assuming a resistive load for convenience, then,
V
I2  2
RL
Assume that the transformer is 100% efficient.The power output is
P  V2 I 2 2.12
Note that I1 flows in the portion of winding ab, whereas the current (I2 – I1) flows in the
remaining portion bc. The resulting current flowing in the winding bc is always the arithmetic
difference between I1 and I2 , since they are always in opposite sense. Remember that the induced
voltage in the primary opposes the primary voltage. As a result. the current caused by the
induced voltage flows opposite to the input current.
In an autotransformer, the secondary current is this induced current, that is,
I1   I 2  I1   I 2 2.13

38
 N ac
Hence the ampere-turns due to section bc, where the substitutions I 2  kI1 and N bc  are
k
made according to Eq. (2.11), is
ampere-turns due to section bc   I 2  I1  N bc


 kI1  I1  N bc  1
 I1N ac 1    I1N ab
k  k
 ampere  turns due to sec tion ab
Thus the ampere-turns due to sections bc and ab balance each other, a characterstic of all
transformer actions.
Equation (2.12) gives the power determined by the load. To see how this power is delivered, we
can write the equation in a slightly modified forn. By substituting Eq. (2.13) into Eq. (2.12), we
obtain
P  V2 I 2  V2  I1   I 2  I1  
 V2 I1  V2  I 2  I1  W 2.14
This indicates that the load power consists of two parts. The first part is
Pc  V2 I1  conducted power to load through ab 2.15
The second part is
Ptr  V2  I 2  I1   transformed power to load through bc 2.16
We will see in the following examples that most of the power to the load is directly conducted by
winding ab. The remaining power is transferred by the common winding bc. To show these
powers Pc and Ptr in terms of the total power P. ue proceed as follows:
Pc V2 I1 I1 1
  
P V2 I 2 I 2 k
and
Ptr V2  I 2  I1   I 2  I1  k  1
  
P V2 I 2 I2 k
P P  k  1
Thus Pc  and Ptr  with a > 1 for a step-down autotransformer.
k k

39
 PROBLEMS
2.1. A 6600/400 V, 50 Hz single-phase core type transformer has a net cross-sectional area of the core
of 428 cm2. The maximum flux density in the core is 1.5 T. Calculate the number of turns in the
primary and secondary windings. Ans. 462, 28
2.2. A single phase, 50 Hz, 220/3000 V, transformer has a net cross-sectional area of the core 400
cm2. If the peak value of flux density in the core is 1.239 T, calculate the suitable values for the
number of turns in primary and secondary windings
2.3. Single-phase 50 Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and 280 in the secondary
winding. The voltage applied across the primary winding is 240 V at 50 Hz. Calculate (i) the
maximum flux density in the core and (ii) induced emf in the secondary. The net cross-sectional
area of the core can be taken 200 cm2.
Ans.(i) 0.675 Wb/m2; (ii) 840 V
2.4. The values of the resistance of the primary and secondary windings of a 2200/200V, 50 Hz
single phase transformer are 2.4 and 0.02  respectively. Find (i) equivalent resistance of
primary referred to secondary, (ii) equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary, (iii)
total resistance of transformer referred to secondary and (iv) total resistance of transformer
referred to primary.
2.5. Short circuit test performed on 20 kVA, 2000/200 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer gave the
following readings:
With 100 V applied to the primary, full load current circulated in the short circuited secondary
with power drawn of 300 W. Calculate the secondary terminal voltage on full- load (i) at unity
power factor, (ii) at pf of 0.75 lagging and (iii) at pf of 0.8 leading. Find also the percentage
regulation in each case. Ans.:(i) 197 V, 1.5 % (ii) 191.4 V, 4.28%
(iii) 203.3 V, -1.66%
2.6. The iron and full load copper losses in a 40 kVA single phase transformer are 450 and 850 W
respectively. Find (i) the efficiency at full load when the power factor of the load is 0.8 lagging,
(ii) the maximum efficiency and (iii) the load at which the maximum efficiency occurs.
2.7. Open-circuit and short-circuit tests were conducted on a 50 kVA, 6360/2Q0 V, 50 Hz, single-
phase transformer in order to find its efficiency. The observations during these tests are:
Open circuit test: Voltage across primary winding 6360 V. Primary current, 1.0A, power input 2
kW.
Short circuit test: Voltage across primary 180 V, current in secondary winding 175 A, power
input 2 kW.
Calculate the efficiency of the transformer when supplying full load at power factor of 0.8
lagging. Ans.:89.2 %
2.8. Calculate the efficiency at full load, half load and one-fourth load at (i) unity pf and (ii) 0.71 pf
lagging, for a 80 kVA, 1100/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer, whose losses are as follows:
Iron losses= 800 W
Total copper losses with 160 A in the low voltage winding is 200 W.

40
 Ans.:(i) 98.04 Y., 97.57 %, 95.92 % (ii) 97.25 %, 96.61 %;, 94.36 %.
2.9. The parameters of the equivalent circuit of a 10 kVA, 2000/ 400 V, 50 Hz, single phase
transformer are as follows:
Primary winding: r1=5.5 ; x1=12 
Secondary winding: r2 =0.2 ; x2 = 0.45
If the primary supply voltage is 2000 V, calculate the approximate value of the secondary voltage
at full load 0.8 power factor lagging. Ans.:377.6 V
2.10. A 10-kVA 2200/460-V transformer is connected as an autotransformer to step up the voltage
from 2200 V to 2660 V. When used to transform 10 kVA, determine the kVA load output.
Ans.:57.8 kVA
2.11. Three transformers connected -Y step down the voltage from 12600 to 600 V and deliver a 55-
kVA load at a power factor of 0.866 lagging. Calculate :
(a) The transformation ratio of each transformer.
(b) The kVA and kW load in each transformer.
(c) The load currents.
(d) The currents in the transformer windings.
Ans.: (a) 33k ; (b) 18.3kVA , 15.88kW; (c) 48.1 A ; (d) I2=48.1A, I1=1.46A
2.12. A 50-hp 440-V three-phase motor with an efficiency of 0.88 and a power factor of 0.82 on full
load is supplied from a 6600/440-V -Y connected transformer. Calculate the currents in the
high- and low-voltage transformer windings when the motor is running at full load.
2.13. A 13,200-V three-phase generator delivers 10000 kVA to a three-phase 66,000-V transmission
line through a step-up transformer. Determine the kVA, voltage, and current ratings of each of
the single-phase transformers needed if they are connected:
(a) - (b)Y - (c) Y –Y (d) -Y
Ans.: (a) 3333kVA, V1=13.2kV, V2=66kV, I1=253A, I2=50.5A; (c) 3333kVA, V1=7.62kV,
V2=38.1kV, I1=437.5A, I2=87.5A
2.14. A Y- transformer bank supplies a balanced load of 500 kW, 1100 V, 0.85 pf lagging. Determine
the primary and secondary voltages and currents . the primary line voltage is 11000 V.

41