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1, DECEMBER 2016 13
Abstract—This paper overviews the silicon carbide (SiC) electronics converters. Compared with Si devices, WBG
technology. The focus is on the benefits of SiC based power devices feature high breakdown electric field, low specific
electronics for converters and systems, as well as their ability in on-resistance, fast switching speed and high junction tem-
enabling new applications. The challenges and research trends SHUDWXUHFDSDELOLW\$OORIWKHVHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDUHEHQH¿FLDO
on the design and application of SiC power electronics are also
IRUWKHHI¿FLHQF\SRZHUGHQVLW\VSHFL¿FSRZHUDQGRUUH-
discussed
liability of power electronics converters. The WBG devices
Index Terms—SiC power semiconductors, SiC based conv- under rapid development and commercialization include
erters. silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) devices,
ZLWK6L&PDLQO\WDUJHWLQJKLJKYROWDJHKLJKSRZHU9
kilowatts or above) applications, and GaN for low voltage
I. INTRODUCTION ORZSRZHU9NLORZDWWVRUEHORZDSSOLFDWLRQV>@7KLV
paper focuses on SiC technology.
II. SIC POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND MODULES Hence, a larger power can be handled by the device at a
given junction temperature. Also, higher thermal conductivi-
The discussion in this section focuses on the charact-
ty together with wide bandgap makes it possible for SiC
eristics of SiC devices versus their Si counterparts, status
devices to work at high temperature.
of SiC power semiconductors as well as SiC version of the
,QVXPPDU\6L&EDVHGSRZHUGHYLFHVRIIHUORZVSHFL¿F
intelligent power modules.
on-state resistance, fast switching speed, and high operating
temperature and voltage capabilities.
A. Introduction of SiC in Comparison to Si
:%*UHIHUVWRHOHFWURQLFHQHUJ\EDQGJDSVVLJQL¿FDQWO\ B. Status of SiC Devices
larger than one electron-volt (eV). SiC materials have
This subsection summarizes available information on
several characteristics that make them attractive compared
SiC power devices, including device types, voltage/current
to narrow bandgap Si for power electronics converters.
ratings, status of commercialization, as well as the latest
)LJ KLJKOLJKWV VRPH NH\ PDWHULDO SURSHUWLHV RI 6L&
trend of SiC device development. Note that the hybrid power
semiconductor candidates as compared to traditional Si
modules consisting of Si active switches and SiC Schottky
[50]. Generally speaking, for SiC material, the energy gap,
barrier diodes (SBDs), which have been commercially
breakdown electric field, thermal conductivity, melting
available, are not focused in the following discussion.
point, and electron velocity are all significantly higher.
The availability of high quality SiC wafers allows a
These characteristics allow SiC semiconductor based
reasonable yield of large-area SiC power devices. Currently,
power devices to operate at much higher voltage, switching
PPRULQFK6L&ZDIHUVDUHFRPPHUFLDOO\DYDLODEOH
frequency and temperature than Si [1], [51], [52].
>@ )LJ VXPPDUL]HV WKH VWDWXV RI 6L& EDVHG SRZHU
GHYLFHVLQFOXGLQJ6FKRWWN\GLRGHV3,1GLRGHV026)(7V
MXQFWLRQ JDWH )(7V -)(7V ,*%7V ELSRODU MXQFWLRQ
transistors (BJTs), and thyristors with the voltage range from
9WRN9,WLVREVHUYHGWKDWWKHORZYROWDJHIURP
400 V to 1700V) SiC devices are becoming commercially
available. Among them, the current rating per die approaches
up to 100 A, and with multiple dies in parallel, state-of-
art SiC power modules on market can deliver hundreds
of amperes current. On the other hand, the high voltage
SiC (referred here as 3.3 kV and above) are generally in
developmental stages with limited commercial availability
and small current rating per die [54].
)LJ6XPPDU\RI6LDQG6L&UHOHYDQWPDWHULDOSURSHUWLHV>@
)RUH[DPSOHZLWKWKHEUHDNGRZQ¿HOGKLJKHUWKDQWKDWRI
Si, a thinner drift layer with a higher doping concentration
can be used for SiC power devices at the same blocking
YROWDJH)RUXQLSRODUGHYLFHVXFKDV6FKRWWN\GLRGHVDQG
026)(7VWKHFRPELQDWLRQRIWKLQQHUEORFNLQJOD\HUDQG
higher doping concentration yields a lower specific on-
resistance compared with Si majority carrier devices.
The fast switching-speed capability of SiC devices can
be expected due to higher breakdown field and electron
YHORFLW\ )LUVW ZLWK ORZHU RQUHVLVWDQFH DW WKH VDPH
breakdown voltage, a reduced chip size is achieved in SiC
XQLSRODUGHYLFHVVXFKDV026)(7&RQVLGHULQJWKHWUDGHRII )LJ6XPPDU\RIVWDWXVRI6L&SRZHUGHYLFHV>@>@
between thinner drift region and smaller chip size, the
MXQFWLRQFDSDFLWDQFHRI6L&026)(7VLVVWLOOORZHUWKDQ &XUUHQWO\6L&02)(7VDUHWKHPRVWGHYHORSHGDFWLYH
that of the Si counterparts, therefore the switching speed VZLWFKHVZLWKVRPH-)(7V,*%7V%-7VDQGWK\ULVWRUV
becomes faster. Second, minority carriers are swept out of DOVRDYDLODEOH)RU6L&GLRGHVDWORZEUHDNGRZQYROWDJH
the depletion region at the saturated drift velocity during the (< 1700 V), SBDs are popular since they show extremely
turn-off transient. The electron saturated drift velocity of SiC high switching speed and low on-state loss. But high leakage
is higher than that of Si, leading to an increased switching current and low blocking voltage limit their utilization
speed of SiC devices. in high voltage applications. PIN diodes and Junction
Additionally, the excellent thermal conductivity allows Barrier Schottky (JBS) diodes are preferred in high voltage
SiC dissipated heat to be readily extracted from the device. applications. Compared with PIN diodes, JBS diodes have
):$1*et al29(59,(:2)6,/,&21&$5%,'(7(&+12/2*<'(9,&(&219(57(56<67(0$1'$33/,&$7,21 15
excellent reverse recovery characteristic but poor static available, such as boost chopper, buck chopper, full
performance, making them suitable as anti-parallel diodes of bridge, three-level neutral point clamped (NPC), three-
active switches. level T-type, triple phase-leg [59]. With this, users are able
SiC power devices are developing rapidly. Compared with to more conveniently develop high performance power
the data summarized in [2] a year ago, a few updates are electronics circuits based on different topologies for various
highlighted as follows applications.
