Industrial System HNEE45

By

Unit Tutor

(DEPARTMENT: EE)
THE LONDON COLLAGE LCUCK
7th April 2020
 Table of Contents
List of Figures..................................................................................................................................2
Learning Outcome (LO1)................................................................................................................4
Main Elements of control system associated with industry.............................................................4
a) Industrial control system and their major elements with figures and configuration................4
b) Electronically Controlled Industrial Systems and their major elements and concepts..........12
c) DC motors control methods characteristics, advantages and disadvantages..........................18
d) Explain thoroughly the DC speed control methods and suggest improvement in speed
control............................................................................................................................................22
Learning Outcome (LO2)..............................................................................................................24
Electronic, electrical and mechanical controllers and transducers and their interface..................24
a) Evaluate the importance of an electronic, electrical and mechanical transducer and controller
and their interface..........................................................................................................................24
b) Demonstrate the importance of a transducer and a controller in a linear robotic motion......29
c) Examine the behaviour of a robot by applying different transducers and find the best
solution for a robot and explain it..................................................................................................31
d) Different types of a control system and comparison between different approaches..............34
Learning Outcome (LO3)..............................................................................................................37
Practical and Computer-Based methods to design and test a measurement system......................37
a) Use a computer program and determine the consistency and behaviour of a control process
of a DC motor................................................................................................................................37
b) Practical and analytical methods for creating and testing a measurement system.................39
c) Characteristics and behaviour of a measurement system by applying methods to find a DC
motor control system.....................................................................................................................41
d) Performance of an ideal measurement system with a real system.........................................42
Learning Outcome (LO4)..............................................................................................................43
Explain the performance of a given system by the use of an analytical system............................43
a) Explain PID controller techniques and its performance.........................................................43
b) Electronically Controlled Industrial system and PID controller............................................47
c) Use of a PID controller in different industrial systems by applying appropriate techniques.
Recommend the improvement in performance..............................................................................51
References......................................................................................................................................55
 List of Figures

Figure 1 Industrial control system and Block Diagram...................................................................4

Figure 2 Block Diagram of a PLC...................................................................................................5
Figure 3 Distributed Control System and Block Diagram...............................................................6
Figure 4 SCADA System and Block Diagram................................................................................6
Figure 5 A Logic Controller............................................................................................................7
Figure 6 Human Machine Interface.................................................................................................8
Figure 7 The Control Loop..............................................................................................................8
Figure 8 Actuator.............................................................................................................................9
Figure 9 A Sensor............................................................................................................................9
Figure 10 Data Storage Device......................................................................................................10
Figure 11 Control System and Block Diagram..............................................................................10
Figure 12 Master Terminal Unit and Block Diagram....................................................................11
Figure 13 Input and Output Terminal ports...................................................................................11
Figure 14 Working of a PLC.........................................................................................................12
Figure 15 Rack of a PLC...............................................................................................................14
Figure 16 Output Module of a PLC...............................................................................................15
Figure 17 A typical SCADA system.............................................................................................16
Figure 18 Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) of a SCADA system.....................................................16
Figure 19 Network Topology of a SCADA system.......................................................................17
Figure 20 Communication Systems in a Distributed Control System...........................................18
Figure 21 Armature resistance Controlled DC motor....................................................................19
Figure 22 Shunt armature Control method....................................................................................20
Figure 23 Field Diverter Control method of a series motor..........................................................20
Figure 24 Speed control of a DC series motor with Tapped Control Method..............................21
Figure 25 Armature Resistance Control method of DC shunt motor............................................21
Figure 26 Field resistance control method of DC Shunt motor.....................................................22
Figure 27 Transducer working.......................................................................................................24
Figure 28 Resistive Transducer.....................................................................................................25
Figure 29 Capacitive Transducer...................................................................................................26
Figure 30 Inductive Transducer.....................................................................................................26
Figure 31 Photoelectric Transducer...............................................................................................27
Figure 32 Electromechanical Transducer......................................................................................27
Figure 33 Interface of Transducer with a Controller.....................................................................28
Figure 34 Linear Pressure Transducers.........................................................................................29
Figure 35 A Linear Displacement Transducer...............................................................................30
Figure 36 Motor control with a controller.....................................................................................30
Figure 37 Transducer used in pressure measurement....................................................................32
Figure 38 Ultrasonic Transducer...................................................................................................33
Figure 39 A typical control system................................................................................................34
Figure 40 Computer program for a DC Motor..............................................................................37
Figure 41 Accuracy of a DC motor...............................................................................................38
Figure 42 Stability of a DC motor with a MATLAB....................................................................39
Figure 43 A PID controller block diagram....................................................................................43
Figure 44 P controller....................................................................................................................44
Figure 45 P controller characteristics............................................................................................44
Figure 46 PI controller...................................................................................................................45
Figure 47 PI controller characteristics...........................................................................................45
Figure 48 PID controller................................................................................................................46
Figure 49 Characteristics of a PID controller...............................................................................46
Figure 50 Industrial process with a PID controller........................................................................47
Figure 51 Furnace temperature control with PID..........................................................................48
Figure 52 Neutralization of PH with PID controller.....................................................................49
Figure 53 DC Motor controller using a PID controller.................................................................50
Figure 54 Zeigler-Nichols First Method........................................................................................52
Figure 55 Zeigler-Nichols Second Method...................................................................................53
Learning Outcome (LO1)

Main Elements of control system associated with industry

a) Industrial control system and their major elements with figures and
configuration. 

The control system that is used in industry is now a major control system that is used nowadays
in modern industries. Industrial control system has a vital role in an industrial development. Now
everything in the world is shifting from manual to automatic operation so that’s why the
industrial control system is important to understand and it's working. Many industrial control
systems are used in these days. Every industrial control system has some advantages and
disadvantages. The control system that is used in industry is one of the major control systems
that has changed the entire working environment of industry and industrial automation. Industry
production mainly depends on the control system and the environment used ins particular
industrial design.

Figure 1 Industrial control system and Block Diagram

                    
So an important point is to understand an industrial control system, configuration and their major
components and elements that are used in the modern era. First, discuss the major industrial
control systems after that main components or elements that are used in a particular industrial
control system. Below mentions are the control systems that are used in industry and these
control systems are used in many industries for the automation purpose and the industrial
production purpose. The following three are the most popular industrial control
systems[ CITATION Van19 \l 1033 ].
Programmable logic control (PLC)
Distributed Control system
The SCADA control system
Now discuss briefly all the above three control systems. 
Programmable Logic Control (PLC)
PLC is the modern form of the industrial control system. PLC is a computer that operates with
the help of logic instructions. PLC is a common type of control system that is used in industry
also it is used for an industrial automation purpose. PLC can be used in critical conditions like
high temperature, high pressure, low pressure, dry, wet and other conditions. PLC makes the
system more reliable and due to which the system runs more efficiently. A modern PLC is much
similar to a personal computer. A modern PLC has a central processing unit (CPU) that is the
main part of the PLC. It has input and output units, a power supply that is used to operate the
PLC and most important is the operating system that runs the PLC. PLC plays a critical role in
an industrial automation process. PLC programming can be changed according to the required
industrial conditions[ CITATION uni18 \l 1033 ].

Figure 2 Block Diagram of a PLC

Distributed Control System

This is also a new form of a control system. Distributed control system is a new and advance
type of a control system that is used in many industries and for automation purpose. A
distributed control system is a large and efficient control system used for an automation purpose.
Distributed Control System has actuators and sensors and these are connected throughout the
industry and all these devices are connected with the fast communication cables and with the
PC’s to monitor the variable quantity like temperature, pressure etc.
 Figure 3 Distributed Control System and Block Diagram

The SCADA Control System

SCADA is the modern form of the industrial control system. SCADA stands for Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition. SCADA uses communication cables and different industrial
devices to communicate and control the industrial process and automation. SCADA system is
very reliable and this system uses different devices like computers, microcontrollers, PLCs and
PID controller to control and manage the industrial design process and automation.

Figure 4 SCADA System and Block Diagram

  
Major Components and Elements of an electronic control system
Electronically control system is the backbone of any industry. Control system controls the entire
production and industrial automation process. Industrial control system requires many different
elements that are necessary for an industrial automation process. Following are the main
elements of the industrial control system[ CITATION wha19 \l 1033 ].
Logic Controller
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
Control Loop
Actuators
Sensors
Data Storage Device
Control Unit/Server
Master Terminal Unit
Input-Output Terminals
Now discuss all these elements briefly.
Logic Controller
A logic controller is any device that is used as a controller. It can be PLC, SCADA or any other
controller. The basic purpose of this logic controller is to control the entire plant or industry.
PLC and SCADA are the important logic controllers that are used for the industrial control unit.
This is hardware that runs the entire process and controls the plant by the help of the feedback
control system and controls the devices that are used in industry like sensors and transducers. 

