Creep

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Lia Amalia
Rifqi Aulia Tanjung
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General aspects of creep
fracture
 • Creep is the plastic deformation
and fracture of a stressed material
exposed to elevated temperatures.
• In theory, creep may occur at any
temperature, but it is at high
temperatures that it becomes
significant.
What is creep? • The definition of high temperature is
relative: typically, it is assumed that
high temperatures are those over
0.4TM, where TM is the melting point
temperature in absolute degrees.
• The conditions of temperature, time
and stress under which creep occurs
depend on the material’s mechanical
properties and its microstructure.
The main effects of high temperature exposure in engineering
materials:

Reduction of Recovery and

Increase of
yield strength recrystallization Increase of
dislocation
and tensile and grain diffusion rate.
mobility.
strength. growth.

Dissolution and
precipitation of Incipient fusion. Oxidation.
second phases.
Creep curves *d/dt = the change of strain over the change of time

• If the deformation of a
tensile test specimen
under constant stress
and high temperature
is recorded
continuously as a
function of time, a
curve like the one
shown in Fig. 5.18 is
obtained. Such plots
are known as creep
curves.

Fig. 5.18 Idealized creep curve for a metallic material

I. Primary creep. In this stage, the initial strain rate is
high, but gradually diminishes until it reaches a
constant value. In this stage, there is high dislocation
mobility and interaction that leads to strain hardening.
Therefore, the strain rate is gradually reduced. Some
microstructural transformations may also occur.
II. Secondary creep. In this stage, there is a dynamic
equilibrium between the strain hardening and
dislocation rearrangement and annihilation, which
leads to a constant strain rate.
III. Tertiary creep. The microstructural transformations,
dislocation pile-ups and cavitation of grain boundaries
increase the strain rate and weaken the material at
the same time, causing specimen rupture. This
process is generally localized, causing the formation
and growth of cracks. The material within the process
zone suffers an accelerated formation and growth of
grain boundary voids, up to the point at which they
interconnect, causing the extension of the crack.
• From the engineering point of view,
secondary creep is the most
important stage, because it
represents the longest portion of the
rupture time, but also because it allows
for estimation of the rupture time. The
strain rate (d/dt) is directly related to
the applied stress σ, according to the
creep power law, which has the form
𝑑𝜀
= 𝐶𝜎 𝑛
𝑑𝑡
• where C is a constant and n is the
creep exponent. According to this law,
the greater the stress, the greater the
strain rate.
• In secondary creep, the constant
strain rate mechanism is a thermally
activated process, and therefore the
strain rate can be represented by an
Arrhenius type equation
𝑑𝜀 −∆𝐻
= 𝐴𝑒 𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑡
• where ΔH is the activation energy,
T is the absolute temperature, R is
the ideal gas constant and A is a
constant that depends on the
material. This equation predicts that
higher temperatures exponentially
increase the strain rate, thus it can be
stated that temperature has a much
higher effect than the stress in the
creep rupture time
Creep fracture mechanism
• Creep fracture is usually intergranular, so its fractured surfaces
show a granular aspect, where the grain facets are covered by
little voids or craters that are the already-separated grain
boundary cavities. The processes involved in a creep failure
are diffusive flow, grain boundary sliding and grain
boundary cavitation.
• The basic mechanism of creep fracture is nucleation, growth
and interconnection of grain boundary voids. The formation
of grain boundary voids may be due to three mechanisms:
1. Grain boundary sliding.
2. Vacancy condensation at grain boundaries.
3. Creep deformation.
 • The grain boundary sliding is a
Grain boundary sliding consequence of the loss of
mechanical strength
experienced by grain boundaries
at high temperatures.
• The grain boundaries oriented
favorably to the local maximum
shear stress will slide, causing