1) Increased Current Ratings and More Available Voltage 4) Enhanced Short-circuit Withstand Capability
Ratings Short circuit withstand capability is challenging for tiny
&XUUHQWUDWLQJVKDYHEHHQVLJQL¿FDQWO\LPSURYHGDWERWK DQGIDVW6L&GHYLFHV>@>@&RPSDUHGZLWKWUDGLWLRQDO
die level and power module level under wide voltage ratings. Si devices with > 10 μs short circuit withstand time, the
)RUH[DPSOH9PGLVFUHWH6L&026)(7KDVEHHQ W\SLFDO VKRUW FLUFXLW ZLWKVWDQG WLPH RI 6L& 026)(7V LV
released with the current rating of 118 A at room temperature on the order of 1 μs. Recently, an enhanced short circuit
[55], which is comparable with the current rating of the FDSDELOLW\6L&026)(7VKDVEHHQGHYHORSHGDW09OHYHO
VWDWHRIWKHDUW9&6L&RRO026RQWKHPDUNHW$OVR (> 3.3 kV). It is demonstrated that these new devices are
at medium voltage (MV) level, several large current power capable of sustaining short circuit current up to 13 μs, which
modules have been developed and demonstrated, including VLJQL¿FDQWO\EHQH¿WVWKHUHOLDEOHRSHUDWLRQRI6L&026)(7V
but not limited to 1.7 kV/ 550A, 3.3 kV/180 A, 10 kV/ 240 A IRUYROWDJHVRXUFHEDVHGKLJKSRZHUFRQYHUVLRQV\VWHP>@
6L&026)(7VEDVHGSKDVHOHJSRZHUPRGXOHVDQGN9
$6L&-)(7VEDVHGSKDVHOHJSRZHUPRGXOHV>@>@ 5) Better SiC MOSFET’s Body Diode Performance and
More voltage ratings are available mainly due to the Trend of Eliminating SBDs in Power Modules
application orientated consideration. One example is that a 7KH ERG\ GLRGH RI WKH 6L& 026)(7 LV VWUXFWXUDOO\
96L&026)(7KDVEHHQUHOHDVHGUHFHQWO\WDUJHWLQJ similar to the p-n junction diode formed in the body of a Si
the electric vehicle application. Compared with 900 V 026)(77KHOLIHWLPHRIPLQRULW\FDUULHUVLQ6L&LVVKRUWHU
and 1200 V voltage ratings, which are typical values for than Si, so the reverse recovery charge is reduced.
WUDGLWLRQDO6LGHYLFHVDGHGLFDWHG96L&026)(7LV 7RPLWLJDWHWKHUHYHUVHUHFRYHU\LQGXFHGE\026)(7¶V
developed to achieve better tradeoff between performance body diode, a dedicated SiC SBD is generally added.
(e.g. switching and conduction loss) and reliability (e.g. However, considering the charging of SBD junction
DGHTXDWH YROWDJH PDUJLQ >@$V H[SHFWHG ZLWK WKH capacitance, employing an SBD in parallel does not
acceleration of acceptance and adoption of SiC devices in necessarily result in low total switching energy loss.
industrial products, SiC manufacturers may be willing to Specifically, at room temperature, the charging of SBD
develop more dedicated power semiconductors to best serve junction capacitance is greater than reverse recovery charge
VSHFL¿FPDUNHWV LQWURGXFHGE\026)(7¶VERG\GLRGH>@8QGHUHOHYDWHG
temperature, reverse recovery charge was observed to
2) Improved Packaging Techniques LQFUHDVHVLJQL¿FDQWO\DVDUHVXOWWKHVZLWFKLQJHQHUJ\ORVV
Advanced packaging techniques have been adopted may be higher as compared to that with SBD case. Recently,
for SiC devices for parasitic minimization, weight/size it is demonstrated that for the latest generation Wolfspeed
reduction, and high temperature operation. 6L&026)(7VDW&WKHWRWDOVZLWFKLQJHQHUJ\ORVV
)RU H[DPSOH 72 SLQ SDFNDJH ZLWK VHSDUDWHG without SBD does not exceed the loss with employing SBD
.HOYLQVRXUFHKDVEHHQXWLOL]HGIRUGLVFUHWH6L&026)(7V [72]. Therefore, under wide operating range, the excellent
DW 9 DQG 9 OHYHOV >@ >@7KDQNV WR WKH VZLWFKLQJSHUIRUPDQFHFDQEHDFKLHYHGE\6L&026)(7
Kelvin source connection and its resultant lower common without the extra SBD. Regarding the conduction loss, the
source inductance, the switching performance can be greatly FKDQQHORI6L&026)(7VLQVWHDGRILWVERG\GLRGHFDQ
improved with fast switching and low loss. Also, power efficiently conduct reverse current. In the end, the penalty
modules with < 5nH parasitic inductance are developed for without antiparallel SBD with respect to efficiency is
1200-1700 V power modules with more than 400 A current limited.