Figure 5 A Logic Controller

  
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
This is a graphical user interface (GUI) that connects the user with the hardware controller. HMI
is a complete system unit that shows the entire status of a plant or industry. It displays the
running pressure, temperature and other data. It can also be sued to adjust the parameters and
control setpoints of a microcontroller.
 Figure 6 Human Machine Interface

Control Loop
This loop is the control structure of microcontrollers and output parameters. The control loop
allows controlling the changing parameters like temperature, pressure and other parameters
which are important for industrial applications. The control loop connects the input parameters
with the output parameters like sensors and transducers so to control them efficiently.

Figure 7 The Control Loop

  
Actuators
Actuators are the devices which are used to handle an opening and closing mechanism of an
electronic device. Actuators are used in many industries and many processes. Actuators make it
possible to convert the energy form one form to another form of energy. This helps the system to
established a good network for an industrial work. Actuators are an important part of an industry.
Actuators make it possible to handle the complex system of the industry by controlling the
parameters and values[ CITATION YiK18 \l 1033 ].
 Figure 8 Actuator

  

Sensors
Sensors are the devices which are used to sense some electrical quantity. These devices are
widely used in industrial processes. Sensors and actuators both are used in the industry. Sensors
sense the quantity and actuator convert electrical quantity into mechanical to drive some motor
or process.

Figure 9 A Sensor

  
Data Storage Device
Data storage devices are used to store the data in a device for future use. Data storage devises are
capable to handle a large amount of data and as we know that in the control system we need a
large amount of data. And there must be some device which is used to store a large amount of
data. A data storage device includes the hard disk, flash memory and any other device which is
used for a data storage purpose.
 Figure 10 Data Storage Device

  
Control Unit/Server
Control unit is the heart of every control system. Control system helps to manage the entire
control system and this helps to manage the control system. Control unit is a part of a central
processing unit (CPU). Two other parts are also use in a CPU and these are the ALU Arithmetic
and Logic Unit that performs the arithmetic operations and memory unit that saves the memory.

Figure 11 Control System and Block Diagram

  
Master Terminal Unit (MTU)
MTU is the main unit of every control system. MTU connects RTU (Remote Terminal Unit)
with a communication channel. MTU makes it possible to handle the RTU and communication
between the different modules of a control system. So MTU is the heart of a control system that
allows top connect RTU with a communication channel.
 Figure 12 Master Terminal Unit and Block Diagram

  

Input-Output Terminals 
These are the input and output terminals of a control system. These terminals are used to connect
the input ports with an input side with an input terminal and output side with an output terminal.
So these terminals are important since these are used to connect the input sides and output sides
of a module or system.  

Figure 13 Input and Output Terminal ports

  
 b) Electronically Controlled Industrial Systems and their major elements
and concepts

Electronically Controlled Systems that sre used in daily routine life are very important for
automation and industrial processes. These controlled systems provide relative switching for
different devices and processes. So it is important to know the concept of every industrial
controlled system that is used for the automation and the industrial process. The following three
types of industrial controlled systems are widely used for the industrial controlled and
automation process.
Programmable Logic Controlled System (PLC)
The SCADA System
The Distributed System    
All the above three controlled systems are commonly used for the industrial process and the
automation process. Now discuss the main concepts that are related to each industrial system in
detail.
Programmable Logic Controlled System (PLC)
The working of PLC is simple as compared to the traditional electronically controlled systems
that are used for the automation purpose. PLC working principle is a ladder logic. This logic is
used in entire PLC. PLC is operated with the help of a power supply. The power supply supplies
to the entire logic circuit. The working of PLC is quite simple. The figure below shows the
working of a PLC.

Figure 14 Working of a PLC

  
The working of a PLC includes the following steps.
First, the operating system starts and it counts the cycle.
After that Central Processing Unit (CPU) runs the data and check the status of the input devices
and start reading the data from the input modules.
This is the main process, in this process CPU starts the execution of the application program that
is used to run the Programmable Logic Controlled (PLC) and this application program can be in
ladder logic or any other programming language.
After that Central Processing Unit (CPU) executes all the internal diagnostics and perform the
communication process.
After that CPU executes the input data and shows the output at the output modules and process
continues as long as PLC runs.
Different functions of different components in PLC
Following are the components that are the part of a programmable logic controller (PLC).
Rack or Chassis
The Power Supply
The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
Input and Output modules
Communication Module
Now discuss all these in details.
Rack or Chassis 
This is the outer body of a PLC. This is also an important part of the PLC. PLC comes in
different shapes and sizes. So it is important to analyze each size. The small size PLC has fix
input and output modules so for the complex or large process a bigger size of PLC is required
that has many input and output modules and can be configured according to the requirements.
All the input and output modules are inside the rack or chassis.
 Figure 15 Rack of a PLC

  
The Power Supply
The power supply provides the required power that is used for a module and this provides to the
PLC modules. A power supply is a rectifier which converts the input AC supply into a fix DC
supply. A typical PLC usually runs on a 24 volts DC supply. Some PLC also designs for a lower
voltage such as 12 volts and 9 volts. DC Power generated by the rectifier is used by the CPU and
input and output modules.
The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
This is an important part of a PLC. PLC CPU has two main parts. RAM and ROM. RAM
contains the programming data that is used for the execution process and ROM contains the
operating system, application program and drivers. CPU of a PLC is hexagonal or octagonal with
times and clock speed that is used for the execution process. Two types of CPU are used in PLC.
One is a single bit and other is word type CPU. Single bit CPU is used for the ladder logic
execution and word type CPU is used for the text, numeric data and other executions.
Input and Output modules    
These are the modules that are used for the input and output process. The input module can be
push button or switches or on off module. Output module has valves gauges and relays. Input
and Output module helps to interface the devices with the CPU. The following four main
functions that are performed by the input module.
It is used to convert the 24 volts DC voltage signal to 5 volts.
It is used for the interface signal that comes from the CPU.
It is used to prevent PLC from fluctuations.
The input module is used to send the signal to the CPU for the execution.
The output module of a PLC works similarly but reverse direction. The output module is used to
interface the output process with the CPU. 

Figure 16 Output Module of a PLC

Communication Module
This module is used for the communication process between the CPU and input and output
module. This helps the PLC to interact with the other components of a PLC. This communication
module also helps to connect PLC with the personal computers that are placed at remote
locations.
The SCADA System 
The SCADA control system is a large control system that is used for an industrial automation
also for control process. SCADA system has both hardware portion and software portion. A
computer is also connected with the SCADA system and in that computer a SCADA software
should installed for the execution of a program. The hardware component that is connected with
a module receives the input and executes it to give the output. SCADA system is now used by
the many industries for the automation and industrial process. Below three are the main elements
of a SCADA control system.
The MTU (Master Terminal Unit)
The RTU (Remote Terminal Unit)
The Communication Network Topology
Now discuss all these components in details.
The MTU (Master Terminal Unit)
This is ano ther most important part of a SCADA control system. It is a brain of a SCADA
control system. It consists of a personal computer, PLCs and communication modules to interact
with a RTU (Remote Terminal Unit). MTU (Master Terminal Unit) is used for the data
collection, communication purpose and other processes. It helps the operator to interact with the
computer to collect the data and information.

Figure 17 A typical SCADA system

  
The RTU (Remote Terminal Unit)
This unit is connected with the actuators and also with sensors to collect the required information
and after that send to the master terminal unit (MTU). RTU has also a memory that helps to store
the data and send the data to the MTU (Master Terminal Unit) whenever needed. RTU helps to
communicate with the MTU (Master Terminal Unit) so the automation process run smoothly.

Figure 18 Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) of a SCADA system

Communication Network Topology

This is a communication network topology that is used in a SCADA or PLC system. This
topology allows to use the network topology with several devices and also this topology gives an
advantage of making the system more reliable and economical. The communication network
topology is an important part of a PLC and SCADA control system. So for the successful
communication, there must be some communication device that communicates with other
modules of a control system. So for this purpose, a communication network is important for a
SCADA and a PLC system. It helps to know about the exact working and execution of a system.
It also helps to understand the impact of a communication network on different modules and
processes. As we know that in the industry there are different types of modules are present and
for each module, it is required to communicate with each module so for that purpose the system
must be such that which allows the accurate use of a communication system and communication
network topology.