decohesion at the triple joints,
forming wedge-like voids known
as “W” type.
• Conditions that favor W type
voids are high temperatures,
above 0.6TM, and high stresses.
The Fig. 5.20 schematically
shows the formation of W voids.
Vacancy condensation at grain boundaries
• Vacancy condensation at grain boundaries, leads
to the formation of spherical voids along the
grain boundaries, called “r” type. Their growth is
controlled by vacancy diffusion and stress,
according to the following equation
𝑑𝑟
= 𝐶𝐷𝑣 𝑟 𝑚 σ𝑛
𝑑𝑡
• where dr/dt is the r void growth rate, Dv is the
vacancy diffusivity, r is the void size, n is the
power law creep exponent and m is an
experimental constant. The formation of type r
voids is favored by relatively low temperatures
and low stresses. Type r cavities are preferably
formed in grain boundaries, closely
perpendicular to the direction of the maximum
tensile stress, as shown in Fig. 5.21
Cavity nucleation
• It has generally been observed that cavities
frequently nucleate on grain boundaries,
particularly on those transverse to a tensile
stress. In commercial alloys, the cavities
appear to be associated with second-phase
particles.
• The nucleation theories fall into several
categories (a) grain-boundary sliding leading
to voids at the head (e.g., triple point) of a
boundary or formation of voids by ‘‘tensile’’
GB ledges, (b) vacancy condensation, usually
at grain boundaries at areas of high stress
concentration, (c) the cavity formation at the
head of a dislocation pile-up. These
mechanisms can involve particles as well (d)
Creep crack growth
Creep crack growth
 • Creep crack growth rate (da/dt),
according to the mechanism grain
boundary cavitation and sliding, is
controlled by the crack tip stress,
which depends on K. Experimentally,
it has been found that creep crack
growth rate, when the applied
stresses are below the yield strength
at the service temperature, follows
the equation
𝑑𝑎
=𝐶 𝐾 𝑛
𝑑𝑡
• when crack growth is controlled by the creep diffusive strain, the growth rate
can be estimated by the C* parameter (defined by dJ/dt, where J is the J
integral). Logically, both grain boundary cavitation and diffusive strain crack
growth mechanisms may appear in a creep failure, so the superposition
principle can be applied to estimate the creep crack growth rate as
𝑑𝑎/𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐶1 𝐾 𝑛 + 𝐶2 𝐶 ∗ 𝑚
Deformation mechanism
Deformation mechanism map
• A material deforms by several mechanisms at elevated temperatures depending on its
creep conditions, namely stress and temperature. Representatives of the mechanisms are
• diffusion creep controlled by volume diffusion (Nabarro–Herring creep)
• diffusion creep controlled by grain boundary diffusion (Coble creep)
• dislocation creep controlled by volume diffusion (high temperature power law creep)
• dislocation creep controlled by pipe diffusion (low temperature power law creep)
• The creep rates of all the mechanisms are represented by the following general
equation:
𝜎 𝑛
𝜀ሶ = 𝜀0ሶ 𝑑𝑃 𝐷
𝐺
• 𝜀0ሶ is a material constant characteristic of the mechanism and material, G is the shear
modulus, d is the grain size, p is the grain size exponent and D is the diffusion
coefficient relevant to the mechanism
Dl, Dp and Dgb are the diffusion coefficient of lattice, dislocation pipe and grain
boundary diffusion, respectively
G is the shear
M. F. Ashby proposed a concept of a deformation mechanism
modulus

map for creep based on the assumption that all six deformation
mechanisms concerned are mutually independent and operate in
a parallel way. The six deformation mechanisms include
(1) Defect-less flow
(2) Glide motion of dislocations
(3) Dislocation creep
(4) Volume diffusion flow (Nabarro-Herring creep)
(5) Grain boundary diffusion flow (Coble creep)
(6) Twinning

Within a field, one mechanism is dominant, which means, it

supplies a greater strain rate than any other mechanism.

T /Tm is the homologous temperature

Dislocation glide
Dislocation motion along a crystallographic
direction is called glide or slip. There must be
a local shear stress in an appropriate direction
on the dislocation for glide to occur. Dislocation
glide allows plastic deformation to occur at a
much lower stress than would be required to
move a whole plane of atoms past another.