FDSDELOLW\>@>@$GGLWLRQDOO\XOWUDOLJKW6L&SRZHU )XUWKHUPRUH UHGXFHG VL]H DQG FRVW GXH WR WKH ODFN RI
PRGXOHVEDVHGRQ(DV\%3UHVV),7SDFNDJHDUHDYDLODEOH SBDs in power module can improve the power density and
IRUKLJKGHQVLW\SRZHUFRQYHUVLRQV\VWHP>@)XUWKHUPRUH cost of overall power conversion system. Accordingly, it is
high temperature packaging techniques are employed so as observed that there is a trend of eliminating SBDs in SiC
to allow commercially available SiC devices (e.g. Schottky EDVHGSRZHUPRGXOHV>@
diodes and supper junction transistors) to operate up to 210
°C [57]. C. SiC Intelligent Power Module
) Availability of More Power Module Con¿guration Intelligent power modules (IPMs) are advanced power
In addition to the phase-leg power module, more options conversion units that combine power semiconductor chips
with respect to the configuration of power modules are with optimized gate drive and protection circuitry, such as
CPSS TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, DECEMBER 2016
TABLE I
STATUS OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART SIC IPMS
No. Manufacturer/Model Description Circuit Special consideration for SiC
Powerex [74]
1 SiC six pack IPM Three-phase Short-circuit protection, soft shutdown
30)&/$
&UHHQRZ,Q¿QHRQ>@ Gate drive board optimized for
2 Phase-leg High common mode (CM) transient immunity
&*'+%/3 SiC modules
$JLOH6ZLWFK>@ Gate drive board optimized for
3 Phase-leg 2-level turn-off driving, multi-level shutdown
EDEM3 SiC modules
Univ. of Tennessee [77] Power module integrated with High temperature, low parasitics and
4 Phase-leg
Research & development gate drive in board level fast switching, fast short-circuit protection
High temperature, decoupling capacitor built in,
Virginia Tech [78] Power module integrated with
5 Phase-leg low parasitic and fast switching
Research & development gate drive in board level
North Carolina State Univ [79] Power module integrated with Decoupling capacitor built in, low parasitics
Phase-leg
Research & development gate drive in module level and fast switching
)UDXQKRIHU>@ Device chips integrated with Decoupling capacitor built in, low parasitics
7 Phase-leg
Research & development gate drive in board level and fast switching, high CM transient immunity
compared to the inherent capability offered by SiC materials. excellent reverse recovery characteristics of SiC Schottky
Therefore, special design considerations of SiC IPMs have diodes lead to less switching loss. It is reported that the
to be given, which are highlighted in TABLE I as well. substitutions of Si PIN diodes with SiC Schottky diodes
LQDSSOLFDWLRQVXVLQJ9DQG9GHYLFHVHQDEOHG
III. SIC BASED POWER ELECTRONICS AND THEIR BENEFITS more than 50% switching loss reduction [81]. As a result,
improved efficiency and reduced cooling requirement can
Thanks to superior characteristics offered by SiC at power EHDFKLHYHG)RUH[DPSOHEDVHGRQDN:WKUHHSKDVH
semiconductor device and module level, SiC based power inverter in motor drives, test results show that, by merely
electronics can be significantly beneficial from converter replacing Si PIN diodes with their SiC Schottky diode
level and system level. More importantly, with much counterparts, the losses of an inverter decrease up to 10.7%
enhanced capability, SiC based power electronics are able under motoring mode and 12.7% under regeneration mode
to replace or enhance conventional functions performed by [82].
electromagnetic or electromechanical devices, leading to SiC Alternatively, with the given loss budget, increased
enabled new applications. switching frequency and reduced passive components need
7KLVVHFWLRQIRFXVHVRQWKHEHQH¿WVDFKLHYHGE\XWLOL]LQJ can also be realized. Since 2001 when SiC SBDs became
SiC in power electronics converters from different aspects commercially available, they have been successfully
along with several examples for effectiveness demonstration. employed in many products and demonstrated the expected
SHUIRUPDQFHLQWHUPVRILPSURYHGHI¿FLHQF\DQGUHOLDELOLW\
A. Converter Level Benefits [1]. Also, hybrid power modules consisting of Si IGBTs or
026)(7VZLWK6L&6%'VDUHFRPPHUFLDOO\DYDLODEOHE\
&RQYHUWHUOHYHOEHQH¿WVPDLQO\LQFOXGHLPSURYHGHI¿FLHQF\ PXOWLSOHVXSSOLHUVRQWKHPDUNHW>@>@
smaller size and lighter weight, enhanced reliability, and
reduced cost. They can be realized mainly in the following 2) Substitution of Si Active Switches with SiC Devices
three ways In addition to the mitigated reverse recovery, low on-
state resistance and fast switching-speed capability of SiC
1) Substitution of Si PIN Diodes with SiC Schottky Diodes active switches can further reduce power loss, therefore
:LWKRXWDQ\RWKHUPRGL¿FDWLRQWRSRZHUFRQYHUWHUVWKH improve power conversion efficiency. Together with high
):$1*et al29(59,(:2)6,/,&21&$5%,'(7(&+12/2*<'(9,&(&219(57(56<67(0$1'$33/,&$7,21 17
operating temperature of SiC devices, they can also lead B. System Level Benefits
to reduced cooling requirement. Moreover, they can lead
to high switching frequency and therefore reduced passive In addition to power converters themselves, SiC devices
components need. In the end, converter power efficiency, also bring benefits at system level as a result of the high
power density, and/or temperature capability can be switching frequency capability and high control bandwidth,
improved. especially for the system where the high controllability
)RUH[DPSOHLQWKHGDWDFHQWHUSRZHUVXSSO\V\VWHPD is required. One example focusing on the distribution
7.5 kW all-SiC three-phase buck rectifier was developed energy resource interface converters in microgrid system is
DQGGHPRQVWUDWHGZLWKHI¿FLHQF\WHVWHGDWIXOOORDG presented here.
approximately 70% less loss than Si IGBT based converter. A microgrid may contain a number of distribution
Moreover, SiC version is 10% lighter and 4% smaller energy resources (DER), such as photovoltaic (PV), battery
[49]. Recently, General Electric has released megawatt energy storage system (BESS), wind turbine generator,
OHYHOSKRWRYROWDLF39LQYHUWHUXWLOL]LQJ6L&026)(7V etc. Considering the characteristics are similar for grid-
with CEC efficiency approaching 99% [14]. Also note interface power electronics converters for different kinds
that more and more all SiC based power modules with of DER, a PV system and a BESS system are selected as
increased current capability become commercially available, UHSUHVHQWDWLYHVRI'(5VLQWKLVFDVHVWXG\)LJLOOXVWUDWHV
which will accelerate the adoption of SiC active devices in the configuration of the 1 MW microgrid with the DER
commercial products. interface converters highlighted. In the following analysis,
comparisons based on simulation between Si based interface
3) Topology Simplification with High Voltage (HV) SiC converter with 3 kHz switching frequency and SiC based
Devices one with 10 kHz switching frequency are conducted from
Limited by the voltage and frequency capabilities of Si different aspects.
devices, today’s MV drives typically employ complicated
multi-level topologies, such as three-level NPC topologies
and cascaded H-bridge (CHB) topologies. High voltage and
fast switching SiC devices offer an opportunity to achieve
the same functions and performance with the simple two-
level voltage source converter. The number of active and
passive components can be reduced. Therefore, complexity
of converter design and operation is reduced, resulting in
higher density, higher reliability and lower cost.