Figure 19 Network Topology of a SCADA system

The Distributed Control System

This is another control system that is used in industrial automation and process. A distributed
control system is a new and advance system that has more than one control systems. This is a
new type of system that is used in the modern world. The distributed control system uses the
network topology configuration and also it uses other topologies to make a distributed control
system. A distributed control system is one of the best control systems that is used in modern
industries and modern industrial units. A distributed control system is also the most complicated
control system that is used in many industries and also it is used in many industrial operations.
So for that purpose, a distributed control system is an important part of a communication system
that works according to the given circumstances and conditions[ CITATION Ele19 \l 1033 ]. 
 Figure 20 Communication Systems in a Distributed Control System

  
So it important to know the working of a distributed control system. The distributed control
system is the new control system that is used in many industries and for automation purpose. A
distributed control system is a large and efficient control system used for an automation purpose.
Distributed Control System has both the sensors and actuators that are connected throughout
industry and all these devices are connected with the fast communication cables and with the
PC’s to monitor the variable quantity like temperature, pressure etc. Distributed control system
uses the network topology configuration and also it uses other topologies to make a distributed
control system. A distributed control system is one of the best control systems that is used in
modern industries and modern industrial units. A distributed control system is also the most
complicated control system that is used in many industries and also it is used in many industrial
operations. So for that purpose, a distributed control system is an important part of a
communication system that works according to the given circumstances and conditions.
  

c) DC motors control methods characteristics, advantages and

disadvantages

There are many types of motors that are used in daily routine life. There are AC and DC motors.
DC motors are commonly used in industry and also for different industrial operations. DC
motors are very powerful and have excellent efficiency. DC motors have many advantages and
purposes as compared to the AC motors. DC motors are less costly and have better speed control
and also speed regulation. DC motor speed is given by.
Where:
V is the voltage that is applied to a motor
Ia is the current that flows in armature and Ra is the resistance that flows in armature.
There are two types of a DC motors that are used in industry.
DC series motors
DC shunt motors
DC motor speed can be controlled by the following two ways.
Armature control method.
Field control method.
Now discuss these methods in detail.
DC series motors speed control
DC series motor speed control with armature control.
The armature controlled DC series motor has the following three types.
1. Speed Control with Armature Resistance Control
This method is a most common type of speed control method of a DC motor. In this method, the
resistance is directly connected with the armature as shown in the figure below. This method is
the most commonly used and is used in cranes, trains and other heavy machines.

Figure 21 Armature resistance Controlled DC motor

2. Speed Control with a Shunted Armature Control

In this method speed control of a DC motor is done by the use of a shunted armature, the
armature is provided with a shunt winding and resistance is connected with a shunt and armature
winding. The voltage that is applied to the armature is controlled by the series resistance R1
connected with the armature and field winding is controlled by the resistance R2. This method is
not commonly used due to power loss.
 Figure 22 Shunt armature Control method

  
3. Speed Control of a DC motor with an Armature Terminal Voltage Control method
This is another method of speed control. In this method speed is controlled by the control of a
supply voltage. The supply voltage is provided by the separate variable voltage. This method is
not used widely due to the high cost.
Field Controlled DC series motor
DC series motor with a field control has the following two types.
1. Field Diverter Control Method
In this method, an extra shunt diverter resistance is attached with the series field winding and by
changing the diverter resistance the speed control of a series motor can be achieved. This method
is also popular in many speed drives motor control.

Figure 23 Field Diverter Control method of a series motor

2. DC series motor speed control with a Tapped Field Control Method
In this method, tapes are used for the control of a speed of a DC series motor. By increasing the
tap winding the magnetic flux increase and speed decreases and vice versa.

Figure 24 Speed control of a DC series motor with Tapped Control Method

  
DC Shunt Motor Speed Control
There are two types of methods that are used for a speed control of a shunt DC motor.
Speed control with an Armature Control Methods
Armature control method has the following two types.
1. Armature Resistance control method of a Shunt DC motor
A variable resistance is used with an armature coil in this method and hence the speed is
controlled by changing the armature resistance. The field is connected with the shunt winding as
shown in the figure below.

Figure 25 Armature Resistance Control method of DC shunt motor

  
2.   Speed Control of a DC shunt motor with Armature Voltage Control method 
An extra variable supply is used in this method. This supply is separated from the supply
connected to the field winding. This method has poor regulation so it is not used widely. 
Field controlled Methods
Field resistance Control method of a DC shunt motor
This is a similar method to the armature speed control but main difference is that in this method
resistance is connected with the field winding and due to which the current changes in the
armature coil and hence the speed control is achieved.

Figure 26 Field resistance control method of DC Shunt motor

  
Advantages and Disadvantages of different methods
Advantage of Armature Control Method
Fine speed control is achieved in both directions
Acceleration is uniform
Better speed regulation
Regenerative braking mechanism can be used
Disadvantages of Armature Control Method
Cost is high and required more space 
Less efficiency at high loads
This method produces noise.

d) Explain thoroughly the DC speed control methods and suggest

improvement in speed control 

The speed of a DC motor is controlled by many methods and due to the excessive use of a DC
motor in daily routine the speed control of a DC motor is a big issue. So it is important to know
that DC motor has big issue of a speed control and speed control is important in heavy industries
since the speed control of a DC motor requires the maintenance and also it helps to maintain the
efficiency of a system. Speed control of a DC motor helps to maintain the speed of a DC motor
and due to the widespread use of a DC motor many methods are used for speed control and these
methods are used for speed control. Many methods are used for speed control of a DC motor. As
discussed earlier that there are two types of processes that are used for speed control of a DC
motor. One method is by the use of field parameters and another method is by the use of
armature parameters. Field parameters include the field current, field resistance and armature
parameters include the armature current and armature voltage. So it is important to know that
each parameter has its importance. As there are following two types of speed control
methods[ CITATION DCM18 \l 1033 ].
Speed Control with Armature Control Method
The Field Control Method
Both methods are used for a speed control method. In armature control method, main focus is on
an armature and in-field control main focus is on a field. The choice of a field or an armature
helps to find out the requirement for DC motor to control the speed. Speed control of a DC motor
helps to maintain the speed of a DC motor and due to the widespread use of a DC motor many
methods are used for speed control and these methods are used for speed control. There are many
methods which are used for a speed control of a DC motor. As discussed earlier that there are
two types of processes that are used for speed control of a DC motor. One method is by the use
of field parameters and another method is by the use of armature parameters. One method is by
the use of field parameters and another method is by the use of armature parameters. Field
parameters include the field current, field resistance and armature parameters include the
armature current and armature voltage. So it is important to know that each parameter has its
own importance. DC motor speed cab be controlled by many methods and due to the excessive
use of a DC motor the speed control is a big issue. So it is important to know that the speed
control of a DC motor is important in heavy industries since the speed control of a DC motor
requires the maintenance and also it helps to maintain the efficiency of a system[ CITATION Kir18 \l
1033 ]. 
Learning Outcome (LO2)

Electronic, electrical and mechanical controllers and transducers and their

interface

a) Evaluate the importance of an electronic, electrical and mechanical

transducer and controller and their interface

Transducer is widely used in industry for industrial process. The transducer is used to convert the
physical quantities such as temperature, pressure and other physical quantities into measurable
quantities like voltage and current. The transducer is important in an industry as transducer
converts many physical quantities into measurable quantities that are to be measured in an
industry. As there is no proper instrument that measures the temperature and pressure and
records it so there needs an instrument that converts the given quantity into a measurable
quantity. That instrument is the transducer.

Figure 27 Transducer working

So the transducer converts the physical quantity into measurable voltage or current. The input of
a transducer is any physical quantity and output is a proportional voltage and current. In industry
many types of transducers are used. Each transducer has its mechanism and each transducer is
used for a specific purpose. So it necessary to interface different types of transducers and connect
them with the controllers so that the physical quantity can be measured easily. So it is required to
interface properly different types of transducers like mechanical, electrical and electronics
transducer and their interface with controller.
First, discuss transducers and their types and their applications after that their requirement of
interface with the microcontroller.
Types of Transducers and their working 
Industrial process uses many types of transducers and their working. These transducers are used
to convert different physical quantities into a voltage and current so that the quantity can be
measured easily. Following types of transducers that are mostly used in industry for the
controlling and measurement purpose. These are.
Electrical Transducers
Electronic Transducers
Mechanical Transducers
Now discuss all these transducers in details and their interface with a controller so that a
controller can easily control the physical quantity.
Electrical Transducers
Electrical Transducers are those which convert the physical quantity into the voltage or current.
Electrical transducers are widely used in the industry. Electrical transducers are both passive or
active type transducers. Electrical Transducers are capable of converting the physical quantity
into electrical voltage or current. Below are the examples of the electrical transducer.
Passive type Electrical Transducers
Passive Transducers are those which require an external supply for the transducer. These
transducers are more complex than active transducers. Following are the main types of Passive
transducers.
Resistive Transducers
These are the transducers that have an output of resistance. When there is a change in input
physical quantity the resistance of a transducer changes. In other words, the resistance is directly
proportional to the applied physical quantity. Examples of resistive transducers are resistive
thermometer, resistive pressure transducer etc[ CITATION Tra19 \l 1033 ].