(288) Dislocation glide - YouTube

Coble creep
• Creep deformation often involves various defects, particularly dislocation cores or grain
boundaries. These may simply act as fast diffusion paths, or play a larger role in creep
mechanisms, depending on factors such as dislocation density, grain size, grain shape and
temperature. The shape change experienced by the sample may arise simply from atoms
becoming redistributed by diffusion. When this occurs on the scale of a grain, with the diffusion
occurring mainly via grain boundaries, then this is commonly referred to as Coble Creep.
• The driving force for this net migration of material is that an applied tensile stress like this creates
hydrostatic compression in the equatorial regions and hydrostatic tension in the polar regions.
The hydrostatic tension can be thought of as arising from the applied tensile stress, where the
compression arises from the lateral contraction of the sample (due to volume conservation). The
atoms then tend to move from the more “crowded” to the more “open” regions.
• Raising the temperature increases the creep rate. The activation energy for grain boundary
diffusion is low, and the cross-sectional area available for diffusion along grain boundaries is
much less than for diffusion through the bulk. Therefore, this type of creep is often the dominant
one at relatively low temperatures and for samples with a fine grain size.
Nabarro-Herring Creep
• A similar type of creep deformation to that described above can occur
with the diffusion being predominantly within the interior (crystal lattice)
of the grains, rather than in the grain boundaries. This is often termed
Nabarro-Herring creep (N-H creep).
• A similar dependence on temperature and stress is observed to that for
Coble creep. The diffusion of atoms in one direction can be more easily
pictured as the diffusion of vacancies in the other direction during N-H
creep. There is a considerably greater sectional area available via crystal
lattice paths, particularly if the grains are relatively large. On the other
hand, the activation energy is higher, so diffusion rates tend to be low,
particularly at low temperature. This type of creep tends to dominate
over Coble creep at relatively high temperature, and with large grains or
single crystals.
Dislocation creep
• With higher stresses, it is common for a type of creep to occur that
involves motion of dislocations, particularly in metals, where
dislocation densities tend to be high. Provided the stress is below
the yield stress, conventional macroscopic plasticity, occurring
predominantly via dislocation glide, should not occur. However,
with stresses that are starting to approach the yield stress, and are
maintained for extended periods, progressive dislocation motion,
and hence macroscopic plastic deformation, can occur, often
facilitated by extensive climb (absorption or emission of vacancies
at the core) of individual dislocations. It should be noted that climb
does not refer only to vertical motion of the dislocation, and can
refer to horizontal motion too.

DoITPoMS - TLP Library Creep Deformation of Metals -

Creep Mechanisms
Failure modes of creep
• Displacement-limited creep failure occurs when the material changes shape
beyond a specified limit, such as 0.1% elongation. This type of failure is important
for aircraft components that have precise dimensions or when small clearances
must be maintained, such as discs and blades for gas turbine engines.
• Stress-limited failure is when the permanent change in shape owing to creep
relaxes the initial stress on a material. For example, stress relaxation creep can
loosen pretensioned fasteners in aircraft joints.
• Buckling-limited creep occurs in beams, panels and other structures that carry
compressive loads. This failure mode involves the buckling or collapse of thin
sections owing to creep. For example, an upper wing skin could experience creep-
induced softening and buckling as a result of frictional heating when flying at
supersonic speeds for a long time. For this to occur in practice, however, the skin
material would need to have exceptionally low creep resistance.
• Stress rupture occurs at the end of the tertiary creep stage when the load capacity
of a material has dropped to the applied stress level, causing final fracture.
Creep fracture
18.6 Microscopic features of creep cracks of Alloy
800H tested at (a) 873K, (b) 973K and (c) 1073K.
Creep life
• The creep life, otherwise known as the stress rupture time, of aerospace materials
can be determined from their creep curve, provided of course that the test
conditions replicate the in-service operating stress and temperature. The stress
rupture time (tr) is calculated using the expression.

𝑡𝑟 = 𝐾𝜎 𝑚 𝑒 𝑄𝑟 /𝑅𝑇
• where K and m are material constants and Qr is the activation energy for stress
rupture, and these are measured by experimental testing
• Creep resistance of aerospace metal components is improved by:
• Using a high melting point material (such as nickel-based superalloys) having
a high concentration of interstitial alloying elements dissolved in the crystal
structure.
• Having thermally stable intermetallic compounds.
• Eliminating transverse grain boundaries.
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