It was investigated that in MV motor drive application,
high voltage SiC based two-level voltage source inverter
exhibited the most promising performance as compared to
Si, Si/SiC hybrid, all SiC based three-level NPC inverter, )LJ&RQ¿JXUDWLRQRIPLFURJULGV\VWHP
with the fewest number of components, lowest power loss,
and smallest cooling system size/weight [83]. Recently 1) Power Quality Improvement
the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) initiated the Next The growing use of electronic equipment produces a large
Generation Electric Machines program. One of the main amount of harmonics in the power distribution systems
research and development efforts is to leverage recent because of non-sinusoidal currents consumed by non-
SiC technology advancements in power electronics of linear loads. Traditionally, harmonic distortion in power
MV megawatt (MW) drive systems for a wide variety of distribution systems can be suppressed using passive and/
critical energy applications. Using high voltage SiC power RUDFWLYH¿OWHUV7KDQNVWRWKHKLJKYROWDJHKLJKIUHTXHQF\
VHPLFRQGXFWRUGHYLFHVZLWKVLPSOL¿HGWRSRORJ\LVRQHRIWKH SiC devices, the harmonic compensation function can be
promising approaches to improve the density by the factor of integrated into the SiC based DER interface converter. In
3 along with 50% reduction of loss for MV MW level power RWKHUZRUGVQRGHGLFDWHG¿OWHUVDUHQHHGHG
electronics converter [84]. Also, DOE targets the Technology $VLPXODWLRQVWXG\ZDVFDUULHGRXWEDVHGRQFRQ¿JXUDWLRQ
5HDGLQHVV/HYHOV75/ZLOOLPSURYHWRRUEH\RQGDW LQ)LJDW0:SRZHUUDWLQJZLWKVL[SXOVHXQFRQWUROOHG
the end of the program as compared to current TRL of 4 or UHFWL¿HUDVWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIWKHQRQOLQHDUORDG,WVKRZV
below. Therefore, it can be expected the commercial product that to maintain the Total Demand Distortion (TDD) of the
based on this technology will be ready in the near future. Point of Common Coupling (PCC) on grid side smaller than
)XUWKHUPRUH 6L& GHYLFH PDQXIDFWXUHUV KDYH WDNHQ WKH 5%, in Si based solution with 3 kHz switching frequency,
initiative to develop high voltage large current SiC power DGHGLFDWHGDFWLYHSRZHUILOWHU$3)LVUHTXLUHGWKHQWKH
module to support this effort. It is reported that 10 kV/ 240 A total current rating of the power converter equals the sum of
6L&026)(7VEDVHGSKDVHOHJSRZHUPRGXOHVDQGN9 WKHUPVYDOXHRIWKH39RXWSXWFXUUHQWDQGWKH$3)RXWSXW
$6L&-)(7VEDVHGSKDVHOHJSRZHUPRGXOHVKDYHEHHQ current. In SiC version with 10 kHz switching frequency, the
GHYHORSLQJZLWKVRPHSURPLVLQJGHPRQVWUDWLRQV>@>@ total current rating is almost the same as the rms value of the
18 CPSS TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, DECEMBER 2016
)LJ+LJKIUHTXHQF\YVOLQHIUHTXHQF\WUDQVIRUPHUV
A. Utility Grid
TABLE II summarizes the selected SiC power converters
in utility application, including renewable energy (e.g. PV,
wind), distribution grid (e.g. SST), energy storage (e.g.
)LJ3URWRW\SH0:9DF9GFFRQYHUWHU À\ZKHHO%(66SURWHFWLRQHJ66)&/66&%)OH[LEOH
$&7UDQVPLVVLRQ6\VWHP)$&76DQG+LJK9ROWDJH'LUHFW
3) Solid-state Fault Current Limiter and Circuit Breaker Current (HVDC) system.
Substitution of fuses and circuit breakers (CBs) with Efficiency is a key consideration for utility application
SiC based fault current limiters for short-circuit protection by adopting SiC based solution. The reduced cooling and
LV DQRWKHU SURPLVLQJ DSSOLFDWLRQ )XVHV DQG &%V DUH passive requirements and the resultant cost reduction and
proven and reliable protection equipment. However, UHOLDELOLW\HQKDQFHPHQWDUHDOVRLPSRUWDQW)XUWKHUPRUHWKH
fuses are single-use devices, which have to be manually fast dynamics and high control bandwidth as discussed in
replaced and cause prolonged service interruptions; CBs 6HFWLRQ,,,LQWURGXFHVIXUWKHUEHQH¿WV
with high-current interrupting capabilities are bulky and $OVRQRWHWKDWVRPHHTXLSPHQWVXFKDV66766)&/
expensive electromechanical systems. More importantly, and SSCB, are not limited to utility application but can be
electromechanical CBs are relatively slow and cannot break leveraged to any applications with electric power system,
GFFXUUHQW)XUWKHUPRUHGXHWRWKHLQFUHDVLQJSRZHUGHPDQG VXFKDVVKLSERDUGHOHFWUL¿HGWUDLQ
in modern electric power system, the higher fault currents
are expected. This increased fault current levels may in the
B. Transportation
future exceed the interrupting capability of existing CBs [88].
6ROLGVWDWH IDXOW FXUUHQW OLPLWHU 66)&/ DQG VROLG TABLE III summarizes several examples of SiC based
state circuit breaker (SSCB) have been proposed as a new transportation application, including hybrid electric vehicle
device to limit and/or interrupt fault currents before their (HEV) and electric vehicle (EV), train (including metro),
first maximum peaks are reached through fast isolating more electric aircraft (MEA). Also, as discussed above,
IDXOWHG VHFWLRQV 6LPLODU WR 667V 66)&/V DQG 66&%V SiC based converter, such as SST, are being developed for
can be realized by both Si and SiC devices. With higher shipboard and train as well.