Figure 28 Resistive Transducer

  
Capacitive Transducers
These transducers have an output of capacitance. When there is a change in the physical quantity
that is to be measured the output capacitance of a transducer changes. In another word, the
capacitance of a transducer is directly proportional to the applied physical quantity. Capacitor
moisture transducer, capacitor thickness transducer are the examples of capacitive transducers.
 Figure 29 Capacitive Transducer

  
Inductive transducers
These are the transducers that have an output of inductance. When there is a change in physical
quantity the inductance of a transducer changes. The inductance of a transducer is directly
proportional to the applied physical quantity. Examples are Inductive displacement transducer,
inductive thickness transducer.

Figure 30 Inductive Transducer

Active Type Electrical Transducers

These are the electrical transducers which do not require any external supply for their operation.
These transducers are more simple in design as compared to passive transducers. Following are
some examples of the active type of electrical transducer.
Photoelectric transducer
This transducer is used in the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric transducer converts the
photoelectric energy into measurable quantity like voltage or current. This type of transducer is
widely used in photoelectric devices. Examples of the photoelectric transducer are photoelectric
pressure transducer, photoelectric strain transducer.

Figure 31 Photoelectric Transducer

 Electromechanical Transducer
This transducer converts the electromechanical energy into a measurable quantity like voltage or
current. Electromechanical transducers are also widely used in industry and also used in other
processes. The electromechanical transducer uses the principle of electromechanical. Few
examples of an electromechanical transducer are tachometer, electromechanical flow meter etc.

Figure 32 Electromechanical Transducer

  
 Mechanical Transducers
Mechanical Transducers are those in which the physical quantity is changed by the mechanical
output. These transducers are different from electrical transducers. Mechanical transducers are
also used in different industrial operations to convert the energy of one form to other form with
the help of mechanical transducer. The output mechanical quantity can be anything which can be
measured for example force, torque, pressure or strain.
The interface between controller and different transducers.
The importance of an interface between different transducers and controllers are important as
transducers are used to convert the energy form one form to other form one form of energy.
Different Transducers are connected with the controllers to perform a specific function. As
controllers control the working environment and transducers are used to convert the form of
energy into another form of energy, so for that purpose, it is necessary to interface a transducer
with a controller so that transducers work completely with a controller. Different controllers are
used for a different purpose. Controllers use a control loop to perform a specific function and
also controllers are required to maintain the working condition of a circuit. To demonstrate it use
a simple example[ CITATION PKS12 \l 1033 ]. 

Figure 33 Interface of Transducer with a Controller

As in figure above it is clear that sound signals are amplified to enhance their capacity. Sound
waves are first converted into electrical signals with the help of a microphone. Here microphone
act as a transducer. The amplifier acts as a controller. So here controller is connected with a
microphone (transducer). Also, the amplifier amplifies the sound signal and this sound signal is
transferred to the loudspeaker. Loudspeaker act as again transducer. It converts the electrical
signal into sound signals but with an increase in amplification. So it is important to know that the
interface of a transducer with a controller is important since it will complete the working
environment of a circuit. 
 b) Demonstrate the importance of a transducer and a controller in a linear
robotic motion.

The transducer is widely used in different types of operations and functions. In industry, the
transducer is widely used in different techniques and positions. One of the widely used motions
in the industry is a linear motion. Linear motion is defined as a motion in one direction. Linear
motion is achieved by a linear machine or a robot. So transducer is used in a linear motion to
convert physical quantity such as a pressure or flow to convert it into linear motion and convert it
into a current or voltage form. Linear robotic motion is used in many industries and applications.
For example, a hydraulic motion control where a linear transducer is used and this transducer
helps to record the change in pressure in a very limited time. Pressure transducer in a linear
motion control also helps to maintain the pressure of a system.     

Figure 34 Linear Pressure Transducers  

Another important use of transducer in linear motion is a linear displacement transducer. A linear
displacement transducer is widely used in a linear motion and this helps to attain the linear
motion. A linear displacement transducer is used in many industries few are discussed here. A
linear displacement transducer is used in the automation process. In the automation process, a
linear transducer is widely used for a lubricant and other purposes. Linear displacement
transducer is also used in hydraulics machines and hydraulics process. For a hydraulic machine,
the piston position is controlled by the movement of a transducer and by the help of this
movement the position of a hydraulic is controlled and manage. A linear displacement transducer
is also used in aircraft and aviation. In aircraft, a linear displacement transducer is used to
measure the wing deflection. This helps to understand the wing deflection angle and also it helps
to measure the deflection angle easily and accurately.   
 Figure 35 A Linear Displacement Transducer

Another important work of a linear displacement transducer is used in a power turbine. In power
turbine linear transducer is used to measure the position of a power turbine. The position in a
power turbine is critical so it is necessary to identify the position of a power turbine accurately
and according to the requirements. This can be done by the use of a linear displacement
transducer. So a linear displacement transducer is used in many applications and in many
industries to provide the necessary linear operation for a specific function.
Controllers are also used in a linear robotic motion. Transducers and controllers both are
important for linear robotic motion. Controllers control the output generated by the transducers.
Controllers are required in a linear motion to control a various parameter like speed, torque linear
motion and other important parameters. Controllers are used with a transducer and this
combination makes the circuit complete and run. Linear motion can be controlled by the use of a
specific type of a controller that controls the whole working of a linear machine. A linear motion
controller also controls the working of a module or a circuit. For example, in a linear motor, the
speed of a motor is controlled by a specific controller that controls the speed and other
parameters of a linear motor.        

Figure 36 Motor control with a controller

  
As shown in the figure above load is connected with a motor and motor is connected with a
driver that drives the motor. The driver is connected with control. There is a feedback path which
connects the motor with a controller and load with a controller. Whenever there is a change in
load or a change in the speed of a motor the controller that is connected with a load controls the
driver to operate the motor at high speed. So here a controller and driver both are necessary for
linear motion of a motor.
Conclusion
A transducer is an important tool for an industrial operation. Transducer makes it possible to
convert the energy from one form to other form so it is widely used in many industries.
Transducer makes it possible to use the industrial tools and parameters efficiently. So the
transducer is important for an industrial purpose and with transducer, it is impossible to
implement the industrial solution. Transducer helps to carry the industrial parameters and
convert them in another form. The transducer also helps to convert the parameters into readable
parameters like the pressure is converted into voltage and current. So for a transducer, it is
important to know that it is used to convert the energy of one from to other form. So for a
transducer, it is important to know that it is used to convert the energy of one form into other
form and this type of conversion is important in industrial process as in industry many types of
energies are present and these energies cannot be measured directly so first convert them into
other form and then measured it and this work is done by a transducer.

c) Examine the behaviour of a robot by applying different transducers and

find the best solution for a robot and explain it.

Different transducers are used for a different function. So for a specific function, more than one
transducer can be used for a specific purpose. This will help to understand the working of each
transducer and this will help to understand which transducer is suitable for a specific function or
an operation. So for a transducer, it is important to know the working of each transducer and
after that check that which transducer is suitable for a specific function. To explain this, take the
example of a pressure transducer. A pressure transducer is a type of a transducer that converts
the pressure into a readable electrical signal and that is voltage or current. So for a pressure
different types of transducers can be used but as discussed earlier that each transducer has its
working so it is important to know which type of a transducer is working fine for a given system.
So for a given system as shown in the figure below. 
 Figure 37 Transducer used in pressure measurement

  

Here, in this case, a pressure source is used and this source is connected with a pressure
transducer. This transducer will convert the pressure into a readable voltage and this voltage will
be measured by a voltmeter. A microprocessor will convert the voltage again into pressure and
tell the exact reading of pressure. So here a transducer that is used is a pressure transducer and
this transducer is used for conversion of pressure into a voltage. Another transducer can be used
here which consists of an internal circuit that controls the working of a transducer. This type of a
transducer is heavy in size and also it will consume more power so for a purpose of a transducer
a simple type of a transducer can be sued that convert simple pressure into a voltage and then the
voltage will be measured according to the pressure level. So it is important to know the
characteristic of a transducer for a particular robotic operation so that it will not affect the
working of a machine and also it will help to understand the behaviour of a particular transducer
that is used for a particular operation.  
Another important transducer that is used in an industry is an ultrasonic transducer. An ultrasonic
transducer is a special type of a transducer that is used to measure the speed of a sound as
compared to the other. An ultrasonic transducer is a special type of a transducer that converts the
value of a sound wave into electrical energy and this energy is used to determine the intensity of
a sound wave. For example, there are two types of a sound wave and each has its wavelength and
characteristics. So for a transducer, it will differentiate the wavelength of each light and
compared it with other and due to which the differences will give the potential difference and
this potential difference will be used to determine the wavelength of a sound. 
 Figure 38 Ultrasonic Transducer

  
Similarly, there is another type of ultrasonic transducer that is used to measure the wavelength of
light. This transducer is an electronic type of a transducer that converts the light wavelength into
a measurable voltage or current so that it can measure accurately. But this type of transducer is
heavy in size and also consumes more power due to which it is not used commonly as compared
to the simple transducer that is used for a measurement of a wavelength. So it is important to
know that passive type of a transducer is not suitable for this robotic since a passive type of a
transducer requires more power for its operation as passive type of a transducer has more
components that required more power for its operation, so for this robotic operation an active
type of a transducer is important since this transducer is not too much heavy and it is simple in
size and due to which it consumes less power for its operation.
Conclusion for different types of a transducers 
As we know that transducer is an important part of an industrial unit so it is important to know
the type and working of a transducer. But as there are many types of transducers that available
for a particular operation and due to which it is important to know the working of each
transducer but it is also important that each transducer is not suitable for a particular operation.
For example, for a simple pressure sensor, an active type of a transducer is enough for a
measurement of pressure but a complex system there required a special type of a transducer that
is used to measure the pressure of a complex system and this type of a transducer is called a
passive type transducer. A passive type transducer is more complex in design as compared to an
active type transducer so it is important to know first the type of a system whether a system is
complex or not. If a system is complex, then passive type transducer will be preferred but if a
system is not complex then an active type transducer will be given preference. But this is not a
hard and fast rule, as there is some simple industrial design in which passive type transducer is
used and due to which the overall working of a design is increased and this also gives an extra
advantage to a system that system becomes more reliable and also system becomes more
accurate and due to these two qualities it is easy to measure the required quantity for which a
particular type of a transducer is used in a particular type of a model or unit.    

d) Different types of a control system and comparison between different

approaches 

Different types of controllers and control systems are used in daily routine life. PID controller is
a widely used controller in daily life and also this controller is almost used by 95% industrial
processes. PID stands for Proportional Integral and Derivative Controller. PID controller is used
in a closed-loop and this controller is almost used in every industrial process to control it with
the help of a PID controller. PID controller is used with a microcontroller. PLC (Programmable
Logic Controller) has a built-in PID controller that is installed in a PLC box. As PID controller
has a flexibility and reliability so due to which a PID controller is commonly used in control
systems and in a closed-loop system. So a PID controller is the most popular controllers for an
industrial process and their used is increased day by day. All three parameters proportional,
derivative and integral combine to form a PID controller and these three parameters are used to
produce a signal.

Figure 39 A typical control system

  
Working of a PID controller
To control something, we need two states and these two states are ON and OFF. These two states
work fine for a linear system but for an oscillatory system we need something better than a
simple linear system, and for this, a PID controller is used for an oscillatory system. PID
controller works based on a zero error between the desired output and setpoint value. The
working of a PID controller is usually established by the three controllers and the explanation of
these three controllers are given below.
P Controller (Proportional Controller)
Proportional or a P controller is a type of a controller in which error signal e(t) is first multiplied
with a proportional constant. This type of controller gives the output of a system which is
proportional to the current error e(t). P controller first compares the desired or set value with a
feedback process value and after that the error signal is multiplied with a proportional constant.
Steady state is not obtained by this controller. If the error value is zero, then the output of a
system will zero. Manual reset operation is required for a P controller; this is because this
controller never approaches the steady-state level. P controller gives the stable operation but
there is always present a steady-state error and due to which it never reaches a steady-state level.
The speed response of a P controller will increase if the proportional constant will increase and
speed of a response decrease if the proportional constant will decrease. The characteristic of a P
controller is shown in the figure below.
PI Controller (Proportional Integral Controller)
As there is present a steady-state error in P controller so due to which P controller has an offset
error and there should be another controller that can reduce the steady state error. PI controller is
used for that purpose. Proportional and integral are the parts of a PI controller that eliminates the
steady-state error. The use of an integral function eliminates the error signal by multiplying it
with an integral until the error removed. Response of a system can be controlled with a PI
controller and also controls the output of a system. The response of a system decreases with an
increase in integral constant. 
In the figure above it is clear that by increasing the gain of as integral I controller the steady state
error also decreases and due to which the system becomes more stable. Also, the system depends
on a P controller. To decrease the steady state error, the gain of a P controller should decrease
and due to which the system becomes more stable. PI controller is required when there is no need
of high speed response. The gain of I controller is limited to some value to avoid the integral
wind up an error as the integral output goes on increasing even at a zero state response and this is
due to the nonlinearities present in a system.
PID Controller (Proportional Integral and Derivative Controller)
The PID controller (Proportional Integral and Derivative) is an advanced type of controller that
can be used to know about the future behaviour of a system. PID controller uses all the responses
integral, derivative and proportional response to control the output of a plant. PID controller
gives a kick start of a system by increasing the system response. PID controller increases the
system response by increases the integral gain. PID controller are used to increases the stability
and reliability of a system by compensating the phase lead lag compensation and this helps to
stabilize the system response. 
The figure above shows the response of a PID controller. It is clear from the above figure that a
response of a D controller is more and due to which the settling time of a PID controller
decreases and this helps the stability of a system.
The structure of a PID controller consists of three main blocks and these are proportional integral
and derivative. These blocks combine to make a PID controller. The PID controller operates by
the combined effect of all three responses. PID controller is used in many industrial processes
like to control pressure, temperature, flow rate etc. A more than one PID controller is also used
in a cascaded style to improve system stability. 

The figure above shows a typical PID controller structure. It consists of a process block which is
connected with a PID controller and this PID controller is connected with a process variable. The
process variable is the output of a module. The setpoint is given to a PID controller which is used
for a reference signal by a PID controller. PID controller is used to control the set point value,
and this helps to control the module easily. Plant response is measured with a set point and the
difference between the two values is compensated with the help of a PID controller. Process or
plant consists of other devices like sensors, actuators and valves that are used to control the
whole working of a plant or process. 
A feedback signal coming from the process plant is compared with a reference or setpoint signal
and after that, the error signal is transferred to a PID algorithm. After that, the controller applies
the proportional integral and derivative function on an error signal and controls the output of a
process plant. It is not necessary that always all the three modules proportional, integral and
derivative is used for a plant sometimes only integral or derivative can be used according to the
requirements and conditions. PID controller is often one of the most popular controllers that are
used in many industries and plants. PID controller has many advantages as compared to another
controller. PID controller provides a good settling time and a good response to a system. So for
better performance and better functionality of a plant PID controller is used for a control
purpose.
Learning Outcome (LO3)

Practical and Computer-Based methods to design and test a measurement

system.

a) Use a computer program and determine the consistency and behaviour

of a control process of a DC motor

DC motor is one of the most popular motors that is used in industry and for that purpose it is
widely used in many industrial operations and many industrial processes. For that purpose, a DC
motor is most popular as compared to the AC motor. A DC motor can easily run and stop and
there is no issue of a power factor for a DC motor. A DC motor can run faster than an AC motor.
So it is necessary to determine the behaviour of a control process of a DC motor. As we know
that many soft wares are used for a measurement of a DC motor and use of these soft wares will
help to understand the properties of a system. So it is important to know the properties of a DC
motor by a particular software used. The software used for a DC motor control has many
benefits, it helps to determine the exact value of a DC motor like speed, rpm, voltage, current etc.
The choice of software helps to understand the working of a Dc motor properly. So it is
necessary to use suitable software that is necessary for a DC motor control. The software helps
the hardware to run smoothly and also it helps to understand the working of a hardware machine.
So for that purpose software of a system is necessary since it will allow understanding the
working and physical condition of a motor. So the software is necessary for physical hardware
and in case of a DC motor hardware is a DC motor and software is a computer program.

Figure 40 Computer program for a DC Motor

There are many types of a computer software that are used for a DC motor control purpose. These
software have some advantages and disadvantages. So for that purpose it is important to understand the
properties of a computer software. One of the computer software that is used for a DC motor parameters
and control purpose is a MATLAB. MATLAB is very popular software that is used for a specific DC
motor control. So to understand the software and parameters of a DC motor let take some parameters.
  Accuracy of a DC motor
The accuracy of a DC motor can easily be find out with the help of a MATLAB. Accuracy involves the
motor working and function in different environments and] conditions. Accuracy involves the
performance of a DC motor. DC motor and its behaviour in a particular environment and the performance
in different conditions and environments A figure below shows the accuracy of a DC motor.