20 CPSS TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, DECEMBER 2016
TABLE II
SUMMARY OF SELECTED SIC POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS IN UTILITY APPLICATIONS
Commercial or Researcher/ 6SHFL¿FDWLRQV3HUIRUPDQFHDQG
Application Realization Approach
R&D, Year Developer RU%HQH¿WVE\(PSOR\LQJ6L&
T-type inverter for Grid-Tie application, 800 Vdc,
Technical reduced semiconductor losses by more than 50% ,
University LQFUHDVHGFRQYHUWHUHI¿FLHQF\XSWRDWOLJKWORDGDQG Substitution of Si IGBTs with
39>@ 5 '
of Denmark, PRUHWKDQUHGXFWLRQRIFRROLQJUHTXLUHPHQWZLWK 6L&026)(7V
Denmark N+]VZLWFKLQJIUHTXHQF\XSWRN+]VZLWFKLQJ
frequency at 1.5 kW with reduced magnetic size
N:9GFUHGXFHGVHPLFRQGXFWRUORVVHVLQWKH Substitution of Si IGBTs
,Q¿QHRQ
converter, which maintains electrical performance at ZLWK6L&-)(7V WRSRORJ\
PV [15] R&D, 2014 Technologies,
high switching frequency and then lowering costs. In the VLPSOL¿FDWLRQOHYHOWR
Germany
end, achieve up to 20% system cost reduction level)
Commercial General Electric, Substitution of Si IGBTs with
PV [14] 0:FODVV9GF&(&HI¿FLHQF\
3URGXFW U.S. 6L&026)(7V
T-type inverter, 50 kW, 50 kHz switching frequency,
natural convection, 99.1% peak efficiency, 22.7 W/in3
)ORULGD6WDWH Substitution of Si IGBTs with
PV [13] 5 ' volumetric power density, 2.5 kW/kg specific power,
University, U.S. 6L&026)(7V
improved power density by a factor of 3 vs Si based
state-of-the-art product
Multi-megawatt rating, 30%-50% switching loss
reduction and 15%-25% total loss reduction by
Peregrine Power Substitution of Si diode with SiC SBD, leading to 0.4% Substitution of Si diodes with
Wind [12] 5 '
LLC, U.S. increase in average efficiency and energy production. SiC Schottky diodes
Expected to employ SiC active devices for wind turbine
ZLWKQRPLQDOYROWDJHIURPWR9DF
0: 9DF N9GF LPSURYHG ZLQG V\VWHP
Tuskegee SRZHUFRQYHUVLRQHI¿FLHQF\DQGUHGXFHWKHV\VWHPVL]H
Substitution of Si IGBTs with
Wind [11] R&D, 2011 Univ. / Univ. of and cost due to increasing the switching frequency from
6L&026)(7V
Tennessee, U.S. N+]E\6L,*%7WRN+]E\6L&026)(7ZLWKKLJK
temperature properties
N96L&026)(7VZLWKORZVZLWFKLQJDQGFRQGXFWLRQ
losses leads to 75% reduction in weight, 50% reduction
Cree, GE,
LQVL]HHI¿FLHQF\DQGFRROHURSHUDWLRQ1RWHWKDW
SST [10] R&D, 2011 Powerex Inc., SiC enabled new application
in addition to utility, SST can be used in other power
NIST, U.S.
distribution systems, such as shipboard power system,
railway traction system
13.8 kV to 480 V grid-interfaced three-phase SST using
North Carolina
SST [9] R&D, 2015 N96L&Q,*%7HI¿FLHQF\IRUWUDQVIRUPHU SiC enabled new application
State Univ., U.S.
less intelligent power substation
Sanken Electric Matrix converter, 5 kW, 200 Vac, 25 kHz switching
Substitution of Si devices with
Co. / Nagaoka frequency, 98% efficiency, increased lifetime over 20
)O\ZKHHO(66>@ R&D, 2015 6L&026)(7V WRSRORJ\
Power Elec. Co., years, reduced maintenance time and cost by eliminating
PRGL¿FDWLRQ
Japan low lifetime components in the system.
1-10 kW converter application range where battery
Univ. of
storage is applied, 50.8% loss reduction at 20 kHz by Substitution of Si IGBTs with
Battery ESS [7] 5 ' Cambridge/ Univ.
6L&026)(7YV6L,*%7HI¿FLHQF\DWN+]E\ SiC active devices
of Warwick, UK
XVLQJ6L&026)(7VDQGE\XVLQJ6L&%-7
N96L&VXSHUJDWHWXUQRIIWK\ULVWRUEDVHGVROLGVWDWH
Univ. of Arkansas,
66)&/>@ R&D, 2014 fault current limiter successfully blocked an overcurrent SiC enabled new application
U.S.
within 40 μs.
SiC module based solid state circuit breaker handles a
250A fault in 10us and a 450A fault in 70us on a 270
SSCB [5] 5 ' Wolfspeed, U.S. VDC bus, reduced space and weight, higher power SiC enabled new application
density, longer lifetime due to absence of mechanical
parts
30 kVA dSTATCOM, reduced power loss, increased
Central
allowable environment temperature by using SiC
4XHHQVODQG Substitution of Si devices with
)$&76>@ R&D, 2014 devices, fast switching frequency can lower required DC
University, SiC active devices
EXVFDSDFLWDQFHZKLFKLVEHQH¿FLDOWRFRVWDQGIDLOXUH
Australia
rate in power conversion system
SuperGrid
Insulated dc-dc converter for off-shore wind application,
Institute /
HVDC [3] R&D, 2015 735 kVA, 20 kVdc output voltage, 10 kHz switching 7RSRORJ\PRGL¿FDWLRQ
University of
IUHTXHQF\HI¿FLHQF\E\XVLQJN96L&026)(7
7RXORXVH)UDQFH
):$1*et al.29(59,(:2)6,/,&21&$5%,'(7(&+12/2*<'(9,&(&219(57(56<67(0$1'$33/,&$7,21 21
TABLE III
SUMMARY OF SELECTED SIC POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS IN TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS
Commercial or Specifications, Performance and/or Benefits by
Application Researcher/ Developer Realization Approach
R&D, Year Employing SiC
Inverter efficiency up from 74.3% to 89.1 %, Substitution of Si IGBTs
HEV [35] R&D, 2011 Univ. of Tennessee, U.S.
V\VWHPHI¿FLHQF\XSIURPWR ZLWK6L&-)(7V
Commercial product, Substitution of Si with
HEV [33] Toyota, Japan KLJKHUIXHOHI¿FLHQF\UHGXFWLRQLQVL]H
2014 SiC devices
N9$9GFN+]VZLWFKLQJIUHTXHQF\
Substitution of Si devices
HEV [31] R&D, 2013 Nissan research center, Japan 70 kVA/L air-cooled inverter module, 98.8%
ZLWK6L&-)(7V
HI¿FLHQF\ZLWKN:FODVVLQGXFWLRQPRWRU
McLaren Technology Motor control unit (MCU) -500 used in McLaren Substitution of Si devices
HEV [27] Commercial product
Centre, UK 3URDGFDUN:!N:NJVSHFL¿FSRZHU ZLWK6L&026)(7V
North Carolina State Univ., Up to 55 kW, 2% higher efficiency, 12.1 kW/L Substitution of Si devices
HEV [32] 5 '
U.S. power density ZLWK6L&026)(7V
National Technical Univ.