Figure 41 Accuracy of a DC motor

 Resolution of a DC motor
Resolution of a DC motor is defined as smallest portion of an increment that can change the control
process of a DC motor. This is an important parameter of a DC motor that has to be managed with a
software. Resolution makes the performance of a motor poor. So it is important to understand the effect of
a resolution so that it should be minimized and hence it will not affect the working and performance of a
DC motor. There are many factors that are responsible for a resolution of a DC motor, some of these
factors are.
 Mechanical positioning of a motor
 Feedback device
 Controller
 Electronic device used for a controller purpose
So these are some factors which are should be kept in mind for a resolution control. For an ideal operation
of a DC motor resolution is not supposed to be a part of a DC motor.
 Tolerance
This is another main element of a DC motor that should be measured accurately with a help of a software.
Tolerance is not required in any system, especially when a system has an electrical parameter like voltage
or current. So for a DC motor it is important to know about the tolerance since tolerance will make the
system unstable and due to which harmonics are produced and so it will heat up the system. So for a DC
motor tolerance should be in a limit to make the system reliable and efficient for working. If tolerance is
not in a limit then it will affect the working of a DC motor. So it is important to control the tolerance of a
DC motor for an efficient working of a DC motor.
  Stability
Stability is another important factor that should be measured for a DC motor. Stability is important for a
particular motor since it will improve the efficiency of a motor. For a particular type of a motor stability
is an important factor for a DC motor. Since stability makes it possible to stable the working environment
and also the working of a DC motor so it is important for a DC motor to be stable since if it is not stable
then it will create distortion and due to which harmonics are produced and hence it will affect the working
of a DC motor. So it is important to know the importance of a stability in a DC motor as it will helps to
maintain the system stable and also helps to make the system reliable and efficient.

Figure 42 Stability of a DC motor with a MATLAB

b) Practical and analytical methods for creating and testing a

measurement system.
Measurement system analysis is a type of a tool or a technique which is used to determine an item or a
system by involving a number of peoples or equipment. Measurement analysis system is required to
identify the nature of a system that is required for a specific purpose. The use of a measurement system
analysis is necessary for an analysis of a system since it will guide the steps that are required for a
measurement system. Measurement system is used to determine the amount of a variation that comes
from itself and not form the products or services. So for a good measurement system it is necessary to
determine the nature of a system or a process. Measurement system analysis helps to determine the
observed measurement that comes from itself. It also helps to understand the working of a system and
also helps to understand the basics of a system that is required for a successful measurement system. So it
is important to understand the importance of a measurement system that is required for a particular
process. So there are following characteristics that are required to establish a good measurement system.
These are following.
  Accuracy
Accuracy is the most importance characteristic of a measurement system. Accuracy makes it possible to
handle complex things which are required for a measurement process. Accuracy makes the system more
accurate and due to which the chance of an error will reduce. Accuracy is associated with a system so for
a good system accuracy should be high as it will help to secure the system and also it will reduce the
uncertainty between the actual and measured values. Accuracy will attain when a measured values and
actual values have a less difference.
 Repeatability
It is a process when a measurement is repeated several times and then a true result is obtained. This also a
characteristic of a measurement system analysis. Repeatability makes the system removes from the errors
and ambiguities so a system obtained will be of a high measurement values and also the loss will be
minimum. This thing is important in measurement system analysis since it will not only make the system
reliable but also makes the system free form the errors and ambiguities, so for a good measurement
system repeatability is also required for a perfect measurement and analysis.
 Reproduce
This is a third characteristic which is a part of a measurement analysis system. Reproduce means to
produce the system again. This is an important characteristic of a measurement system. Reproduce is also
important as it will help to make a system reliable and also it will help to produce a system with a better
system analysis and techniques. For a better measurement system reproduce is important since it will not
only make the quality of a system better but also improve the efficiency of a system. So for a good system
reproduce is important since it will help the system to make a system reliable and also it helps to
understand the exact nature of an item or a product.
 Stability
This is a fourth important characteristic of a measurement system analysis. Stability makes the system
stable and reliable and this is important for a measurement system analysis. As measurement system
analysis makes the system according to the requirements so for that purpose it is important that stability
should be kept in mind. Stability makes the to run with efficiency and this allow to increase the efficiency
of a system. Stability also improves the working of a system. Stability allows to enhance the system
capacity and system reliability. So for a good and efficient measurement system it is important to know
the stability of a system. As stability creates many benefits for a system and not only the system stability
increases but also makes the working of a system strong.
 Resolution
This is a last characteristic of a measurement system analysis. This characteristic is related with a system
resolution and system performance. As we know that resolution makes the system efficient and not only
efficient but also makes the system reliable and for that purpose it is important to know that resolution is
important for a measurement system. Resolution makes the system reliable and makes it to handle the
complex problems and not only problems but also help to understand the problems. So for that purpose it
is important to make the resolution and also it will help to maintain the system properties and this will
help to understand the system characteristics and for that purpose it is important to understand the
importance of a resolution in a measurement system. So for a good measurement system this
characteristic is an important one as it will help to understand the system analysis and system reliability
for a good measurement system.
Conclusion
A measurement system is an important system that helps to understand the working of a system, so for a
good measurement system it is important to know the working of a system and this helps to understand
the system properties. For a good and efficient system, the use of a practical and analytical methods is
important for a successful measurement of a system. So it is important to understand the practical and
analytical methods that are necessary for a measurement system. These methods are used to determine the
exact output of a measurement systems. For a successful measurement system, it is important to
understand the working of a system. So for a good measurement system it is important to understand both
the analytical and practical methods that are used to determine the exact working of a measurement
system. So for a good measurement system it is important to understand the exact theories and objectives
that are necessary for a practical and analytical methods so for a good measurement system it is important
to know the exact working of an analytical and practical method of a measurement system.

c) Characteristics and behaviour of a measurement system by applying

methods to find a DC motor control system
There are many methods and characteristics that are used for controlling a DC motor. A DC motor is
controlled by many ways. A DC motor is capable of providing a good performance as DC motor can run
at high rpm and due to which a DC motor can provide a good RPM and this RPM is necessary for a good
performance of a DC motor. So for the DC motor there must be some methods that should be adopted for
the DC motor control and these methods are important since these methods are provide the control system
of a DC motor. So for controlling a DC motor it is necessary to apply an appropriate method that is used
to control a DC motor. There are following methods that are applied for a DC motor control and these are
follows.
 Position and Speed control using PID controller of a DC motor
The position and speed control of a DC motor can be controlled with a help of a PID controller. This type
of a controller helps to control the position and speed control of a DC motor by applying methods that are
used in a PID controller. The controller is divided into three main parts.
 First part is composed of an encoder. This consists of a sensor and relay that sense the
position and speed of a Dc motor. The signal is then transferred into a controller of a PID
controller.
 In second step a controller of a DC motor is consists of three potentiometers that control the
speed of a DC motor. This will help to understand the position of a DC motor as well. So for
a good controller of a DC motor control a controller sends an analog signal to a motor driver
circuit that controls the speed of a DC motor.
 In last step a PWM is used which controls the speed of a DC motor and then feedback the
output with a feedback path. The output of a feedback path is then transferred to a motor
driver circuit to control the speed of a shaft of a DC motor.
Microcontroller are used to control the speed of a DC motor. The microcontroller receives the signal and
the feedback to a motor driver controller to control to control the speed of a DC motor. So for this
purpose a software is used in a computer that is connected with a computer so it is used for measurement
and speed control of a DC motor. So for a measurement this method is used for a control of a DC motor
and this method is widely used for a control of a DC motor. So it is necessary to understand the method
before the controller of a system has been applied. It is necessary to understand the controller and its
working for a DC motor control.
 Implementation of a measurement step for a brushless DC motor
In this method the motor parameters are controlled with a help of a software. The software name is ARM
microcontroller. This microcontroller is used to control various parameters of a motor like voltage,
current, speed, torque etc. The motor parameters are displayed on a pc by the help of a HMI. This
software is widely used for a measurement of a speed and other parameters of a DC motor control. So this
method is a popular method as compared to other method that is discussed earlier. So this method is
mostly used for controlling a DC motor and also used for a parameters control like voltage, current and
other parameters.

d) Performance of an ideal measurement system with a real system.

The ideal measurement system is very much different from the real measurement system. An ideal
measurement system is the one which has an ideal conditions of a measurement system. An ideal
measurement system has the following characteristics.
It should be measureable
It should not consume time
It should be accessible
It should not use much resource
It should be consistence
So for an ideal measurement system the above characteristics should be followed. An ideal measurement
system uses ideal conditions. On the other hand, a real measurement system uses a real condition. An
ideal measurement system is more close to an accuracy but a real measurement system is not too close to
an accuracy. This is because an ideal measurement is much closer to an ideal system but a real
measurement is not closer to a system so due to which an ideal measurement system is more advance as
compared to a real measurement system.
Both measurement systems are used in a measurement process. Ideal measurement system is more
advance as compared to a real measurement system. Ideal measurement system is mostly used by a
companies for a measurement purpose since it is much closer to an ideality. Real measurement system is
also used but due to the real system there are some of characteristics that are a part of a real measurement
system so due to this a real measurement system is not suitable for a small measurement since real
measurement system has high value of a percentage error so due to which it is not used much for a
measurement purpose.
Learning Outcome (LO4)

Explain the performance of a given system by the use of an analytical system.

a) Explain PID controller techniques and its performance

PID controller is a commonly used controller that is almost used by 95% industrial processes.
PID controller stands for Proportional Integral and Derivative Controller. PID controller is used
in closed loop and this controller is almost used in every industrial process to control it with the
help of a PID controller. All the three parameters proportional, derivative and integral combine
to form a PID controller and these three parameters are used to produce a control signal.

Figure 43 A PID controller block diagram

A PID controller is shown in figure above. In figure above it is clear that there is a feedback path
that is connected with an input. Input is connected with a PID controller. Feedback path provides
the feedback and this feedback is used to control the input of a plant or a module. By the help of
a feedback a controlled output of a plant is achieved. Before the invention of a microprocessor
PID controllers are used with an analog electronic component. But after the invention of a
microprocessor PID controller is used with a microcontroller. Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) has a build in PID controller that is installed in a PLC box. Due to the flexibility and
reliability a PID controller is widely used in control systems and in a closed loop system. So a
PID controller is one of the most popular controller for an industrial process and the use of a PID
controller is increased day by day.
Working of a PID controller
To control something, we need a two states and these two states are ON and OFF. These two
states work fine for a linear system but for an oscillatory system we need something better than a
simple linear system, and for this a PID controller is used for an oscillatory system. PID
controller works on a basis of a zero error present between the set point value and the output.
The working of a PID controller is usually established by the three controllers and their
explanation is given below.

Proportional Controller
Proportional or a P controller is a type of a controller in which error signal e(t) is first multiplied
with a proportional constant. This type of controller gives the output of a system proportional to
the current error e(t). P controller compares the desired or set value with a feedback process
value and the error is then multiplied with a proportional constant. This type of a controller does
not give a steady state. If the error value is zero, then the output of a system will zero. P
controller requires a manual reset operation this is because this controller never approaches to
steady state level. P controller gives the stable operation but there is always present a steady state
error and due to which it never reaches a stead state level. If the proportional constant will
increase, then speed response will increase and if the proportional constant will decrease then
speed of a response decreases. Figure below shows the characteristic of a P controller.

Figure 44 P controller
 Figure 45 P controller characteristics

Proportional Integral (PI) Controller

A steady state error is present in P controller so due to which P controller has an offset error and
there should be another controller that can reduce this steady state error. PI controller is used for
that purpose. The steady state error can eliminate by a PI controller that has proportional and
integral part. The use of an integral function eliminates the error signal by integrating the error
signal over a period until the error signal eliminates. PI controller limits the response of a system
and also controls the output of a system. The response of a system decreases with an increase in
integral constant.

Figure 46 PI controller
 Figure 47 PI controller characteristics

In the figure above it is clear that by increasing the gain of as integral I controller the steady state
error also decreases and due to which the system becomes more stable. Also the system depends
on a P controller. The steady state error also decreases when the gain of controller decreases and
due to which the system becomes more stable. The PI controller is used where high speed
response is not required. The gain of I controller is limited to some value to avoid the integral
wind up error as the integral output goes on increasing even at a zero state response and this is
due to the nonlinearities present in a system[ CITATION Wha18 \l 1033 ].
PID (Proportional, Integral and Derivative) Controller
PID (Proportional, Integral and Derivative) controller is an advanced type of a controller that has
the capability to know the future behavior and response of a system. PID controller uses all the
three responses integral, derivative and proportional response to control the output of a plant.
PID controller gives a kick start of a system by increasing the system response. PID controller
increases the system response by increases the integral gain. PID controllers are used to increases
the stability and response of a system by compensating the phase lag compensation and this
helps to stabilize the system response.

Figure 48 PID controller

 Figure 49 Characteristics of a PID controller

The response of a PID controller is shown in figure above. It is clear from the above figure that a
response of a D controller is more and due to which the settling time of a PID controller
decreases and this helps the stability of a system.
Structure of a PID controller
The structure of a PID controller consists of a three main blocks and these are proportional
integral and derivative. These blocks combine to make a PID controller. The PID controller
operates by the combine effect of all three responses. PID controller is used in many industrial
processes like to control pressure, temperature, flow rate etc. A more than one PID controller is
also used in a cascaded style to improve the system stability.

Figure 50 Industrial process with a PID controller

The figure above shows a typical PID controller structure. It consists of a process block which is
connected with a PID controller and this PID controller is connected with a process variable. The
process variable is the output of a module. Set point is given to a PID controller which is used for
a reference signal by a PID controller. PID controller is used to control the valve and this helps
to control the module easily. Plant response is measured with a set point and the difference
between the two values is compensated with the help of a PID controller. Process or plant
consists of other devices like sensors, actuators and valves that are used to control the whole
working of a plant or process.
Feedback signal that is the output of a plant is compared with a reference or set point signal and
after that the error signal is transferred to a PID algorithm. After that the controller apply the
three functions proportional, integral and derivative on an error signal and controls the output of
a process plant. It is not necessary that always all the three modules proportional, integral and
derivative is used for a plant sometimes only integral or derivative can be used according to the
requirements and conditions. PID controller is one of the best controller that is used in many
industries and plants. PID controller has many advantages as compared to other controller. PID
controller provides a good settling time and good response to a system. So for a better
performance and better functionality of a plant PID controller is used for a control purpose.

b) Electronically Controlled Industrial system and PID controller.

PID as discussed earlier is one of the most popular controller that is used in modern world. Many
industries use PID controller and applications that are associated with an automation process or
automatic process. PID controller is widely used in congested areas where top priority is a level
control for example speed control, volume control and pressure control. So it is necessary to
understand the operation of a PID controller in congested areas. Main important factor that is to
be maintained while using and installing a PID controller is a noise and its factors that are should
be minimized so that the function of a PID controller cannot be disturbed. So the main and
important purpose of a PID controller is to provide a noise free environment so that the working
of a plant or a process do not create any disturbance. The use of a PID controller not only
minimized the noise but also makes the system reliable and also it helps to maintain the stability
of a system. The use of a PID controller in such environment where noise is a main problem can
affect the closed loop of a function or a pant. Also it will affect the final output value as well. So
the working of a PID controller should know as in a noisy environment can affect the system
reliability and system performance. So it is important to understand the working of a PID
controller in noisy environment. Some examples are given below in which PID controller is used
in a noisy environment and these examples are widely used in daily routine, so discuss the effect
of a noise and also the effect on a closed loop and also effect on a PID controller. Following are
the examples are given below.
Furnace Temperature Control
This is one of the best example of a PID controller. Furnace temperature control is one of the
most important parameter that has to be managed for a proper function of a plant. As there is a
large amount of a material that is to be converted into heat so that the furnace can run easily, so
for that purpose it is important to know how a furnace temperature can be controlled and with
other parameters. As in a furnace there is required a high amount of heat for the operation of a
furnace so it is important to maintain a high amount of heat so that a furnace can work properly.
It is important to note that the temperature of a system does not increase so quickly so for that
purpose it is required a specific types of a controller that can be used to decrease the error signal
that is generated from the set point and feedback signal. A main purpose of using a PID
controller is to minimize the error signal and that can easily be done with a help of a PID
controller. This can be explained easily with an example.