N:(I¿FLHQF\KLJKHUWKDQVPDOOHUVL]H Substitution of Si devices
HEV [30] R&D, 2008 of Athens, Greece, Lund
less cooling requirement, 130 ºC operation with SiC BJT
Institute of Tech., Sweden
Commercial product, Substitution of Si with
EV [29] Mitsubishi Electric, Japan N:/
2014 SiC devices
40 kHz switching frequency, 140 kW, 450~850
Substitution of Si devices
(9>@ 5 ' Siemens / Porsche, Germany Vdc, High switching frequency/lower loss,
ZLWK6L&026)(7V
smaller size
80 kW, 20 kHz switching frequency, 100 kJ
Substitution of Si IGBTs
EV [25] R&D, 2014 University of Padova, Italy energy saving per driving cycle (5% longer
ZLWK6L&026)(7V
range)
)UDXQKRIHU,,6%*HUPDQ\ 290 kVA, 800 Vdc, up to 175 °C operating Substitution of Si IGBTs
EV [24] R&D, 2014
6ZHUHD,9)6ZHGHQ temperature, smaller size with SiC BJTs
10 kHz switching frequency, up to 70% loss
Leibniz University of Substitution of Si devices
EV [23] R&D, 2014 UHGXFWLRQLQHQHUJ\ORVVDQGUHGXFWLRQLQ
Hanover, Germany with SiC devices.
chip area
Venturi VM200, up to 200 kW, over 19,000 rpm
Venturi Automobiles, and over 150 Nm torque peak performance, Substitution of Si devices
EV [28] Commercial product
Monaco McLaren, UK PRUH FRPSHWLWLYH WR ZLQ WKH ),$ )RUPXOD( with SiC devices.
Championship
N9$9GF1DWXUDODLUFRROLQJLQVWDOOHG
in Tokyo Metro’s Tozai Line subway, 30%
less power loss, 20% smaller, 15% lighter,
Metro [17], Commercial product, Substitution of Si IGBTs
Mitsubishi Electric, Japan reduced transformer noise by 4dB due to a 35%
[18] 2013 with SiC devices
improvement in the distortion rate of output
voltage waveforms, 51% energy regeneration
compared to 22.7% of Si based
1.5 kW continuous output power, 5 kW peak Substitution of Si devices
MEA [22] R&D, 2007 ETH Zurich, Switzerland output power, 115 Vrms input voltage, 94% ZLWK6L&-)(7LQFDVFRGH
HI¿FLHQF\N:/YROXPHWULFSRZHUGHQVLW\ structure
Microsemi, Ireland 5 kVA, 540 Vdc, 40 ºC lower skin temperature,
Substitution of Si IGBTs
MEA [21] 5 ' University of Nottingham, continued SiC based module operation for
ZLWK6L&026)(7V
UK ÀLJKWKRXUV
10 kW, 70 kHz switching frequency, 3.59 kW/
Substitution of Si devices
MEA [19] R&D, 2010 Virginia Tech, Boeing, U.S. NJVSHFL¿FSRZHUN:/YROXPHWULFSRZHU
ZLWK6L&-)(7V
GHQVLW\HI¿FLHQF\DWN:ORDG
N:9GFN+]VZLWFKLQJIUHTXHQF\
N:/YROXPHWULFSRZHUGHQVLW\N: Substitution of Si devices
MEA [20] R&D, 2010 Virginia Tech, Boeing, U.S.
OEVSHFL¿FSRZHUXSWR&GHYLFHRSHUDWLQJ ZLWK6L&-)(7V
temperature
In general, high density is a key goal for the SiC based C. Industrial Motor Drive
converter in transportation application. High temperature
capability may also be important in this application since TABLE IV summarizes the selected SiC power converters
the ambient temperature of transportation system is usually in industrial motor drive application.
higher than room temperature. Also, by elevating the device In general, high efficiency, low cost, as well as small
junction operating temperature, less cooling requirement and volume/footprint are main objectives for SiC based motor
high density can be realized. GULYHV)RUVSHFLDOFDVHVVXFKDVFRPSUHVVRUVDSSOLHGLQRLO
22 CPSS TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, DECEMBER 2016
TABLE IV
SUMMARY OF SELECTED SIC POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRIAL MOTOR DRIVE APPLICATIONS
Commercial or 6SHFL¿FDWLRQV3HUIRUPDQFHDQGRU%HQH¿WV
Application Researcher/ Developer Realization Approach
R&D, Year by Employing SiC
Medium voltage two-level converter
XVLQJ N9 6L& 026)(7V N9$
North Carolina State Univ., 7RSRORJ\6LPSOL¿FDWLRQ
09'ULYH>@ 5 ' N9GF HVWLPDWHG HIILFLHQF\ DW
U.S. ZLWKN96L&026)(7V
kHz switching frequency, 4.11 W/inch 3
volumetric power density
N:N+]VZLWFKLQJIUHTXHQF\ Substitution of Si IGBTs
Motor Drive [39] R&D, 2015 Danfoss Drives, Denmark HI¿FLHQF\LQFUHDVHDFURVVZLGHSRZHUUDQJH ZLWK6L&026)(7VDQG
N:RYHU6L,*%7V SBDs
N: 9GF N+] VZLWFKLQJ
IUHTXHQF\ UHGXFWLRQ LQ FRQGXFWLRQ
Cree/ North Carolina State loss, 78% reduction in switching loss, 99.1% Substitution of Si IGBTs
Motor Drive [38] R&D, 2007
Univ., U.S. efficiency with 2% overall increase, and ZLWK6L&026)(7V
75% size reduction of heat sink by using SiC
vs Si
312 kVA, 550 Vdc, 20 kHz switching
KTH Royal Institute of Substitution of Si IGBTs
Motor Drive [37] R&D, 2014 IUHTXHQF\HI¿FLHQF\RYHUHQWLUHORDG
Technology, Sweden ZLWK6L&026)(7V
range
and gas industry, high temperature capability is also critical. thermal, and mechanical design. The key considerations for SiC
Moreover, compared with low voltage motor drives, medium based power module packaging are summarized here.