Figure 51 Furnace temperature control with PID

This is an ideal example of a PID controller. In this example as we know that a main purpose of
PID controller is to provide a hot water for a system or for a plant. So here Cooling water is
inserted into the furnace and hot air is extracted from the bottom side. As shown in figure
furnace is attached with a transformer and this transformer provides a necessary power to make
the furnace active. This transformer is connected with a controller. This controller is a PID
controller. This controller is also connected with a thermocouple. As we know that a
thermocouple is a temperature sensor transducer that senses the temperature and this transducer
is connected with a controller. When there is increase in temperature then thermocouple gives
signal to the controller to control the transformer output voltage. When the temperature is
decreased then thermocouple also send signal to a controller and controller send command to a
transformer to increase a power so that furnace can boil the water according to the requirements
and there is no error signal present that can decrease the efficiency of a system.
Neutralization of PH control
This is another main and important example of a PID controller. In this case the main and
important point is to maintain the PH for a system. As PH in an industry plays an important role
and for that purpose it is important to know the working of a PID controller to control the PH of
a system. As it is important that PH of a plant should be limit and this limit varies but for a
typical industry the value of a PH should be in between 7.5 to 8. More than 8 will become the
system solution more basic and basic nature is not suitable for a plant. Similarly, less than 7.5
will makes the system solution more acidic and acidic solution makes the system corrosion. So
for that purpose the value of a PH should be in a limit to make sure that the plant is working fine.
For that purpose, a PID controller is used to limit the value of a PH to a limit. For a
demonstration below is given an example.
 Figure 52 Neutralization of PH with PID controller

This is an example of a pH control using a PID controller. In this example there is a pH

transmitter which is used to measure the pH of a system. This transmitter is connected with a
monitor. This monitor tells the actual condition of a pH. For that purpose, this monitor is
connected with an input control valves. These valves are controlled with a help of PID controller
that is used in a monitor controller. pH transmitter is continuously measure the pH of a system
and if there is any decrease in pH the monitor will command the input valves to open more and
more reagent will use and this will help to decrease the value of a pH. Similarly, when there is
increase in pH then monitor commands the input valve to less open, this help to control the value
of a pH. This whole system is balanced with a controller and with an input control valve. So for a
balanced and controlled function of a controller it is necessary to understand the whole working
of a system so that a system can function properly.
PID controller for a DC motor control
Another example of a PID controller is DC motor control and its speed using a PID controller.
This method is widely used in modern speed control of a DC motor. In this method the speed of
a DC motor is controlled by the help of an algorithm of a PID controller. This technique is the
most popular technique adopted by a many industries and plants. PID controller for a DC motor
gives an extra control of a motor and this method is most used in modern industries. To
demonstrate this method, take an example below.
 Figure 53 DC Motor controller using a PID controller

The figure above shows a block diagram of a PID controller of a DC motor. This block contains
a feedback path which is connected with a microcontroller. Microcontroller is basically a PID
controller. A set value of a speed has been assigned to a controller. When there is increaser in a
speed of a motor feedback path gives a signal to a microcontroller about the increase in a speed
of a motor. PID controller will adjust the speed of a DC motor by giving a command to a motor
driver IC. So whenever there is increase in a speed of a motor to a set point value feedback path
will giver signal to a microcontroller and due to which the speed control of a motor can be
increased. Also whenever there is decrease in a speed of a motor to a set point value feedback
will provide the feedback and give a signal to a microcontroller about the slower speed and due
to which microcontroller give signal to a motor driver IC and hence the speed of a DC motor is
controlled by the help of a PID controller. LCD is connected with a microcontroller that shows
the exact condition of a microcontroller and about the speed. LCD can be configured manually
and command can be send to a microcontroller with a help of LCD. In other words,
microcontroller can be controlled with a help of LCD.
Conclusion
PID controller is a most popular controller that is used for a closed loop operation for a control of
a plant or module. PID controller gives more advantages as compared to other controller. There
is a high gain in PID controller so it is easily to improve the settling time and response of a
system. PID controller has all three parameters proportional, integral and derivate and all these
parameters are working for a controller. PID controller is also used for the improvement of an
existing control system by designing a better control system and the use of a that control system.
This helps the system to improve the stability of a system. So a PID controller is one of the most
important and popular controller that is used in modern industries for a controlling purpose and
the due to the reliability of a PID controller, this controller is used by most industries in modern
world. PID controller is used in many applications specially the closed loop operations where
feedback path is used. The use of a feedback path is important in closed loop function as closed
loop improves the stability of a plant and operation, so for the stability PID controller is a
suitable for an operation. So PID controller is a most used controller that has many advantages as
compared to other controller and this controller makes it possible to use a closed loop operation
to improve the stability of a system or a function.
 c) Use of a PID controller in different industrial systems by applying
appropriate techniques. Recommend the improvement in performance.

PID controller is used in many industries for a specific function to control some operation or
process. PID controller is more used as compared to other controller. PID controller has some
advantages as compared to other controllers and due to these advantages PID controller is mostly
used in industry for a control purpose. The use of a PID controller require some special
analytical techniques and these techniques are important since these techniques gives the output
result of a PID controller. There are some analytical techniques that are used for a PID controller
and these techniques are the following.
Trial and Error Method
Zeigler-Nichols Method
Zeigler-Nichols First Method
Zeigler-Nichols Second Method
Now discuss all these methods in details.
Trial and Error Method
This method is easy method. In this method hit and trial method is used to determine the exact
value of a controller. The gain and response of a plant or a system can be determined with this
method. The following procedure is adopted for this method.
First set the derivative and integral terms to zero and after that increase the proportional term
until the output of a controller becomes oscillatory. This will increase the response of a system
and the system will not unstable.
In second step increase when the proportional term becomes more fast then increase the integral
term until the system approaches the steady state level. But this will increase the overshoot of a
system.
In final step when the system has enough value of proportional and integral and there is a large
overshoot of a system then increase the value of a derivative control. Once the value of a
derivative term is achieved it will automatically reduce the overshoot and increase the level of a
derivative gain.
This method is a simple method of a PID controller and this method is used to increase the gain
of a controller and also this method also helps to keep the gain of a controller to a limit value.
But this method is based on a trial and error based and due to which it is not easy to find the
exact value of a plant.
Zeigler-Nichols Method
This is another method that is used to determine the gain of a controller, the its response,
proportional, derivative and integral gain. This method has two types and these two types are
used in a modern PID controller for the gain and response of a system. These two methods are
given below.
Zeigler-Nichols First Method
In first step obtained a unit step response of a system or a plant and check it. It looks like a S
shape and it gives the information about the response of a system. This method tells that is the if
the response of a system is not a S shape then the system is not stable, so for that purpose first
make it a stable and then perform a method.
In second step obtained a delay time constant L and time constant T.
In third step obtained a values from the below table and for the three types of a controller.

Figure 54 Zeigler-Nichols First Method

This method is used in modern world for a PID controller and this method is more advanced as
compared to the trial and error method. This method gives an extra advantage as this method is
more advance then the trial and error method so due to this it is used in modern industries for a
PID controller.
Second Method of a Zeigler-Nichols
This method is similar to a Trial and Error method. Integral and derivative terms are set to zero
in this method and after that check the response of a system. To make integral and derivative
term zero just make Td zero and Ti infinity.
After that increase the gain of a proportional in such a manner that oscillations are produced and
if a system cannot produce oscillations then this method is not applied. The gain at which the
oscillations are produce is called a critical gain.
Once the oscillations are produced then set the values of an integral and proportional for P, PI
and PID controller as shown in figure below.
 Figure 55 Zeigler-Nichols Second Method

Conclusion
PID controller is used in many modern industries and due to their industrial use PID controller
are now popular in many industries. The use of a PID controller makes the system reliable and
also it helps to improve the efficiency of a system. PID controller is a most popular controller
that is used for a closed loop operation for a control of a plant or module. PID controller gives
more advantages as compared to other controller. There is a high gain in PID controller so it is
easily to improve the settling time and response of a system. PID controller has three main
modules proportional, integral and derivative, these three blocks are used for a measurement of a
PID controller. The requirement of a PID controller is important for a controlling purpose since it
is used to control the module or a plant. PID controller is used in many applications specially the
closed loop operations where feedback path is used. The use of a feedback path is important in
closed loop function as closed loop improves the stability of a plant and operation, so for the
stability PID controller is a suitable for an operation. PID controller is used in many industries
for a specific function to control some operation or process. PID controller is more used as
compared to other controller. PID controller has some advantages as compared to other
controllers and due to these advantages PID controller is mostly used in industry for a control
purpose. The use of a PID controller require some special analytical techniques and these
techniques are important since these techniques gives the output result of a PID controller. So a
PID controller is a most used controller that has many advantages as compared to other
controller and this controller makes it possible to use a closed loop operation to improve the
stability of a system or a function. PID controller is most popular than other controllers like I
controller, PI controller. Now PID controller is used in some many electronic control systems
like PLC and SCADA control system. The choice of a PID controller also helps to determine the
nature of a plant or a system. PID controller makes it possible to control the plant in a versatile
manner and due to this PID controllers are widely used in modern world. PID controller is also
used for the improvement of an existing control system by designing a better control system and
the use of a that control system. This helps the system to improve the stability of a system. So a
PID controller is one of the most important and popular controller that is used in modern
industries for a controlling purpose and the due to the reliability of a PID controller, this
controller is used by most industries in modern world.
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