voltage application is more suitable to fully utilize the Parasitic minimization: In general, parasitic electrical
advantages of SiC devices, especially with the consideration parameters involved in the switching loop can be categorized as
of integrating high speed medium voltage motors. Then, either power device related internal parasitics or interconnection
the high voltage high frequency SiC devices offer a unique related external parasitics. The internal parasitics include
RSSRUWXQLW\WRDFKLHYHKLJKO\HI¿FLHQWXOWUDGHQVHPHGLXP gate-source capacitance, drain-source capacitance, Miller
voltage integrated motor drive system with relatively simple capacitance, and internal gate resistance; the external parasitics
topology and control. mainly include parasitic inductances, such as gate loop
inductance, power loop inductance, and common source
D. Power Supply inductance. All these parasitics can significantly impact the
TABLE V summarizes several examples of SiC based switching performance of power devices, especially for the fast
power converters for power supply, including data center switching SiC devices [90], [91].
power system, battery charger, and power factor correction )RUWKHGHYLFHPRGXOHGHVLJQZHKDYHWRDFFHSWWKHLQWHUQDO
3)& parasitics, and try to avoid adding extra parasitics to these
In general, efficiency and volume/weight are the main parameters externally. At the same time, interconnection related
focuses for SiC based power supply. More soft switching external parasitics should be minimized. Some of the effective
topologies with hundreds of kHz up to MHz switching parasitic minimization techniques include magnetic field
frequency can be observed in this application. As a result, cancellation technique and P-cell and N-cell concept [92], [93].
WKHSDVVLYHQHHGLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\UHGXFHGDQGWKHVPDOOVL]H Also, there is a trend to utilize 3D packaging technique to
DORQJZLWKKLJKHI¿FLHQF\FDQEHDFKLHYHG further reduce the power loop inductance inside the module
[94]-[97]. With 3D designs, the commutation loop area can
V. CHALLENGES FOR SIC BASED POWER CONVERSION be effectively reduced by restricting the commutation loop
SYSTEM in the thickness level of the device. Some existing designs
UHYHDOHGVLJQL¿FDQWUHGXFWLRQVRISRZHUORRSLQGXFWDQFHGXH
6XSHULRUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRI6L&GHYLFHVSURPLVHWRVLJQL¿ to package [94]-[97].
cantly improve today’s power conversion system. In the High temperature packaging: High temperature operation
meanwhile, these small and fast devices also pose new of power modules reduces the cost of power electronics
design challenges. Special considerations must be given systems through less semiconductor use and/or lower
to the converter design with SiC devices in order to utilize cooling need. As SiC power devices offer higher temperature
them effectively and reliably. The SiC based converter capability, high temperature packaging becomes critical.
design is still an active area for research. Several key topics New materials and optimized thermo-mechanical design
are highlighted here. are necessary to prevent the accelerated degradation of the
power modules due to high temperature or temperature
A. Power Module and Packaging excursion [98]. The high temperature technologies cover
Packaging device dies into power modules involve electrical, almost all aspects of the packaging: die attach, substrate,
):$1*et al.29(59,(:2)6,/,&21&$5%,'(7(&+12/2*<'(9,&(&219(57(56<67(0$1'$33/,&$7,21 23
TABLE V
SUMMARY OF SELECTED SIC POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS IN POWER SUPPLY APPLICATIONS
Commercial or 6SHFL¿FDWLRQV3HUIRUPDQFHDQGRU%HQH¿WVE\ Realization
Application Researcher/ Developer
R&D, Year Employing SiC Approach
encapsulant, and interconnection structure. paralleled with SiC devices, which increases their equivalent
Device paralleling: Today, due to the limited current rating output capacitance, and worsens the switching behavior.
of single die of SiC device, development of SiC based power Additionally, the chip to baseplate capacitance together with
module with multiple dies in parallel is necessary for high high dv/dt during fast switching transient will generate large
power conversion system. The positive coefficient of on- CM current (37.5 A in three-phase voltage source inverter
state resistance of most SiC devices allows each paralleled reported in [100]), causing severe EMI issue.
device to achieve current sharing naturally. However, special
attention must be paid to the dynamic current sharing during B. Gate Drive
fast switching transient since the switching behavior of SiC
devices is highly sensitive to the mismatch of parasitics in As the interface between the micro-controller and power
the switching loop (e.g. gate loop inductance). Accordingly, semiconductor devices, gate driver is a key component
parasitics of each die should be carefully controlled via to achieve the optimal performance of devices in actual
packaging and layout design to ensure good dynamic current power converters. To fully utilize the potential benefits
sharing. of SiC devices in actual converters, specifically the fast
Capacitive coupling effect: Inside the power module, VZLWFKLQJVSHHGWKHJDWHGULYHUGHVLJQLVFULWLFDO)LJ
a layer of insulating material is used to separate the SiC displays the components of gate driver circuits in the phase-
devices from the electrically conductive baseplate. Thus, OHJFRQ¿JXUDWLRQ*HQHUDOO\JDWHGULYHUPDLQO\FRQVLVWVRI
a chip to baseplate capacitance is formed [99]. Via the driver integrated circuit (IC), signal isolator, and isolated
baseplate of power module, this coupling capacitance is power supply.
24 CPSS TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, DECEMBER 2016
inductors and the equivalent series inductance (ESL) of of capacitive coupling is to decouple the lower and upper
capacitors and related self-resonant frequency, will present switches to separate heat sinks, i.e. one heat sink is used for
significant impact on filter insertion gain. This challenges all upper switches and the other for all lower switches in the
the filter component design. Better winding schemes to phase-leg [99].The method is effective only if two heat sinks
UHGXFHWKH(3&DQGEHWWHU¿OWHUVFKHPHWRUHGXFHLQGXFWDQFH can have different potentials.
capacitance values and filter size to further reduce EPC
and ESL, may be needed. Also, high frequency has more G. Control
to do with the non-ideality of core material property, e.g.
the widely used nanocrystalline core for CM choke has fast Control is an essential part of the power electronics converter
permeability drop above hundreds of kHz. Better solution system. There are many levels of controls. A suitable control
on choke design may be needed, such as combination of architecture, based on the layered hierarchical control for high
core materials associated with different frequency properties SRZHUFRQYHUWHUVLVUHFRPPHQGHGLQ>@DQGLOOXVWUDWHGLQ
[123], combination of active and passive filters to cancel )LJ7KHUHDUHPDQ\OHYHOVRIFRQWUROVLQFOXGLQJKDUGZDUH
the lower frequency CM noise via active filter and reduce control layer, switching control layer, converter control layer,
the needed value/size of passive filter to enhance its high application control layer, and system control layer. Compared
frequency performance [124]. with the traditional Si based power conversion system, fast
$WKLJKIUHTXHQFLHVWKHFRXSOLQJHIIHFWRI¿OWHUFRPSR switching SiC devices pose several challenges, which are
nents through capacitive path and inductive path also KLJKOLJKWHGLQ)LJDVZHOO
becomes worse. In low switching frequency converters,
though coupling exists, converter noise can be already
attenuated considerably at the typical coupling frequency
range. Whereas, in high switching frequency converters,
since the main noise spectrum is in or closer to the range of
coupling frequency, filter attenuation will be significantly
GHJUDGHG&DUHIXO¿OWHUOD\RXWDQGFRPSRQHQWSODFHPHQWWR
mitigate the coupling, coupling cancellation schemes [125],
RU¿OWHUDSSURDFKHVWKDWFDQDYRLGFRPSRQHQWFRXSOLQJDUH
desired.
F. Thermal Management
Generally, due to the highly-efficient SiC based power
conversion system, less cooling is required. However, similar )LJ&RQWURODUFKLWHFWXUHEDVHGRQ6LSRZHUHOHFWURQLFVFRQYHUWHUDQG
to the capacitive coupling effect within the power module, challenges due to SiC.
usually a thin layer of insulating material is used to separate
the SiC devices from the electrically conductive heat sink. Hardware control layer: Manages everything specific to
Thus, a parasitic capacitance is formed between the drain the power devices, such as gate drives and it may consist of
base plate of the SiC devices and the common heat sink PXOWLSOHPRGXOHVGHSHQGLQJRQWKHSRZHUUHTXLUHPHQWV)RU
SODWHDVVKRZQLQ)LJ>@,QWKHHQGWKLVFDSDFLWDQFH SiC devices, gate drive, isolation, and device level protection
is paralleled with devices, which increases their effective are challenging. Details are discussed in Parts B and C in this
output capacitance, and then negatively affects the switching section. Also note that compared with Si devices with 0.1 -1
speed. μs control time in hardware control layer, fast switching SiC
devices shorten it by a factor of 10 in the range of 0.01-0.1 μs.
Switching control layer: Enables the power electronics
to behave as a switch-mode controlled source and includes
PRGXODWLRQ FRQWURO DQG SXOVH JHQHUDWLRQ )RU 6L&
modulation, especially considering the impact of dead-time
for high frequency converter, is critical. More details are
discussed as follows. Similar as the hardware control layer,
the allowable control time for SiC devices becomes shorter.
Converter control layer: Enables the application control
layer to perform its mission by implementing many of the
)LJ&DSDFLWLYHFRXSOLQJEHWZHHQGHYLFHVDQGKHDWVLQN functions common to all converters such as synchronous
timing (phase-locked-loop), current and voltage filtering,
The key reason for the capacitive coupling effect is the measurements, and feedback control calculations. This layer
existence of a common heat sink for the upper and lower will include the current control loop, which is independent of
switches in the phase-leg. One approach to cancel the effect WKHDSSOLFDWLRQ)DVWVZLWFKLQJ6L&HQDEOHVKLJKHUVZLWFKLQJ
):$1*et al29(59,(:2)6,/,&21&$5%,'(7(&+12/2*<'(9,&(&219(57(56<67(0$1'$33/,&$7,21 27
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GRZQORDGV&*'+%/3SGI Applied Power Electronics Conference, 2017.
>@ $JLOH6ZLWFK*DWH'ULYHU('(0>2QOLQH@$YDLODEOHKWWSZZZ [95] K. Takao and S. Kyogoku, “Ultra low inductance power module for
agileswitch.com/sic-products.html fast switching SiC power devices,” in 2015 IEEE 27th International
[77] Z. Wang et al., “A High Temperature Silicon Carbide mosfet Power Symposium on Power Semiconductor Devices & IC’s (ISPSD), 2015,
):$1* et al29(59,(:2)6,/,&21&$5%,'(7(&+12/2*<'(9,&(&219(57(56<67(0$1'$33/,&$7,21 31
Based on a Physical Model,” IEEE Transactions on Industry with GE Industrial Systems, Salem, VA. During 2000 to 2001, he was the
ApplicationsYROQRSS Manager of Electronic & Photonic Systems Technology Lab, GE Global
[133] C. Li et al., “Analysis and compensation of dead-time effect Research Center, Schenectady, NY and Shanghai, China. In 2001, he
considering parasitic capacitance and ripple current,” in 2015 IEEE joined the Center for Power Electronics Systems (CPES) at Virginia Tech,
Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), Blacksburg, VA as a Research Associate Professor and became an Associate
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[134] J. Yuan et al., “An Immune-Algorithm-Based Dead-Time Director. Since 2009, he has been with The University of Tennessee and
Elimination PWM Control Strategy in a Single-Phase Inverter,” Oak Ridge National Lab, Knoxville, TN as a Professor and Condra Chair of
IEEE Transactions on Power ElectronicVYROQRSS Excellence in Power Electronics. He is a founding member and Technical
3975, 2015. 'LUHFWRURIWKHPXOWLXQLYHUVLW\16)'2((QJLQHHULQJ5HVHDUFK&HQWHU
[135] B. Guo et al., “Compensation of input current distortion in three- for Ultra-wide-area Resilient Electric Energy Transmission Networks
SKDVHEXFNUHFWL¿HUV´in 2013 Twenty-Eighth Annual IEEE Applied (CURENT) led by The University of Tennessee. His research interests
Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), 2013, pp. include power electronics, power systems, controls, electric machines and
930-938. motor drives.
Fei (Fred) Wang received the B.S. degree from Zheyu Zhang received the B.S. and M.S. degrees
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China, and the from Huazhong University of Science and
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Technology, Wuhan, China, and Ph.D. degrees from
Southern California, Los Angeles, in 1982, 1985, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, in
and 1990, respectively, all in electrical engineering. 2008, 2011, and 2015, respectively, all in electrical
Dr. Wang was a Research Scientist in the engineering. He is currently the research assistant
Electric Power Lab, University of Southern professor in Electrical Engineering and Computer
California, from 1990 to 1992. He joined the Science, The University of Tennessee. His research
GE Power Systems Engineering Department, interests include wide band-gap semiconductors
Schenectady, NY, as an Application Engineer in and application, gate driver technology, motor drive
)URPWRKHZDVD6HQLRU3URGXFW'HYHORSPHQW(QJLQHHU design, operation, integration and reliability, cryogenic power electronics.